Nutrition Exam 2

What are the beneficial effects that fiber has on the body? Know the benefits of both soluble (viscous) and insoluble fiber. What are the recommendations for daily fiber intake? What foods are good sources of fiber?

- Fiber-rich foods can reduce a person's risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, certain intestinal tract disorders, and cardiovascular disease which includes heat disease and stroke. -Insoluble fiber contributes to easier and more regular bowel movements -Soluble fiber helps to lower blood cholesterol, decreases spikes in BG. -Recommendations for daily fiber intake (Men=38g Women 25g): Complete the personal dietary analysis at the end of this chapter. Ensure that you are consuming adequate fluids with increased fiber intake, gradually increase intake to avoid uncomfortable flatulence. -Foods that are good sources of fiber: Insoluble: whole grain products; bran, brown rice Soluble: oats, beans, apples, carrots, oranges, citrus

What are the top 8 food allergens in the U.S.?

1. Milk 2. Eggs 3. Fish (such as bass, cod, and flounder) 4. Crustacean shellfish (such as crab, lobster, shrimp) 5. Tree nuts (almonds, walnuts, cashews) 6. Peanuts 7. Wheat 8. Soybeans

What are the symptoms of a heart attack?

Intense prolonged chest pain, shortness of breath, light-headedness, pain or discomfort in arms, back, neck, jaw, or stomach, sweating, nausea and vomiting, dizziness and weakness, irregular heartbeat.

What is the primary storage form of lipids?

triacylglycerols

What is hyperglycemia? What is hypoglycemia?

Hyperglycemia is the primary sign of diabetes, it is abnormally elevated blood glucose levels. Hypoglycemia occurs when the blood glucose level is too low to provide enough energy for the cells.

What is meant by high quality vs. low quality protein? What are food sources of each?

High Quality Protein: (Complete) most animal sources, contains all of the essential amino acids; Quinoa, Soybeans, Chia, Hemp, Amaranth are plant exceptions Low Quality Protein: (Incomplete) most non-animal foods

Which lipoprotein markers do we want to be high, and which do we want to be low?

High in HDLs and low in LDLs.

What is the brain-gut connection? What role may this connection play in food intolerances and/or our mental health?

Intuitive eating; your mind is very powerful and can cause very real physical symptoms and sensations

What are complications of inadequate intake (protein calorie malnutrition)?

Kwashiorkor: edema, mild to moderate weight loss, maintenance of some muscle and subcutaneous fat, growth impairment, rapid onset, fatty liver Marasmus: severe weight loss, wasting of muscle and body fat, severe growth impairment, develops gradually

How are lipids transported throughout the body? Which body system do our big, bulky lipids have to travel through?

Lipoproteins are water-soluble structures that transport lipids through the bloodstream. Our bulky lipids have to travel through the lymphatic system.

What are some negative effects of High Glycemic Foods?

rapidly digested and absorbed - Large release of insulin - Increase blood triglycerides level -Increase fat deposits -Increase blood clotting -Increase fat synthesis in liver -Rapid return of hunger -Insulin resistance develops (Type 2 diabetes)

What are the functions of Carbs?

-preferred energy source -prevents ketone bodies -protein sparing -AMDR: 45%-65% kcals

A person following a low carbohydrate + low kcal diet will have to utilize which macronutrient to make the necessary glucose? Similarly, without adequate carbohydrates, what becomes the fuel source for our brain and red blood cells?

A person following a low carbohydrate + low kcal diet will have to utilize fat to make the necessary glucose. Without adequate carbohydrates, the fuel source for our brain and red blood cells becomes fat.

What are the risk factors associated with heart disease (also called cardiovascular disease or coronary heart disease)?

Family history of CVD, advanced age, male sex, race/ethnic background, diabetes mellitus, elevated blood cholesterol (especially LDL cholesterol), excess body fat, hypertension, physical inactivity, tobacco use or exposure, unhealthy diet, untreated sleep apnea.

What is considered moderate alcohol consumption? What is considered binge drinking?

Moderate alcohol consumption: No more than 1 drink a day for women and no more than 2 drinks a day for men Binge Drinking: 4-5 drinks in a row

What are carbs composed of? Be able to identify and know the difference between a monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide, and oligosaccharide.

Monosaccharide: simple sugar that is the basic molecule of carbohydrates (contains 1 carbon, 2 hydrogen, and 1 oxygen) Disaccharide: simple sugar composed of two monosaccharides Polysaccharide: carbohydrates comprised of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded together Oligosaccharide: carbohydrates comprised of three to 10 monosaccharides bonded together

What is meant by hydrogenation and what does it produce?

Partial hydrogenation is a food manufacturing process that adds hydrogen atoms to liquid vegetable oil, forming trans fats. Vegetable oil can be made into shortening (a solid fat.)

Be familiar with the different types of vegetarianism. What do they NOT eat?

Pescavegetarian: milk, milk products, and eggs; fish but no other animal food Semivegetarian: all except red meats Lactovegetarian: milk and milk products; no animal flesh or eggs Ovovegetarian: eggs but no other animal foods Lactoovovegetarian: milk and milk products and eggs but no other animal foods Vegan: no animal foods

What are the health implications of each fatty acid? i.e., which type are considered heart healthy, and which are not?

Saturated and trans fatty acids are unhealthy, while unsaturated fatty acids can help lower cholesterol levels.

What are the 3 most common monosaccharides and the 3 most common disaccharides? Which monosaccharides form each of the 3 disaccharides?

The 3 most common monosaccharides are... Glucose: stored as glycogen (fruits and veggies) Fructose: (fruit sugar or levulose), sweetest monosaccharide, Galactose: Rarely found alone in food, attaches to glucose to form lactose The 3 most common disaccharides are... Maltose: (fermentation & alcohol production) Glucose + Glucose Sucrose: sugar (cane, beets, honey, maple sugar, fruits, etc.) Glucose + Fructose Lactose: (milk products) Glucose + Galactose

Understand the difference in structure between the 3 different classes of lipids discussed in class. What is the common characteristic of each that allows them all to be classified as lipids?

The different classes of lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols (cholesterol). Most lipids are insoluble in water and have fatty acids in their structures. Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains found in lipids; one end of the chain forms a carboxylic acid, and one end forms a methyl group. Sterols are found in plant and animal foods. Cholesterol is only found in animals, produced by the liver, structure for cell membrane, forms important hormones (estrogen, testosterone, vitamin D), required to make bile acids. **The acceptable macronutrient Distribution range (AMDR) for CHO is 45-65%

What nutrients are vegetarian and vegan diets typically low in (i.e., nutrients that they will have to pay closer attention to prevent deficiency)?

Vitamins B-12, D, and riboflavin; Zinc, iron, and calcium; Omega-3 fatty acids; Certain essential amino acids; energy

Why might someone with rapid weight loss experience gallstones?

When you don't eat for a long period of time or you lose weight quickly, your liver releases extra cholesterol into the bile. Fast weight loss can also prevent the gallbladder from emptying properly. Weight-loss surgery may lead to fast weight loss and higher risk of gallstones.

How do men and women differ in metabolizing alcohol?

Women have less of the enzyme that breaks down alcohol (alcoholdehydrogenase) ADH

What is a sugar alcohol?

sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, erythritol

What are examples of complementary proteins?

- Grains (rice), Vegetables, Nuts, Legumes - Combos: pasta and tomatoes, green bean and almonds, soybeans and ground sesame seeds, red beans and rice

What are the properties of saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and trans fatty acids? What foods are good sources of each of these fatty acids?

- Saturated Fatty Acid: has single bonds between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain. (butter, cakes, biscuits) - Unsaturated Fatty Acids (liquid at room temp): have at least two neighboring carbons within the chain that are missing two hydrogen atoms with a double bond holding those particular carbons together. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA): Has one double bond. (olive, peanut, sunflower oil, canola oils) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA): Has two or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. (walnuts, sunflower seeds, fish, flax seeds, safflower oil) - Trans Fatty Acids: unsaturated fatty acids that have a trans double bond (shortening)

What are the major functions of lipids in the body?

- provide and store energy (triglycerides) - form and maintain cell membranes - produce steroid hormones - insulate the body against cold temps - cushion the body against bumps and blows - form body contours - absorb fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals

What are the risks and complications associated with alcohol poisoning and chronic alcohol abuse?

1. Brain: Impairs brain function and damages brain, increases risk of stroke 2. Mouth, throat, and voice box: increases risk of cancer 3. Esophagus: increases risk of cancer 4. Skin: causes flushing of skin and heat loss 5. Breast: increases risk of breast cancer 6. Heart: damages heart muscle resulting in enlargement and heart failure, causes hypertension 7. Stomach: irritates stomach lining and increases risk of cancer 8. Liver: Causes liver cells to fill with fat, eventually resulting in Hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver failure 9. Pancreas: impairs pancreatic function, can cause inflammation, increases risk of cancer 10. Small Intestine: interferes with nutrient absorption 11. Abdomen: increases fat deposits in abdominal region 12. Colon and Rectum: increases cancer in both

Name the 4 types of lipoproteins and be familiar with each of their roles in transporting lipids.

1. Chylomicrons: type of lipoprotein formed in enterocytes to transport lipids away from the GI tract 2. VLDL (Very Low Density): lipoprotein made in the liver; carries much of the triglycerides in the bloodstream 3. LDL (Low Density): delivers cholesterol to the cells; increases cholesterol buildup; increases CVD risk (lousy) 4. HDL (High Density): removes cholesterol away from cells; decreases cholesterol buildup; lowers CVD risk (healthy)

How are lipids digested and absorbed? What enzymes and organs are involved?

1. Stomach: Only minor digestion of fat takes place in the stomach 2. Liver: The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released through the bile duct into the small intestine. Bile aids in lipid digestion and absorption by emulsifying lipids in digestive juices. 3. Pancreas: The pancreas secretes a mixture of enzymes, including lipase, into the small intestine. 4. Small Intestine: The small intestine is the primary site for digestion and absorption of lipids. Once absorbed, long-chain fatty acids are packaged for transport through the lymph and bloodstream. 5. Rectum: Less than 5% of undigested fast is normally excreted in the feces.

Where are proteins digested and absorbed? What enzymes and organs are involved?

1. Stomach: proteins undergo denaturation by stomach acid, and partial digestion by pepsin 2. Small Intestine: Further digestion occurs as the pancreas secretes protein-splitting enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin. 3. Small Intestine Cells: Final digestion occurs within absorptive cells. 4. Liver: After being absorbed, amino acids enter the hepatic portal vein and travel to the liver. 5. Rectum: Very little dietary protein is excreted in the feces. Pancreatic enzymes → Peptides (AAs) → AAs enter the absorptive cells for final digestion → travel to liver (fate depends on needs at that time)

What is the equivalent of one standard drink?

12 oz of beer 5 oz wine 3 oz of liquor 1.5 oz 80

What is meant by an essential, non-essential and conditional amino acid? What happens if our diet is lacking in essential amino acids?

20 Essential Amino Acids: body cannot produce so the diet must contain them 9 Non-essential Amino Acids: the body produces them 11 Conditional Amino Acids: the body may produce them in certain situations Amino acid deficiency restricts protein synthesis and can result in decreased immunity, digestive problems, depression, fertility issues, lower mental alertness, slowed growth in children, and many other health issues.

What are the daily intake recommendations for protein? How can a high-protein diet be harmful? What happens when protein consumption exceeds our needs?

200-700 calories from protein, or 50-175 grams. A high-protein diet can be harmful because of increased urine production (dehydration), may increase calcium loss in the urine, burden on the kidney, processed red meat linked with colon cancer, high in saturated fat and cholesterol, low in plant foods(fiber), vitamins, and phytochemicals. - When protein consumption exceeds our needs, it is stored as glycogen.

What is meant by protein organization? Why is this important?

4 levels of organization, the order of amino acids dictates shape, shape dictates function 1. Primary Structure: basic structure of protein; a linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds 2. Secondary Structure: coiling of a polypeptide chain 3. Tertiary Structure (3D): three-dimensional, twisted structure of a polypeptide chain that includes interactions between various amino acid groups in the chain 4. Quaternary Structure: (2 or more peptide chains interacting with each other) **It is important because if TRNA brings the wrong amino acid, the wrong protein will be created, if it can't form the right shape, it cannot perform the correct function.

How is the metabolism and absorption of alcohol handled differently than macronutrients? What enzymes and organs are involved?

Absorbed rapidly in the stomach; Alcohol cannot be stored, prioritized in metabolism -Approximately 20% of alcohol is absorbed through the stomach and most of the remaining 80% is absorbed through the small intestine. Alcohol is metabolized by the liver, where enzymes break down the alcohol. ... In general, the liver can process one ounce of liquor (or one standard drink) in one hour. - Alcohol is metabolized more slowly than it is absorbed. Since the metabolism of alcohol is slow, consumption needs to be controlled to prevent accumulation in the body and intoxication.

What are the signs associated with alcohol poisoning and alcohol dependence/abuse?

Alcohol Poisoning: Unconsciousness, throwing up, slow respiration (8 or fewer breaths per minute or lapse greater than 8 seconds), cold, clammy, pale, or even bluish skin, strong odor of alcohol, seizures. Alcohol Dependence/Abuse: Drink to forget your worries, to relax, to improve mood, lose interest in food as a result of your drinking habits, binge drink, lie about your drinking habits or try to hide them, drink alone, hurt yourself or someone else while drinking, were drunk more than 3 or 4 times last year, need to drink more alcohol than you used to drink to get "high", feel irritable when you are not drinking, have medical, social or financial problems caused by drinking habits, have been cited for driving while intoxicated or driving under the influence of alcohol. AA: when alcohol consumption is harmful to mental health, physical health, and or relationships AD: Uncontrolled need to drink, unable to limit alcohol consumption withdrawal symptoms: shaky, anxiety

How is blood glucose affected differently when eating simple carbohydrates verses when eating complex carbohydrates?

Blood glucose is spiked when simple carbs are consumed. Complex carbs are absorbed slowly and increase blood sugar less dramatically.

How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed? i.e., where does digestion/absorption begin, and which enzymes and organs are involved? What happens if carbohydrates are not absorbed in the small intestine? Where do carbohydrates go after they are absorbed into the blood (which organ)?

Carbohydrates must be broken down into monosaccharides, primarily glucose before they can be absorbed in the small intestine (the main site for carb digestion and absorption). Absorption of monosaccharides occurs almost exclusively in the small intestine. 1. Mouth: Some starch is broken down to maltose by salivary amylase. 2. Stomach: The activity of salivary amylase soon stops in the acidic environment in the stomach. 3. Small Intestine: An amylase secreted by the pancreas (pancreatic amylase) breaks down starch into maltose. Maltase digests maltose into glucose. Sucrase digests sucrose into glucose and fructose. Lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. 4. Liver: Glucose, fructose, and galactose are absorbed by intestinal cells and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein, where the liver uses simple sugars to make glycogen or fat, but if the body needs energy, the liver releases glucose into the bloodstream. 5. Large Intestine: Some soluble fiber is fermented by bacteria in the large intestine. 6. Rectum: Very little dietary carbohydrate is excreted in feces.

People who do not eat animal proteins must be more mindful of their protein consumption. What should they pay more attention to?

Complete proteins (most of them come from animals which they are not eating) They have to eat protein combinations to satisfy their requirements.

What dietary modifications should be considered to lower blood cholesterol?

Consuming foods that contain plant sterols and stanols may be an effective way to lower elevated blood cholesterol levels because they have chemical structures similar to that of cholesterol, meaning that they compete with cholesterol for intestinal absorption, which ultimately reduces the amount of cholesterol that is absorbed.

What is protein denaturation? How does it happen? What does it effect? Why is this important?

Denaturation: altering a protein's natural shape and function by exposing it to conditions such as heat, acids, and physical agitation Heat/acid/alkaline/enzymes → Result in alteration of the protein's three-dimensional structure **Important because if there is a change in shape, there is a change in function

What is meant by essential fatty acids? How are they identified (i.e. named)? What are the primary roles of each? What are good food sources of each?

Essential fatty acids are considered essential because the body cannot produce them, the diet has to supply them. Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are the two essential fatty acids (polyunsaturated). Omega-3: Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA) → Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) + Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) - (More heart healthy by decreasing blood clotting, reduce heart attack, decrease inflammation) ALA primarily found in plants, canola, walnuts, flax seeds, and soybean oil DHA & EPA found in fatty fish and fish oil, atlantic salmon, anchovies, sardines Omega-6: Linoleic acid (LA) → arachidonic acid (AA) - (Increases blood clotting, increases inflammatory responses, crucial role in brain function) LA Found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds AA Found in chicken, fish, eggs, and beef The body needs AA, EPA, and DHA to make eicosanoids, a group of long-chain fatty acids with hormonelike functions such as uterine contractions, bp regulation, mediating the immune system's inflammatory response. Essential fatty acids are necessary in small amounts for good health.

Be familiar with food qualities that would make a food or a meal high glycemic or low glycemic (these should be attributes of the food and/or the food's preparation that will influence the way it is digested). Give examples of high glycemic and low glycemic foods/meals.

Foods containing carbohydrates that are easily digested and absorbed make a meal high glycemic (more than 70) while foods that have slowly digestible carbs elicit a reduced postprandial glucose response, low glycemic (below 55). High Glycemic Foods: Short white grain, baked potato, honey, bagel, gatorade, jelly beans, vanilla wafers, ice cream Low Glycemic Foods: carrots boiled, beans, oranges,

Which monosaccharide is found in abundance in our body? What is an alternative name for it? (i.e. what is another name we use to refer to it within our body).

Glucose is found in abundance in our body. The alternative name for it is "blood sugar" or "blood glucose" (BG).

Where is glucose stored in the body? How is it stored and what is it called?

Glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen.

What are the glycemic load and glycemic index?

Glycemic Index (GI) - scale of foods from 0 - 100 based on how carbs my potentially affect a person's BG Glycemic Load (GL) - factors in a serving size of carbs + GI

Be familiar with the basic structure of protein? What are they composed of? Which nutrient do we obtain from them, that we do not get from other macronutrients?

Proteins are composed of amino acids AA (amino acid chains are called polypeptides). Nitrogen is the nutrient that we obtain from them that we do not get from other macronutrients.

How are saturated and unsaturated fatty acids different in their chemical structure? How are they named?

Saturated fatty acids have single bonds between the carbons in the chain. Each carbon in the chain has two hydrogen atoms attached to it. An unsaturated fatty acid has at least two neighboring carbons within the chain that are missing two hydrogen atoms, and a double bond holds the two particular carbons together. One double bond is in a monounsaturated fatty acid, and two or more double bonds is a polyunsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acids are named by their length (short 2-4 carbons), (medium 6-13 carbons), and (long 14-24 carbons); as well as the inclusion and location of double bond(s) omega 3,6,9. *12 or less carbons are water soluble and can enter the bloodstream immediately, if above 12 carbons it must enter the lymphatic system where it is repackaged for transportation

What is meant by simple and complex carbohydrates? What are some examples? Which of these should be included as apart of a healthy diet and which should be had only in moderation?

Simple carbohydrates are monosaccharides and disaccharides. ex: glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose, sucrose, lactose; Complex carbohydrates have three or more monosaccharides bonded together. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates comprised of more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together. Oligosaccharides are complex carbohydrates comprised of 3 to 10 monosaccharides. ex: starch, glycogen, dietary fiber Simple sugars provide calories, but have very little nutrition. One should include more complex carbohydrates into their "healthy diet" while simple sugars should be had only in moderation.

How is blood glucose regulated? What organs and hormones are involved to maintain blood glucose within the normal range?

The pancreas is an accessory digestive system organ that produces both insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels. Normal glucose levels fall between 70 and 99 mg per deciliter of blood (mg/dl). A person will go without eating and blood glucose will fall, thus resulting in one to feel hungry. Once food is eaten, the carbs from the food are digested and the glucose from the foods is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver. As the blood glucose begins to rise again, the pancreas secretes insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin enables glucose to enter most cells, reducing the bg back to normal levels. When an individual ignores the hunger signals and does not eat, the alpha cells in the pancreas secrete glucagon, which promotes the breakdown of glycogen, increases (glycogenolysis) to keep the bg from dropping too low, stimulates liver and kidney cells to produce glucose from certain amino acids through the process of gluconeogenesis, stimulates lipolysis, the breakdown of triglyceride (fat) into glycerol and fatty acids which enter the bloodstream. The liver uses glycerol to produce glucose, and most cells, including muscle cells, can metabolize fatty acids for energy.

What are the primary functions of proteins in the body?

The primary functions of proteins in the body are: - building blocks of body components (collagen, keratin, albumin, contractile proteins) - Form hormones and enzymes - Immune function i.e antibodies - Fluid and pH balance - Contribute to satiety (fullness) - Some AA's form glucose - Energy yielding (non-preferred source)

What form are most lipids most commonly found in food, and in the body?

Triglycerides are the most common found form of lipids in food and the body. (type of fat that circles in the bloodstream)

What is the difference between Type 1, Type 2 and gestational diabetes? Which is most common? What complications can arise from uncontrolled blood glucose?

Type I Diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results in destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas; as a result, insulin must be supplied to the affected person regularly through exogenous sources. (can occur at any point in life) Type II Diabetes is the most common type of diabetes; beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin-resistant, leading to elevated blood glucose levels. (diet, lifestyle, and genetics are factors that ay influence a person's risk) Gestational Diabetes is a type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy (usually after the 24th week). The fetus may receive too much glucose from its hyperglycemic mother and gain weight rapidly. If uncontrolled, the baby may be born at an abnormally heavy weight (9 lbs or more) and can prolong the birth process and may cause the baby to be injured during delivery. - Poorly controlled gestational diabetes can result in miscarriages, stillbirths, and premature deliveries. - Babies born from mothers with uncontrolled gestational diabetes are more likely to have trouble regulating their own bg levels. Uncontrolled bg can result in damage to nerves, organs, blood vessels, heart disease, kidney failure, blindness, poor blood circulation → amputation.

Can a person with a chronic health condition, such as diabetes, be an intuitive eater?

Yes, by listening to your body.

What does a heart-healthy diet look like? What foods & nutrients should a person include, and which ones should they limit or avoid?

a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. whole grains and products made up mostly of whole grains. healthy sources of protein (mostly plants such as legumes and nuts; fish and seafood; low-fat or nonfat dairy; and, if you eat meat and poultry, ensuring it is lean and unprocessed) liquid non-tropical vegetable oils.

What is lactose intolerance?

inability to digest lactose properly because of a deficiency in the enzyme lactase.