NUFD 153: Exam 1

Second Agricultural Revolution

The Second Agricultural Revolution was a movement starting in England in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries which increased agricultural production through technological, research and sociopolitical advances. Crucial to this movement was the enclosure of formerly common land under private ownership. The guiding ideology of this revolution was to increase yields (how much can be grown on any given plot of land) through technological advancements (improved feed, seeds, and technology). This allowed for the industrial revolution to take hold due to a surplus in food, which fed the workers of the cities. Labor on farms also became less necessary, and laborers were forced to take jobs in the cities, further fueling industrialization and urbanization.

Campesino-a-Campesino (farmer-to-farmer)

Farmer to farmer technology transfer is a system of spreading technological advancements that is based on a non-hierarchical and bottom-up exchange of information. Farmers decide what problems they are having and they rely on other farmers for the technology and knowledge to help them find solutions. This information and technology is not privatized but kept as part of the "commons," so that everyone can have access to it and improve it

Structural Adjustment Program

After many developing countries defaulted on the debts in the 1980s, the IMF loaned them money, but in return they had to initiate Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), which consisted of: the privatization of social services, education, and agricultural extension; the reduction or elimination of subsidies to farmers and consumers; and the elimination of barriers to international trade. These significantly affected food systems because farmers in developing countries now had little protection against competition from highly subsidized imports from the US or the European Union. As a result, many countries became even more dependent on food imports. The food security of developing countries became linked to global markets for staple food products, which have become increasingly volatile

Centers of domestication

Agricultural crops were domesticated by societies in different parts of the world during the Neolithic revolution. Prominent centers of domestication include the Middle East and Central America. It is important to know the centers of domestication because they are rich in biodiversity, which is a source for genetic improvement of the agricultural crops we rely on

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is an ideology that presumes that free trade through open markets is the most efficient way to allocate resources. This ideology gained prominence beginning in the 1970s and 1980s. Neoliberal policies encourage privatization of public resources, deregulation of agricultural markets, and the elimination of trade barriers. It is significant because it influenced how the International Monetary Fund (IMF) administered structural adjustment programs in indebted countries.

Agricultural Treadmill

The agricultural treadmill describes the constraints farmers face in the industrial food system. As a result of higher yields and lower crop losses (due to diseases, etc) farmers produce more, but that leads to lower prices as more and more is produced.

What impacts has the industrial food system had on food consumption? List at least three impacts.

- Food preparation knowledge was transferred out of the home - In the 19th century, frequent adulteration of food occurred before regulations were created and enforced. - Industrial processing eliminated many nutrients in food.

What impacts has the industrial food system had on food production? List at least four impacts.

-It encouraged economies of scale. Mass production was made possible through motorization and mechanization. This lead to specialization, monoculture and standardization. -Seeds began to be selected for their productivity (yield, not taste or nutrition). -Animals became more and more like machines. -Farmers went from having a well-rounded knowledge base and diversified production to a specialized knowledge and industrialized production of monoculture.

How did the start of agriculture change society and the environment? List at least four significant changes.

1. Gatherer - hunters used to move from place to place following their food sources. When agriculture began, people started to settle down, because they were able to get their food from a steady source. This caused people to live a more sedentary lifestyle. 3. The start of agriculture led to the stratification of society: not everyone had to be engaged in producing food. This also led to the creation of social hierarchies, as some positions became associated with greater status. 4. A sedentary life led to the accumulation of material possessions (which was impossible before), which led to increased rivalries and wars between groups. 6. Greater populations meant that more land needed to be cultivated. So the expansion of the population led to the expansion of cultivated land.

How did trade liberalization after the signing of the World Trade Organization Agriculture Agreement impact world cereal exports from OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, a group of developed countries) countries? Why are small-scale and indigenous farmers contesting the rise of neoliberal globalization and trade liberalization?

After the signing of the World Trade Organization Agriculture Agreement, world cereal exports from OECD countries rose. This signifies how developed countries have gained a competitive advantage with trade liberalization, thereby negatively affecting farmers in developing countries and small-scale farmers worldwide who cannot compete with the cheap products of industrialized agriculture. Many small-scale and indigenous farmers are contesting the rise of neoliberal globalization and trade liberalization because they are against the privatization of common resources (like seeds) and they want to regain local control over the food system.

Common stereotypes of gatherer-hunters are that they were malnourished, overworked, and ignorant. Provide evidence to dispel each of these stereotypes.

All these stereotypes are false for multiple reasons. They were not malnourished because back then their food supply was abundant and varied. Once they started to cook their food, it gave them greater nutritional diversity because they were able to eat food that they normally couldn't. Second, they were not overworked. Anthropological studies on reveal that they have a significant amount of leisure time, which is devote to artistic and spiritual pursuits. Third, they were not ignorant. They had detailed knowledge of their environments and they were skilled toolmakers. It is necessary to dispel stereotypes about gatherer-hunters because it is important to understand that societies that didn't develop agriculture are not less intelligent than those that did.

Commons

Commons are resources to which everyone has access (digital commons, water, air, biodiversity) through collective rights. Community gardens are an example of commons that have been managed as resources for community development not for individual gain or profit. Seeds are another example of commons. Over centuries they were shared between people and societies. Sharing led to improved seeds. Since the advent of neoliberal globalization, there has been a tendency to privatize common resources.

Expert-led technology transfer

Expert-led technology transfer is hierarchical and relies on a top-down method in which outside experts identify the problem and the solution for the farmer. The farmer is expected to learn from the "expert." The Green and new Gene Revolutions rely on expert-led technology transfer. This kind of technology transfer is problematic because it assumes that farmers are not knowledgeable and experts do not have to experience the consequences of new technologies.

Food Security (the FAO's definition)

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. There are four food security dimensions: Food availability Economic and physical access to food Food utilization Stability over time The concept of food security is significant because it utilizes a multifaceted understanding of food problems. For example, someone may have access to enough food so they wouldn't experience hunger, but this food might not be nutritious. Therefore, this person would not have food security.

How did land reform in the 20th century differ between countries like Japan, Taiwan and South Korea, and countries in Latin America? Why did the US have a different approaches to land reform in East Asia and Latin America?

In Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, neighboring communist China was a threat to the US and some national interests. The rural populace demanding similar reforms to what was going on in China. The US reacted by supporting the state's buy-up of land and redistribution to small and mid-scale farmers. As a result, radical, communist movements demobilized. The reforms promoted increased agricultural output for home consumption (protected by trade barriers). The US brought development assistance and technology. Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea protected their markets from agricultural or industrial imports. As a result, they were able to develop, industrialize and reduce food insecurity. In contrast, in Latin America, land reforms were modest, if any. They were opposed by powerful landed elites and transnational corporations (remember banana republics), many of which were based in the US. Unlike Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, Latin America was not close to a strong, communist country. As a result, the US had less of incentive to back reforms that would anger landed elites and US corporations. In fact, in many places it did the opposite. It opposed land reforms and supported violent dictatorships.

Describe the ways in which colonial expansion impacted food production and food distribution in colonial Africa. Explain how these changes have left a lasting impact on Africa today.

In colonial Africa, colonial authorities took over the best agricultural land to create large plantations oriented towards export production of cash crops like tea, coffee, and cotton. As a result, agricultural production became integrated with global demands for cash crops and not local needs. This left a lasting impact. Postcolonial countries in Africa are still dependent on the export of cheap cash crops or raw materials. These are then processed into higher value products in Europe (think chocolate or coffee). Upon gaining independence, African economies were dependent on these export markets, even though the trading relationships remained unequal.

After they gained independence, why did African governments favor policies that allowed imports of cheap food? What was the long-term impact for local food systems in Africa? List at least three impacts.

In the push to modernize society, newly independent African governments attempted to support the industrialization and urbanization by importing cheap subsidized surplus food stocks from the developed world (especially the US). These policies had the following impacts: •Rising import dependence for staple foods •Domestic farmers negatively affected by competition from imports •Changing tastes in urban areas: refined wheat flour over coarser flours

Neolithic revolution

Neolithic revolution is when societies in different parts of the world began to shift from a nomadic lifestyle of gathering and hunting to a sedentary lifestyle dependent on agriculture. This concept is significant for the study of the dynamics of food and society because the Neolithic revolution ultimately led to dramatic shifts in human civilization, including positive shifts like the rise of sophisticated societies and negative shifts like a population explosion that put stress on the environment

What was the Green Revolution? What ecological impact did the Green Revolution have for Indian agriculture? List at least three impacts.

The Green Revolution was a government-led development initiative to increase agricultural yields in South Asia and Mexico by developing and introducing high-yielding varieties of staple crops (miracle seeds) that were dependent on fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation. It started in the 1960s. This involved changing agricultural technology and production methods, but it lead to a boost in yields. Unfortunately, the Green Revolution had devastating long-term ecological impacts: - It led to the loss of agro-biodiversity (farmers shifted to planting one kind of seed) - It led to the reduction of water tables and competition for water - Soils became contaminated with salt and erosion increased Farmers who couldn't afford the technology were marginalized and many gave up agriculture. The Green Revolution also put farmers in the developing world on the "Agricultural Treadmill," leading to devastating impacts like the increase in farmer suicides in India.

What is the commodity futures market and how does it work? Why did investors start buying commodity futures in 2008? What was the effect?

The commodity futures market is an exchange where commodity products are traded as financial contracts. These commodities, which are used to manufacture products, include cocoa, coffee beans, sugar, gold and oil and many others. These financial contracts guarantee delivery on an agreed upon date for a determined quantity. During the financial crisis of 2008, investors withdrew their money from the crashing housing market and bought commodity futures, which seemed like a safe investment. This situation led to a food bubble with increasing commodity food prices, putting a strain on consumers, producers, and investors. The price of staples like wheat and rice spiked in many developing countries, leading to riots and a worldwide food crisis.

The new era of neoliberal globalization is characterized by the growth of the global cattle complex (more generally, a global meat complex). What implications does this have for food security? List three effects that this growth has had on the environment.

The growth of global meat complex has implications for food security because humans are now competing with livestock for food: instead of feeding on grass or hay, cattle are now increasingly fed corn; instead of feeding on food waste, pigs are increasingly fed grain. This is one of the reasons why prices for food staples have spiked (it may be more profitable to sell grain to a livestock complex to make meat for affluent consumers, than to sell it to hungry humans). Ecologically, the global meat complex leads to: the decline of local agricultural diversity in favor of monocultures (of livestock and feed); pollution from livestock manure; increased greenhouse gas emissions; and the destruction of rainforests to grow feed like soy beans.

What impacts has the industrial food system had on food distribution? List at least three impacts.

The industrial food system has had the following impacts on food distribution: - Improvements in agricultural production have stimulated improvements in food distribution so the food surpluses can reach more markets, and especially growing cities. - As a result, there has been an increase in the distance between farmer and consumer. - Consumers no longer know the farmers who produce what they eat. They also don't know how the food is produced or processed (industrialized food distribution encourages ignorance of farming and processing conditions).

What are the components of the food system? And what are some of the benefits of analyzing food problems from a food systems perspective, for example, when analyzing obesity or chronic hunger?

The main components of the food system are: food production, distribution, consumption and waste. These components influence and are influenced by: politics, economics, society and culture, and the environment. When analyzing food problems, a food systems perspective is useful because it is holistic. For example, if we are trying to understand the problem of obesity, we would try to analyze how food consumption is influenced by what is produced, how food is distributed, and how the political and economic system shape all parts of the food system. Nutrition education may not be enough to change how people eat if agricultural policies do not support the production of healthful foods (production), or if people are too poor to access the healthful foods they need (economics). Similarly, chronic hunger may not be solved by producing more food if people can't afford to buy food or if they do not have physical access to it (a problem of food distribution). A food systems perspective helps us analyze food problems and solutions.

Nutrition Transition

The nutrition transition is a shift in dietary practices in developing countries to more "Western-pattern" diets, which are high in sugars, fat, food of animal origin. Processed food has also become more available. It is caused by the globalization of the industrial agrofood system and urbanization. People are moving to cities from rural areas, where their diets usually become less nutritious. This is significant because many developing countries are confronted with problems of chronic hunger and obesity.

Enclosure

This term refers to a historical event and contemporary processes of privatization of common resources. Enclosure had two important effects. First, increased agricultural productivity, leading to the second agricultural revolution. Second, poor peasants were forced to move to cities where they provided the labor force for the industrial revolution in the 1800s.

What is the Second Green Revolution (or Gene Revolution)? How does it contrast with the Green Revolution? What lessons from the original Green Revolution do you think are relevant for the Second Green Revolution?

companies have proposed GMOs as the solution. In contrast to the first Green Revolution, which was government-led, the Second Green Revolution is being spearheaded by private corporations. Also, the focus is not so much on staple food crops (like wheat and rice) but on improving farmer incomes through the adoption of GM seed (such as Bt cotton) so that they can buy food in the market. As such, it is based on neoliberal model of development. The lessons from the Green Revolution that are relevant for the Second Green Revolution are: - There were drastic ecological consequences to the Green Revolution, such as the loss of biodiversity. This is not being addressed in the Second Green Revolution - The introduction of new technology will not get farmers off the "Agricultural Treadmill." In order to survive, they will be forced to adopt more sophisticated technology that puts them in greater debt. - Technological solutions to agricultural production that lead to increased amounts of food have not solved the problems of chronic hunger. We have hungry people even though we produce enough food to feed everyone. The Second Green Revolution does not address possible political or economic solutions to food problems.