Nutrition Exam 2

Complementary Proteins

Often used by vegetarians... Grains (wheat, corn, rice and oats) and legumes (navy, kidney, black beans, black-eyed peas, chickpeas) Peanut butter sandwich Rice and beans Corn and beans Corn and lima beans Corn tortillas and refried beans Pasta and bean soup Soybeans and seeds Vegetarians (Vegans) should consume at least 10% more protein daily than the RDA

review fat and protein ppts

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MUFA

10% (of total daily calories)

PUFA

10% (of total daily calories)

AMDR fat

20-35%

SFA

7-10% (of total daily calories)

Energy Source & Reserve Fat

9 Calories/Gram

Cholesterol

<300 mg

"Peptide"

AA chain of < 50

"Protein"

AA chain of > 50

Your Body Degrades and Synthesizes Proteins

Amino acids come from: Diet (exogenous AA) Breakdown of proteins in the body A limited supply is stored in amino acid pools in blood and cells for needed protein synthesis (endogenous) Protein turnover: process of continuous breakdown and synthesis of protein from its amino acids

Routinely Select Foods Rich in Antioxidants and Phytochemicals

Antioxidants may help reduce LDL cholesterol levels Flavonoids are phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables, tea, nuts, and seeds that may offer some antioxidant protection as well as potentially inhibiting platelet aggregation, which can perpetuate a blood clot

Potential Benefits and Risks of Vegetarian Diets

Benefits May reduce risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, stroke, and obesity Vegetarian diet food staples are rich in fiber and low in saturated fat and cholesterol Risks Potential deficiencies of nutrients found in animal foods Protein, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, vitamins B12 (and A, omega-3 fatty acids) Calories

Nutrition in the Real World: The Joy of Soy

Benefits of soy High-quality protein source Low in saturated fat Contains isoflavones (phytoestrogens) Lowers blood cholesterol levels May reduce risk of heart disease, certain cancers there are concerns though

Coconut oil....surprising benefits!

Boost immune system Blood glucose control Thyroid function Increases digestion and helps absorb fat soluble vitamins Increase HDL Weight control http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19437058 It appears that dietetic supplementation with coconut oil does not cause dyslipidemia and seems to promote a reduction in abdominal obesity Better athletic performance?

Where do you get your calcium?

Calcium: helps bone/teeth integrity and formation, involved in muscle contraction, blood clotting, initiates action potential in SA node of heart that evokes a heartbeat. Some of the best vegan sources are fortified soy or rice milk, fortified cranberry, orange, or apple juice, collard greens, mustard greens, turnip greens, kale, broccoli, blackstrap molasses, tofu processed with calcium sulfate, and tempeh. Calcium absorption from these foods has been shown to be excellent.

Phospholipids

Cell membranes

Lipoproteins

Combinations of fatty acids, glycerol, cholesterol, and phospholipids (VLDL, LDL, HDL); practically all the lipids in the plasma are present in this form. Lipid carrying shuttles or viewed as "submarines with lipid cargo."

DNA Directs Synthesis of New Proteins

DNA in the cell nucleus contains instructions ("the code") for protein synthesis Gene: DNA segment that codes for specific protein Specialized RNA molecules carry out instructions for protein synthesis Messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) perform very specific roles during protein synthesis When abnormalities occur during protein synthesis, serious medical conditions may result Example: sickle-cell anemia

Mediterranean Diets

Data show people with high MD score have reduced CVD risk factors, reduced incidence of CVD, (reduced cancer risk) and lower rate of total mortality. Plant-based: Emphasizes vegetables, fruits and nuts, olive oil, and grains. Low-fat dairy and water Occasional fish, poultry, eggs, meat, and sweets Has high monounsaturated to saturated fat intake ratio and often includes wine with meals.

Denaturation of Proteins Changes Their Shape

Denaturation: the alteration (unfolding) of a protein's shape, which changes the structure and function of the protein Heat, acids, bases, salts or mechanical agitation... Examples: cooking meat, eggs changing texture Stomach acid untangles proteins to aid in digestion

Risk Factors for CHD (continued)

Diabetes (Type 1 and Type 2) Impaired fasting glucose (>110 mg/dL) Obesity (BMI >30, or waist girth > 100cm) Waist girth > 102 cm (40") for men Waist girth > 88 cm (35") for women Physical inactivity/sedentary lifestyle Negative risk factor: HDL > 60 mg/dL Other potential risk factors: high levels of homocysteine, Lp(a) protein, C-reactive protein (sign of inflammation), Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) Metabolic Syndrome: group of risk factors, including insulin resistance, that increase the risk of heart disease

What Happens to the Protein You Eat?

Dietary proteins are digested and absorbed in stomach and small intestine Stomach acids denature protein and activate pepsin, which breaks down protein into shorter polypeptides In the small intestine, polypeptides are broken down into tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids Amino acids enter blood and travel to liver

Question: What are the first 5 rules of the Ten Rules to Live By?

Eat as close to the earth as possible Eat food! Eat a rainbow often Eat plants! Eat "superfoods" Bulk up on fiber Flax, chia, nuts, seeds, grains Eat fats that give something back Unsaturated fats-olive oil, canola oil, nuts, avocados Omega-3 fatty acids- flaxseed, edamame, chia seeds, walnuts (ALA); salmon, tuna Anti-inflammatory diets Cut down on meat The less legs the better Choose alternative protein sources

Eat Plenty of Plant Foods

Eating more plant foods high in soluble fiber may be one of the easiest ways to decrease LDL Although all plant foods are cholesterol free, they do contain phytosterols, which are plant sterols similar to cholesterol found in the plant's cell membranes. Plant sterols can help lower LDL cholesterol levels by competing with cholesterol for absorption in the intestinal tract Sources of sterols include soybean oil, many fruits, vegetables, legumes, sesame seeds, nuts, cereals, and other plant foods

What Happens if You Eat Too Much or Too Little Protein?

Eating too little protein May lead to reduction of lean body mass, especially in older adults Risk of increased frailty, impaired healing, decreased immune function Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) Inadequate calories and/or protein More common in children, because they are growing Factors: poverty, poor food quality, insufficient food, unsanitary living conditions, ignorance, stopping lactation (nursing) too early

Ketogenic Diets for Heath?

Epilepsy Several studies have shown that the ketogenic diet does reduce or prevent seizures in many children whose seizures could not be controlled by medications. Over half of children who go on the diet have at least a 50% reduction in the number of their seizures. Some children, usually 10-15%, even become seizure-free. Weight loss Individuals assigned to a VLCKD achieve a greater weight loss than those assigned to a LFD in the long term; hence, a VLCKD may be an alternative tool against obesity. Bueno NB1, de Melo IS, de Oliveira SL, da Rocha Ataide T. Very-low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet v. low-fat diet for long-term weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2013 Oct;110(7):1178-87.

Metabolic Regulation / Hormones

Essential Fatty Acids are involved in several metabolic pathways Cholesterol is a component of several hormones (testosterone, estrogen); cell membranes; precursor for vitamin D and bile acids

Risk Factors for Heart Disease (CHD)

Family history (father died of MI before age 55 or mother died of MI before age 65) Age (Men 45+, Women 55+) Cigarette smoking Hypertension (SBP >140 or DBP >90 mmHg) Hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol >200 mg/dL; HDL <40 mg/dL; LDL > 130 mg/dL)

What Are Fat Substitutes and How Can They Be Part of a Healthy Diet?

Fat substitutes are designed to provide the creamy properties of fat for fewer calories and total fat grams They have the potential to reduce calories from fat by more than 50 percent Fat substitutes can be carbohydrate-, protein-, or fat-based The majority are carbohydrate-based and use plant polysaccharides

Linoleic acid (Omega-6 fatty acids)

Found in vegetable and nut oils (corn, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, peanut & soybean oils) AI: 14-17 g/day for men, 11-12 g/day for women (>19 years)...no more than 22 g/day for 2,000 kcal diet. AMDR: 5-10% of total energy*

Triglycerides

Glycerol & 3 Free Fatty Acids (FFA) The most prominent form of fats found in the human diet The most common type of fat found in the human body and are stored primarily in adipocytes

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) (Omega-3)

Good sources: flax seeds and flax seed oil, soy oil and foods, chia, and hemp seeds, walnuts, and leafy green veggies. Two other Omega-3 fatty acids are found in fish DHA and EPA Recommendations: 1-2 servings per week for fish (Food vs. supplements?)* AI for alpha-linolenic acid is: 1.6 g/d for adult men, 1.1 g/day for adult women (>19 years)...no more than 2.4 g/day for 2,000 kcal diet Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR): 0.6-1.2% of total energy. * Moderate evidence has emerged about the health benefits of eating seafood. The health benefits of omega-3 dietary supplements are unclear.

Healthy Fats to Incorporate into Your Diet

Grass-fed lean meat products Healthy oils: Olive, walnut, flaxseed, macadamia, avocado, coconut Nuts and seeds Peanut, almond, cashew butters Avocados Seafood high in omega 3s! Hemp seeds, chia seeds, flax seeds

How Much Protein Do You Need?

Healthy adults should be in nitrogen balance Amount of nitrogen consumed (in dietary protein) = amount excreted (in urine) Nitrogen imbalances Positive nitrogen balance: more nitrogen is retained (for protein synthesis) than is excreted Examples: infants, children, pregnant women Negative nitrogen balance: more nitrogen is excreted than consumed (body proteins broken down) Examples: starvation, serious injury, or illness

When Too Much Dietary Fat Can Become Problematic...

Heart Disease Heart disease begins with a buildup in the arteries Atherosclerosis: narrowing of arteries due to buildup of plaque (hardened debris of cholesterol-laden foam cells, platelets, and other substances) Thought to begin with injury to lining of arteries, contributed by high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, and smoking Increases chance of blood clots blocking the vessel, causing heart attack or stroke https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/video/atherosclerosis

functions of fat

Hunger Depressor / Enhances satiety Calorically dense Enhance sensory qualities (flavors) of foods Give flaky texture to baked goods Make meats tender

Eating Too Little Protein Can Lead to Poor Health and Malnutrition

Kwashiorkor: severe deficiency of dietary protein Signs: edema, muscle loss, skin rashes, hair changes, water and electrolyte imbalances Seen in children weaned to low-protein cereals Marasmus: severe deficiency of calories Signs: emaciation, lack of growth, loss of fat stores Marasmic kwashiorkor: worst of both conditions Treatment includes a multi-step approach Step 1: address life-threatening factors Severe dehydration Fluid/nutrient imbalances Step 2: restore depleted tissue Gradually provide nutritionally dense kilocalories and high-quality protein Step 3: transition to foods and introduce physical activity

Essential Fatty Acids

Linoleic Alpha-linolenic

What Happens to the Fat You Eat? cont

Lipoproteins transport fat through the lymph and blood Chylomicrons: carry digested fat through lymph into bloodstream Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): deliver fat made in liver to cells Low-density lipoproteins (LDL, "bad" cholesterol): deposit cholesterol on walls of arteries High-density lipoproteins (HDL, "good" cholesterol): remove cholesterol from body and deliver to liver for excretion

Omega 3s

May reduce serum triglycerides and increase HDL levels The essential fatty acids are used by cells to make eicosanoids... regulate blood pressure and inflammation. blood clotting, blood pressure, vascular dilation, heart rate, and immune response May prevent clot formation, improve vascular tone, and decrease blood viscosity...may help prevent CHD. May have beneficial effects on the immune system...possibly help inhibit tumor growth associated with cancer.

Include Fish...caveats:

Methylmercury a toxic chemical harmful to the nervous systems of unborn children Accumulates in larger fish with a longer life span Examples: swordfish, shark, king mackerel, tilefish Women of childbearing age and young children should avoid these four types of fish Pregnant women/women of childbearing age: should consume other fish (variety) weekly Canned albacore tuna has more mercury than light tuna: 6 oz/week limit

Guidelines for Lowering Cholesterol and Decreasing Risk for Heart Disease

Minimize saturated fats and trans fats Read food labels (next slide) Keep daily cholesterol intake < 300 mg Include fish in your weekly choices Maintain active lifestyle and manage your weight Increase fruit and vegetable intake select foods rich in antioxidants and phytochemicals Eat plants! Consume more soluble fiber. Soluble fiber sources: apples, barley, broccoli, carrots, corn, dried beans, grapefruit, oat bran, oats, oranges, potatoes (RDA for total daily fiber intake: 25-38 grams/day)

Ketogenic Diets for Endurance Athletes

More research is needed During the period 1985-2005, studies examined the proposal that adaptation to a low-carbohydrate (<25 % energy), high-fat (>60 % energy) diet (LCHF) to increase muscle fat utilization during exercise could enhance performance in trained individuals by reducing reliance on muscle glycogen. As little as 5 days of training with LCHF retools the muscle to enhance fat-burning capacity with robust changes that persist despite acute strategies to restore carbohydrate availability (e.g., glycogen supercompensation, carbohydrate intake during exercise). Furthermore, a 2- to 3-week exposure to minimal carbohydrate (<20 g/day) intake achieves adaptation to high blood ketone concentrations. Failure to detect clear performance benefits during endurance/ultra-endurance protocols, combined with evidence of impaired performance of high-intensity exercise via a down-regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. Fat-adaptation strategies by competitive athletes in conventional sports is not recommended Nevertheless, there may be a few scenarios where LCHF diets are of benefit, or at least are not detrimental, for sports performance. Burke, L.M. Re-Examining High-Fat Diets for Sports Performance: Did We Call the Nail in the Coffin Too Soon? Sports Med. 2015; 45(Suppl 1): 33-49.

What Happens to the Fat You Eat?

Mouth: chewing and lingual lipase start digestion Stomach: gastric lipase breaks down fat into diglyceride and one fatty acid Small intestine: most digestion occurs here Bile acids: emulsify fat, break fat globules into smaller pieces Pancreatic lipase: two fatty acids and monoglyceride Lecithin in bile is packaged with monoglycerides and fatty acids to create micelles (small carriers) for absorption Short-chain fatty acids enter bloodstream and travel to liver Long-chain fatty acids enter lymph and need transport carriers

A diet can be too low in fat

Negative energy balance Deficiency in essential fatty acids can result from severe restriction of dietary fat intake. Extreme low fat diets may exclude nutritious foods

Essential, Nonessential, and Conditional Amino Acids

Nine (9) essential amino acids Cannot be made by the body It is "essential" to obtain them from the diet Eleven (11) nonessential amino acids Can be synthesized in the body from other amino acids or by adding nitrogen to carbon-containing structures Conditionally essential amino acids Under certain conditions, some nonessential amino acids cannot be synthesized and must be consumed in the diet Tyrosine (made from phenylalanine), cysteine (made from methionine) Arginine is considered essential during growth spurts

Omega 6s

Omega 6s...convert to arachidonic acid which can be pro-inflammatory, increase blood clotting, and cause vasoconstriction http://blog.lifeextension.com/2011/09/how-to-manage-inflammation-by-eating.html *Note: There is some evidence that high amts. of linoleic acid have been associated with development of cancer of the colon!

Protein Recommendations

Overall recommendation: "Balanced" mix (animal to plant sources) AMDR: 10-35% Ave. consumption in the U.S. = 15% 0.8 grams/kg for adults a, b 0.85 g/kg 14-18 years 0.95 g/kg 4-13 years 1.1 g/kg 1-3 years 1.5 g/kg infants aOlder adults may benefit from greater intake of protein to prevent sarcopenia and support a healthy immune system. (1.0-1.2 g/kg) bPregnant and lactating women need more (1.1 g/kg based on pre-pregnancy weight) 1.2-2.0 g/kg for athletes* Teen Athletes: 1.5-2.0 g/kg (0.7-0.9 g/lb) * Depends on type of athlete, the season and whether the athlete wants to lose, gain, or maintain weight.

No One Size Fits All!

Personalize nutrition Some are carbohydrate intolerant (Jeff Volek) People vary in their ability to metabolize CHOs Those who manage CHOs well, have more diet options Those who don't (Obese, Impaired Fasting Glucose, MetSyn, T2D) have fewer options! What is going to work for you? Your client? Your athlete? Your patient? Trust your intuition and your gut! Intuitive eating says quit following all of the "rules" and eat as your body is most naturally designed to eat

functions of fat in body

Protection & Insulation/Shock absorption Helps absorb fat soluble vitamins: DEKA and certain phytochemicals: carotenoids (antioxidants)

Protein: A Chemist's View

Protein Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Together these four elements form amino acids... Amino group (NH2) and acid group (COOH) Carbohydrates & Lipids Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen

Not All Protein Is Created Equal

Protein quality is determined by two factors: The protein's digestibility The protein's amino acid profile: the types and amounts of amino acids (essential, nonessential, or both) that the protein contains. Complete proteins: all essential amino acids, plus some nonessential amino acids Sources: soy and animal protein Incomplete proteins: low in one or more essential amino acids Sources: plant foods Plant proteins "upgraded" to complete proteins by: Consuming modest amounts of soy or animal protein OR Being complemented with other plant proteins that provide enough of the limiting amino acid Complementary proteins do not need to be eaten in the same meal, only the same day Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) Measure of protein quality taking into account digestibility and amino acid profile Egg whites, ground beef, milk powder and tuna have a PDCAAS of 100 (the highest possible score) Soy Protein has a score of 94

What Are Proteins and Why Are They Important?

Proteins are the predominant structural and functional materials in every cell All proteins consist of a chain of some combination of 20 unique amino acids All 20 AA must be present for optimal functioning! Proteins are involved in most of your body's functions and life processes; without them you would not survive!

Roles of Proteins

Proteins provide structural and mechanical support and help maintain body tissues (Tissue building and repair!) Collagen: a ropelike, fibrous protein that is the most abundant protein in your body Connective tissue: the most abundant tissue type in the body; made up primarily of collagen, it supports and connects body parts as well as providing protection and insulation Most enzymes and many hormones are composed of proteins Proteins help maintain fluid balance Proteins help maintain acid-base balance Buffers: substances that help maintain the proper pH in a solution by attracting or donating hydrogen ions Proteins transport substances throughout the body Transport proteins shuttle oxygen, waste products, lipids, some vitamins, and sodium and potassium through your blood and into and out of cells through cell membranes Proteins contribute to a healthy immune system Specialized protein "soldiers" called antibodies eliminate potentially harmful substances Proteins can provide energy (4 kcals/gram) Not ideal nor preferred! Protein improves satiety and appetite control

2017 UW-L Study The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Body Composition in Resistance Training Females Stehly and Skemp

Results = a ketogenic diet has a favorable impact on body composition of lean muscle mass and fat mass in female resistance training athletes. A sample of 20 women were assigned to either the ketogenic group (N=10) who followed a ketogenic diet of 10% CHO, 70% fat, and 20% protein or a control group (non-ketogenic group) (N=10) who followed their usual standard diet. Both groups participated in resistance training of at least 3 times a week for a duration of 4 weeks Both the ketogenic group and non-ketogenic group participants lost overall body mass (2.35 lbs. + 3.67), and fat mass (1.06 lbs. + 2.97). Ketogenic group participants lost more overall body mass (4.36 lbs. + 3.59) than the control participants (0.34lbs + 2.575) (p=0.005). Fat mass decreased to a greater extent in the ketogenic group (2.15 lbs. + 2.46) compared to the control group (0.17 lbs. + 3.08) (p=0.032). Those in the ketogenic group did not lose more lean muscle mass than the control group.

NCEP Step II Diet

SFA = < 7% Cholesterol = < 200 mg

All Fats are Not Created Equal!

SFA and trans fats should be kept to a minimum. These fats have been shown to be the most detrimental to cardiovascular health because they increase cholesterol levels. MUFA and PUFA are beneficial to health, leading to more favorable cholesterol levels possibly aid in the prevention of cancer and arthritis

Forms of dietary fats (or dietary fatty acids)

Saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, trans fatty acids, alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid), and linoleic fatty acids (omega-6). Structure and chain length

What Are the Best Food Sources of Protein?

Some amount of protein is found in many foods, but it is particularly abundant in... meat, milk, fish, poultry, and meat alternatives such as dried beans, peanut butter, nuts, and soy *Caution: Animal products are often high in saturated fat and cholesterol; nuts are also high in fat (but the "good" fat)

saturated fat

The DGAC still states that saturated fat is a "nutrient of concern" and called this (and sugar) "empty calories" and thus should be limited. also Eliminated the cholesterol limitation

Fats to Decrease/Avoid

The following are the primary sources of highly processed, highly refined and highly oxidized oils used in processed foods: Corn oil (GMO) Canola oil (GMO) Soy oil (GMO) Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated fats Margarine and shortening

Hydrogenation

The process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to make it more solid and resistant to the chemical change of oxidation Better resistance to rancidity Provides longer shelf life Worse for you heart than saturated fats ="lethal" Raise LDL cholesterol and lower HDL cholesterol

Your Body Degrades and Synthesizes Proteins

Transamination (a.k.a. amino transfer)- Amino acids can be used to make: Body proteins Non-protein substances Examples: thyroid hormones, melanin Deamination - After amine groups are removed (converted to urea, excreted in urine), amino acids can also be: Burned for energy Stored as fat Made into glucose NOTE: The body cannot store excess nitrogen!

A diet can be too high in fat

Unwanted weight gain/BF gain (high fat may mean high calorie) Elevated blood lipid levels Heart disease risk= fats AND sugars matter

Protein Supplements: Are They Necessary?

Varied products promise many benefits, but not needed with adequate diet Protein shakes and powder Made of whey, casein, soy, egg, or rice/pea protein May contain unwanted additives (e.g. banned substances, metals, contaminants) Amino acid supplements Sold as remedies for various health issues May have negative effects...upset the AA pool Protein bars, energy bars, muscle building bars Convenient, but expensive and high in calories Real foods provide much more in terms of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that are often missing in engineered food.

How Do Vegetarians Meet Protein Needs?

Vegetarians can meet protein needs by consuming: Variety of plant foods Protein-rich meat alternatives: Soy Dried beans and other legumes Nuts Eggs, dairy (lacto-ovo-vegetarians)

amino acid pool

a limited supply of amino acids stored in your blood and cells and used to build new proteins

Saturated fatty acids

all carbons bonded to hydrogen Example: stearic acid, 18 carbons, solid at room temperature

sterols

are composed mainly of four connecting rings of carbon and hydrogen; not a fatty acid Example: cholesterol Important role in cell membrane structure Precursor of important compounds in body (synthesis of vitamin D, bile acids, sex hormones) Not required in diet since body makes all cholesterol needed

some amino acids in the pools...

are used to make non-protein products, such as hormones

Trans fat

as low as possible

High levels of n6

can actually increase inflammatory responses. omega 6 fatty acids produce omega 6 eicosanoids n6:n3 ratio is important (6:1 ratio is recommended)

Lipids

category of compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are hydrophobic (insoluble in water)

add stuff from all vitamins

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What Happens if You Eat Too Much or Too Little Protein?

eating too much protein: May increase risk of heart disease, kidney stones, calcium loss from bones, dehydration Can displace other nutrient- and fiber-rich foods associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases Whole grains, fruits, vegetables

Phospholipids

have glycerol backbone, but two fatty acids and a phosphorus group Phosphorus-containing head is hydrophilic Fatty acid tail is hydrophobic Cell membranes made of phospholipid bilayer (next slide) Major phospholipid in cell membrane = lecithin Lecithin used as emulsifier in foods such as salad dressings to keep oils and water mixed together

"Fat"

is the common name for just one type of lipid, known as a triglyceride

ex of phospholipids

lecithins

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

more than one double bond Example: essential fatty acids linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids (soybean oil)

sterols

most commonly, cholesterol

Low fat does not

necessarily mean low calorie

amino acids are degraded...

nitrogen-containing amine groups are removed. the nitrogen generates ammonia (NH3) which is converted to urea and excreted in the urine. the carbon containing remains are either used to make glucose or energy, or are stored as fat

polyunsaturated fats

omega 6 fatty acids- linoleic acid (an essential fatty acid)- Arachidonic acid omega 3 fatty acids- alpha-linolenic acid (an essential fatty acid)- DHA, EPA

Monounsaturated fatty acids

one double bond Example: oleic acid, 18 carbons (olive oil), liquid at room temperature

protein turnover

process of continuous breakdown and synthesis of protein from its amino acids amino acids are degraded and their nitrogen-containing amine groups are removed.

dietary protein

the foods that you eat contain both essential and nonessential amino acids