Nutrition Exam #2

Where do we store glucose? What is its storage form called?

- After your body has used the energy it needs, the leftover glucose is stored in little bundles called glycogen in the liver and muscles. Your body can store enough to fuel you for about a day. - They are called glycogen.

How is the metabolism and absorption of alcohol handled differently than macronutrients? What enzymes and organs are involved?

- Approximately 20% of alcohol is absorbed through the stomach and most of the remaining 80% is absorbed through the small intestine. Alcohol is metabolized by the liver, where enzymes break down the alcohol. ... In general, the liver can process one ounce of liquor (or one standard drink) in one hour. - Alcohol is metabolized more slowly than it is absorbed. Since the metabolism of alcohol is slow, consumption needs to be controlled to prevent accumulation in the body and intoxication. Food.

What is meant by simple and complex carbohydrates? What are some examples? Which of these should be included as apart of a healthy diet and which should be had only in moderation?

- Complex carbohydrates are present in foods such as bread and pasta. Simple carbohydrates are in foods such as table sugar and syrups. Complex carbohydrates contain longer chains of sugar molecules than simple carbohydrates. The body converts these sugar molecules into glucose, which it uses for energy. - Simple carbohydrates are found naturally in foods such as fruits, milk, and milk products. - An example of complex carbohydrates are whole grains such as brown rice, wild rice, oatmeal, whole-grain (rather than pearled) barley, bulgur (which is made from cracked wheat), and farro, Grain-like foods such as quinoa (a seed) and buckwheat (a grass), Starchy vegetables including potatoes, sweet potatoes, and corn. - Complex carbohydrates should be apart of a healthy diet and simple carbohydrates should be had in moderation.

What are the signs associated with alcohol poisoning and alcohol dependence/abuse?

- Confusion. Vomiting. Seizures. Slow breathing (less than eight breaths a minute) Irregular breathing (a gap of more than 10 seconds between breaths), Blue-tinged skin or pale skin. Low body temperature (hypothermia). Passing out (unconsciousness) and can't be awakened.

What is considered moderate alcohol consumption? What is considered binge drinking?

- Consuming too much alcohol for too long can be damaging to health. ... The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse & Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines moderate drinking as up to four alcoholic drinks for men and three for women in any single day and a maximum of 14 drinks for men and seven drinks for women per week. - What is considered binge drinking?

What are the beneficial effects that fiber has on the body? Know the benefits of both soluble (viscous) and insoluble fiber. What is the recommendation for daily fiber intake? What foods are good sources of fiber?

- Dietary fibre is important for our digestive health and regular bowel movements. Fibre also helps you feel fuller for longer, can improve cholesterol and blood sugar levels and can assist in preventing some diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and bowel cancer. - Over time, soluble fiber can help lower cholesterol levels or the amount of free cholesterol in the blood. Stabilizing blood sugar (glucose) levels: Just as it prevents fats from being absorbed, soluble fiber slows down the digestion rate of other nutrients, including carbohydrates. - Digestion: Insoluble fiber speeds up our digestion (as opposed to soluble fiber, which does the opposite), and adds bulk to our stool. This is what people think of as "regularity" — all fiber, but especially insoluble fiber, keeps things moving through our bowels and prevents constipation. - The American Heart Association Eating Plan suggests eating a variety of food fiber sources. Total dietary fiber intake should be 25 to 30 grams a day from food, not supplements. Currently, dietary fiber intakes among adults in the United States average about 15 grams a day. That's about half the recommended amount. - What foods are good sources of fiber?

What is meant by essential fatty acids? How are they identified (i.e. named)? What are the primary roles of each? What are good food sources of each?

- Essential fatty acid: An unsaturated fatty acid that is essential to human health, but cannot be manufactured in the body. Abbreviated EFA. There are three types of EFAs: arachnoidic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid. - The three main omega-3 fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA is found mainly in plant oils such as flaxseed, soybean, and canola oils. DHA and EPA are found in fish and other seafood. - Once transported into cells, essential fatty acids serve numerous functions. They influence membrane fluidity and may be involved in the regulation of neuronal firing. They are also transformed into many other molecules, including ecosanoids and lipoxins that are involved in anti-inflammatory effects. - Some of the food sources of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, seaweed oil, flaxseed (linseed) and flaxseed oil, hemp seed, olive oil, soya oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, and walnuts.

What is meant by hydrogenation and what does it produce?

- Hydrogenation is a reduction reaction which results in an addition of hydrogen (usually as H2). If an organic compound is hydrogenated, it becomes more "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. The process typically requires the use of a catalyst, since hydrogenation only occurs spontaneously at high temperatures.

What is hyperglycemia?

- Hyperglycemia is a defining characteristic of diabetes—when the blood glucose level is too high because the body isn't properly using or doesn't make the hormone insulin.

What is protein denaturation? How does it happen? What does it effect? Why is this important?

- If a protein loses its shape, it ceases to perform that function. The process that causes a protein to lose its shape is known as denaturation. Denaturation is usually caused by external stress on the protein, such as solvents, inorganic salts, exposure to acids or bases, and by heat. - Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it into a random shape. Denaturation occurs because the bonding interactions responsible for the secondary structure (hydrogen bonds to amides) and tertiary structure are disrupted. - Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it into a random shape. Denaturation occurs because the bonding interactions responsible for the secondary structure (hydrogen bonds to amides) and tertiary structure are disrupted. - The way proteins change their structure in the presence of certain chemicals, acids or bases - protein denaturation - plays a key role in many important biological processes. And the way proteins interact with various simple molecules is essential to finding new drugs.

What is the equivalent of one standard drink?

- In the United States, one "standard" drink (or one alcoholic drink equivalent) contains roughly 14 grams of pure alcohol, which is found in: 12 ounces of regular beer, which is usually about 5% alcohol. 5 ounces of wine, which is typically about 12% alcohol. 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits, which is about 40% alcohol.

What causes lactose intolerance?

- Lactose intolerance is caused by a deficiency of the intestinal enzyme lactase that splits lactose into two smaller sugars, glucose and galactose, and allows lactose to be absorbed from the intestine. Virtually all individuals are born with lactase and the ability to digest lactose.

How are lipids digested and absorbed? What enzymes and organs are involved?

- Lipids, or fat, go undigested in your digestive tract until they reach your small intestine, where they meet bile. Bile contains bile salts, which act as an emulsifier of lipids. This breaks the large fat droplets into smaller droplets that are then easier for the fat-digesting enzyme pancreatic lipase to digest. - The enzymes of the small intestine are responsible for almost all of the fat digestion. When pancreatic lipase acts on the lipid, it breaks it down, which results in free fatty acids and monoglycerides, the two digestive products of lipids.

How do men and women differ in metabolizing alcohol?

- Males and females differ in their ability to metabolize alcohol. This difference is due to variations in the amount and activity of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme responsible for metabolizing alcohol. ... Additionally, the ADH in the liver of females is much less active than the ADH in the male liver.

What are the properties of saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and trans fatty acids? How are saturated and unsaturated fatty acids different in their chemical structure? What foods are good sources of each of these fatty acids? What are the health implications of each fatty acid? i.e. which type are considered heart healthy, and which are not?

- Monounsaturated Fats: This type of unsaturated fat contains only one double bond in its structure. Monounsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature and include canola oil and olive oil. Polyunsaturated Fats: This type of unsaturated fat contains two or more double bonds in their structure. - It is therefore said to be "saturated" with hydrogen atoms, and all of the carbons are attached to each other with single bonds. ... Because the chain has fewer hydrogen atoms, it is said to be "unsaturated." A fatty acid with one double bond is called "monounsaturated" because it has one gap. - Fat is one of the three essential macronutrients the body needs, along with carbohydrates and protein. A balanced diet should include healthful monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Some of the best sources of these fatty acids include avocados, olive oil, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish. - Saturated fatty acids are commonly judged to have a negative health impact as they lead to increased serum cholesterol levels and a higher risk of coronary heart disease. Therefore, all recommendations stress the importance to limit the intake of saturated fatty acids. - Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are known as the "good fats" because they are good for your heart, your cholesterol, and your overall health. These fats can help to: Lower the risk of heart disease and stroke. Lower bad LDL cholesterol levels, while increasing good HDL. - "Bad" fats, such as artificial trans fats and saturated fats, are guilty of the unhealthy things all fats have been blamed for—weight gain, clogged arteries, an increased risk of certain diseases and so forth. But "good" fats such as unsaturated fats and omega-3s have the opposite effect.

What are the daily intake recommendations for protein? How can a high-protein diet be harmful? What happens when protein consumption exceeds our needs?

- Most official nutrition organizations recommend a fairly modest protein intake. The DRI (Dietary Reference Intake) is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight, or 0.36 grams per pound. This amounts to: 56 grams per day for the average sedentary man. - Some high-protein diets include foods such as red meat and full-fat dairy products, which may increase your risk of heart disease. A high-protein diet may worsen kidney function in people with kidney disease because your body may have trouble eliminating all the waste products of protein metabolism. - High-protein diets may tout weight loss, but this type of weight loss may only be short-term. Excess protein consumed is usually stored as fat, while the surplus of amino acids is excreted. This can lead to weight gain over time, especially if you consume too many calories while trying to increase your protein intake.

What are carbohydrates composed of? Be able to identify and know the difference between a monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide, and oligosaccharide.

- No matter how big they are, all carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with the general formula of Cm(H2O)n. For example, a simple little sugar molecule like glucose is made up of six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. - Monosaccharides, also called a simple sugar, are the simplest form of sugar and the most basic units of carbohydrates. They cannot be further hydrolyzed into simpler chemical compounds. The general formula is C ₙH ₂ₙO ₙ. They are usually colorless, water-soluble, and crystalline solids. - A disaccharide is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are soluble in water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates. - An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number of monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell binding. For example, glycolipids have an important role in the immune response.

What is meant by an essential, non-essential and conditional amino acid? What happens if our diet is lacking in essential amino acids?

- Nonessential means that our bodies produce an amino acid, even if we do not get it from the food we eat. ... Conditional amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and stress. Conditional amino acids include: arginine, cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine, glycine, ornithine, proline, and serine.

What is meant by high quality vs. low quality protein? What are food sources of each?

- Not all sources of protein have sufficient quantities of all of the essential amino acids. Low-quality protein sources are also referred to as "incomplete" and high-quality sources as "complete." Meat products are typically "high quality" because they contain all of the essential amino acids together. - High Quality Protein = Animal based foods - meats, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products (except butter / fats). Considered high quality protein sources. High-quality proteins - contain enough of all of the essential amino acids. Usually higher in fat than plant proteins. - Low Quality Protein = Vegetable products (breads, cereals, rice, pasta, dried beans) are considered "low quality protein." - Macronutrients include water, protein, carbohydrates, and fats. Keep reading for more information about where to find these nutrients, and why a person needs them. The six essential nutrients are vitamins, minerals, protein, fats, water, and carbohydrates.

What is meant by protein organization? Why is this important?

- Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule. ... Proteins form by amino acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a peptide bond. - The shape of a protein is critical to its function because it determines whether the protein can interact with other molecules. Protein structures are very complex, and researchers have only very recently been able to easily and quickly determine the structure of complete proteins down to the atomic level.

What are the primary functions of proteins in the body?

- Proteins are a class of macromolecules that perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They help in metabolism by providing structural support and by acting as enzymes, carriers, or hormones. The building blocks of proteins (monomers) are amino acids.

What are the risks and complications associated with alcohol poisoning and chronic alcohol abuse?

- Risks for domestic violence, sexual assault, car accidents due to impaired driving, and unintentional injuries all increase with alcohol consumption amounts. Alcohol poisoning may also lead to severe dehydration or dangerous drops in blood sugar levels that can cause seizures, permanent brain damage, or even death.

How is our blood glucose affected differently by simple and complex carbohydrates?

- Simple carbohydrates, which are broken down faster than complex carbohydrates, will begin to raise blood sugar levels very soon after you eat them. Complex carbohydrates, like starches, take longer to break down in the body.

Where are proteins digested and absorbed? What enzymes and organs are involved?

- The bottom line. Protein is a vital nutrient for almost every part of your body. It's digested in your mouth, stomach, and small intestine before it's released into your bloodstream as individual amino acids. - Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the action of three main enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin, secreted by the pancreas. During carbohydrate digestion the bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase.

What are complications of inadequate intake (protein calorie malnutrition)?

- The consequences of malnutrition include an increased overall mortality rate, increased hospitalization rates, poor wound healing, and increased susceptibility to infection. The major contributing factor to the development of PEM is poor dietary intake.

How are lipids transported throughout the body? Which body system do our big, bulky lipids have to travel through?

- The main plasma lipid transport forms are free fatty acid, triglyceride and cholesteryl ester. ... Triglycerides and cholesteryl esters are transported in the core of plasma lipoproteins. The intestine secretes dietary fat in chylomicrons, lipoproteins that transport triglyceride to tissues for storage. - Lipids are transported from the enterocyte into blood by a mechanism distinctly different from what we've seen for monosaccharides and amino acids. Once inside the enterocyte, fatty acids and monoglyceride are transported into the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are used to synthesize triglyeride.

Which monosaccharide is found in abundance in our body? What is an alternative name for it? (i.e. what is another name we use to refer to it within our body).

- The most common monosaccharide is glucose. - Common names for glucose include sugar, dextrose, starch and glycogen.

How is our how blood glucose is regulated? What organs and hormones are involved when maintaining our blood glucose within the normal range?

- The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon. Both hormones work in balance to play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels. ... Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain a state called homeostasis in which conditions inside the body remain steady. When blood sugar is too high, the pancreas secretes more insulin. - Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by islet cells within the pancreas. They are both secreted in response to blood sugar levels, but in opposite fashion! Insulin is normally secreted by the beta cells (a type of islet cell) of the pancreas.

Be familiar the basic structure of protein? What are they composed of? Which nutrient do we obtain from them, that we do not get from other macronutrients?

- The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is held together by peptide bonds that are made during the process of protein biosynthesis. - Proteins are made up of smaller building blocks called amino acids, joined together in chains. There are 20 different amino acids. Some proteins are just a few amino acids long, while others are made up of several thousands. These chains of amino acids fold up in complex ways, giving each protein a unique 3D shape. - Proteins function as building blocks for bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood. They are also building blocks for enzymes, hormones, and vitamins. Proteins are one of three nutrients that provide calories (the others are fat and carbohydrates).

Understand the difference in structure between the 3 different classes of lipids discussed in class. What is the common characteristic of each that allows them all to be classified as lipids? What is the most common form most lipids are found within our food and body?

- The three main types of lipids are triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides), phospholipids, and sterols. Triacylglycerols (also known as triglycerides) make up more than 95 percent of lipids in the diet and are commonly found in fried foods, vegetable oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, cream cheese, and some meats. - There is only one characteristic that is common to all lipids, and that is their inability to dissolve in water. They will, however, dissolve in a variety of organic solvents, such as benzene, acetone, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. - Triacylglycerols, the most common lipid, comprise most body fat and are described as fats and oils in food. Excess energy from food is stored as adipose tissue in the body.

What are the 3 most common monosaccharides and the 3 most common disaccharides? Which monosaccharides form each of the 3 disaccharides?

- The three most common monosaccharides are glucose, which is blood sugars and fructose and galactose. - The three major disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. - Glucose, fructose, and galactose. <--- ?

What are the risk factors associated with heart disease (also called cardiovascular disease or coronary heart disease)? Which lipoprotein cholesterol markers do we want to be high and which do we want to be low?

- The traditional risk factors for coronary artery disease are high LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, high blood pressure, family history, diabetes, smoking, being post-menopausal for women and being older than 45 for men, according to Fisher. Obesity may also be a risk factor. - The test for high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) is used as part of a lipid profile to screen for unhealthy levels of lipids and to determine an individual's risk of developing heart disease and to help make decisions about what treatment to use if there is borderline or high risk. - A high blood cholesterol level increases your risk of coronary artery disease. Lower cholesterol is usually better, but in rare cases having a very low level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or "bad") cholesterol or a very low total cholesterol level has been associated with some health problems.

Name the 4 types of lipoproteins and be familiar with each of their roles.

- There are four major classes of circulating lipoproteins, each with its own characteristic protein and lipid composition. They are chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

What do vegetarians/vegans eat? What do they NOT eat? What do they have to pay attention to with regards to protein intake?

- Vegans are individuals who avoid animal products for ethical, health, or environmental reasons — or a combination of the three. Instead, they eat various plant foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, and products made from these foods. - A vegan diet excludes animals and their byproducts. That means that vegans do not eat meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk or other dairy products, or honey. Vegans also do not eat products that contain animal-derived ingredients, even in small amounts. - How much protein do endurance athletes need to consume? Numerous studies have demonstrated that endurance athletes in heavy training need more protein than recreational athletes do. Once it was believed that 1/2 gram of protein per pound per day was sufficient (2/3 to 3/4 grams of protein per pound of body weight).

What is the difference between Type 1, Type 2 and gestational diabetes? Which is most common? What complications can arise from uncontrolled blood glucose?

- What is the difference between Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes? Type 1 diabetes occurs when the immune system destroys the cells that release insulin, which is a hormone that helps the body use or store glucose. Type 2 diabetes develops when the body isn't able to use insulin properly. - Type 2 diabetes, the most common type of diabetes, is a disease that occurs when your blood glucose, also called blood sugar, is too high. - As mentioned, uncontrolled blood sugar can cause nerve damage, also known as diabetic neuropathy. What you may notice is a tingling sensation or even numbness in your hands and feet. Some people experience pain in their hands and feet as well.

How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed? i.e. where does digestion/absorption begin and which enzymes and organs are involved? What happens if carbohydrates are not absorbed in the small intestine? Where do carbohydrates go after they are absorbed into the blood (which organ)?

- You begin to digest carbohydrates the minute the food hits your mouth. The saliva secreted from your salivary glands moistens food as it's chewed. Saliva releases an enzyme called amylase, which begins the breakdown process of the sugars in the carbohydrates you're eating. - The primary organ for digestion and absorption in the body is the: stomach. - Carbohydrates that are not absorbed in the small intestine are fermented by bacteria in the colon and converted to short-chain fatty acids, which are then absorbed by the colon. Disorders of carbohydrate digestion and absorption occur when these processes are not properly functioning. - Once they're absorbed, they're processed even more by the liver and stored as glycogen. Other glucose is moved through the body by the bloodstream.

When not consuming enough carbohydrates (i.e. low carbohydrate diets), what does our body utilize in order to make the needed glucose?

- Your body needs carbohydrates as a source of fuel (energy). If you don't eat enough carbs, your body will use stored energy from muscle or fat cells to fuel itself. On a diet like this, you would be eating more fat and protein than usual, which may not be the healthiest way to eat long term