Oceanography
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
one billion years after the big bang- stars formed and with them other heavier elements - increase temperature and pressure caused heavier elements to form
earth's crust composition
oxygen (46%) silicon (28%) aluminum (8%) Iron (6%) magnesium (4%) calcium,potassium, sodium, other
Easter Islands
polynesians created a thriving culture in the first millennium but overpopulation eventually led to the gradual deforestation and extinction of natural resources which caused the demise of the Rapa Nui civilization
At many station, the Challenger crew would
samples of sea-water samples at different depths.
phytoplankton
are photosynthesizing microscopic organisms (account for half of the photosynthetic activity on earth) that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water and are a key factor of oceans, seas and freshwater basins ecosystems. They are agents for "primary production," the creation of organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water
Atomic Weight:
average mass of atoms of an element, calculated using the relative abundance of isotopes in a naturally occurring element.
the first oceanography textbook
by Lt. Matthew Maury named The Physical Geography of the Sea
HMS Beagle
constructed in 1820 for the Royal Navy. Took part in the fleet celebrating the coronation of King George IV of the UK. First ship to sale under the London Bridge.
Density stratification
describes the layers of water in a body of water with a layer of cold dense water at the bottom and, at temperatures above freezing, a warmer layer floating on top.
ionic bond
electrons are gained or lost - ex sodium chloride ( Na+ Cl-)
covalent bond
electrons are shared
860 AD voyage
first Viking voyage to iceland
900-700 B.C. Greeks
had traveled inside the Mediterranean but not outside of it
How many stars are there?
in the milky way we think there are 200-400 billion but there might be 3000 galaxies
whole earth's composition
iron (35%) Oxygen (30%) Silicon (15%) Magnesium (13%) Nickel, sulfur, calcium, aluminum, other
An ion
is an atom or molecule where the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge.
The Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin
is illustrating his changing views at a time when he was developing his theory of evolution by natural selection and includes some suggestions of his ideas
Trichodesmium
also called sea sawdust. Fixes atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium
age of the earth
4.57 billion years old
James Cook first voyage (endeavor)
(1768-1771) Sailed from England westward across the Pacific to Tahiti, where the observations of Venus Transit were made. Mapped the entire coastlines of New Zealand. He then searched the South Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Australia.- found dark skinned people and unique . Chartered the entire continent of Australia. (first Europeans to do so)
James Cook's second voyage- Resolution
(1772) The Royal Society still believed there was a massive southern continent that should exist. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis. This voyage marked the successful use of the marine chronometer(calculated longitudinal position). Did not lose any men on this voyage.
HMS Beagle first voyage
(1826-1830) captain fell into depression and killed himself. Replaced by Lieutenant W.G. and sailed to Montevido. Beagle Channel was identified (a strait in South America)
HMS Beagle second voyage
(18310 1836) There were many difficulties and delays which led to Charles Darwin joining the voyage. Darwin kept a diary of his experiences and rewrote it as a book called Journal and Remarks which was renamed to be the Voyage of the Beagle
HMS Beagle third voyage
(1837 to 1843) set off to survey large parts of the coast of Australia. The Beagle Gulf was found
The Trieste
(1960) a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe,the first manned vessel to have reached the bottom of the Challenger Deep. (roughly 7 miles beneath the ocean surface) -Piccard and Walsh of the US Navy reached the goals of project Nekton
collisions
(Transfer of kinetic energy into heat)
nebula
(large, diffuse gas cloud of gas and dust)
Frozen Ocean Theory
- 3 bya, the Sun was thirty percent less luminous than it is today. - there is 300m of ice (protection from UV) - below there is prebiotic chemistry - it is cold so allowed for organic molecules to survive for long periods of time
Captain Cook and Scurvy
- Cook had 5 cases of scurvy -he made sure his crew members had sufficient vitamins and prevented them from getting scurvy
At most station, the Challenger crew would
- a fair sample of the bottom animal life (fauna) (dredge or trawl) -the animal life of the surface and of intermediate depths (tow nets). -a series of temperature observations was made at different depths
Fridtjof Nansen
- tested the possibility of reaching the North Pole by using the natural drift of Polar Ice (Fram's expedition) -first to cross Greenland's inland ice, failed to reach the north pole
colonization of western pacific islands by the Polyneasians
- there are 10,000 islands in the western Pacific -Colonized New Guinea (30,000 years ago) -Colonized Philippines (20,000 years ago) -Colonized Hawaii (farthest away away from any land masses)- 1,500 years ago -easter Island- around 1200 A.D. -from genetic evididence
The Bathysphere
- was a unique spherical deep-sea submersible which was unpowered and lowered into the ocean on a cable, and was used to conduct a series of dives off the coast of Bermuda from 1930 to 1934. -designed by William Beebe & Otis Barton
The Giant Impact Hypothesis
-50 million years after the initial creation of Earth, a planet about the size of Mars collided with Earth to create the moon. This idea was first proposed about 30 years ago, but it took calculations by modern high-speed computers to prove the feasibility
Lt. Matthew Maury
-Head of the U.S. Navy's Depot of Charts and Instruments. -1847-assembled the observations archived there into charts of winds, currents, and sea state throughout the trade routes. -1855-Author of the first oceanography textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea. -Father of Physical Oceanography -Probably, the first person to devote full time to the study of the ocean.
the challenger expedition
-Lead by Charles Wyville Thompson - Departed on December 7, 1872 -was a scientific exercise that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of oceanography -catalogued over 4,000 previously unknown species -traveled nearly 70k miles -sampled in the North and South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans -Travelled north of the limits of drift ice in the North Atlantic polar seas and south of the Antarctic Circle -measured the depths of the Marianas Trench (deepest part of the worlds oceans) in the western Pacific (26,850 feet) -atmospheric and other meteorological conditions were carefully observed and noted. The direction and rate of the surface current was determined. -major motivation- - is there life at depth?
Navigators
-Zheng He (1405-1433), hundreds of ships and thousands of crew members -Columbus (1492), 3 ships and 90 crew members (america) -Da Gama (1498), 4 ships and 160 crew members (india) Magellan (1521), 5 ships nad 265 crew members (the first circumnavigation of the Earth)
biosphere
-Zone of Life on Earth -Global Sum of all ecosystems
Woods Hole - US Fish Commission - 1871
-beginning growth of marine research -in cape cod - a number of eminent scientists brought to Woods Hole -the federal government realized that marine populations needed to be studied and managed to protect fishing stocks and the markets that depended on them
3 major factors that caused heating and melting in the early Earth's interior:
-collisions -compression -radioactivity of elements (e.g. uranium, potassium, or thorium)
Formation of the Atmosphere and the Ocean
-early solid earth had very hot surface had no atmosphere or oceans -condensing water vapor, thick clouds, heavy rain - as earth cooled, oceans formed 4 bya
Routes taken on Fram's expedition (1893-1896)
-eastward from Vardo along the Siberian coast, turning north at the New Siberian Islands to enter the pack ice -drift in the ice from the New Siberian Island North and West to Spitsbergen -March farthest North and then retreat to Cape Flora -Return to Vardo form Cape Flora -voyage from Spitsbergen to Tromso
James Cook's Three expeditions
-endeavor -resolution -adventure
the nebular hypothesis
-explains formation and evolution of the solar system -a nebula contracts under gravity and heats, flattens and spins faster, becoming a spinning disk of dust and gas -stars form in the center of the disk and planets form on the outer parts of the disk -H and He remain gaseous but other material can condense into solid "seeds" for building planets -warm temperatures allow only metal/rock "seeds" to condense in the inner solar system -cold temperatures allow "seeds" to contain abundant ice outer solar system Formation of Protoplanets -solid seeds collide and stick together -larger seeds attract others with gravity, growing bigger still -terrestrial planets are built from metal and rock - the seeds of gas giant planets grow large enough to attract hydrogen and hellium gas, making them into giant, mostly gaseous planets, moons form in disks of dust and gas that surround the planets Our Solar System -terrestrial planets remain in the inner solar system -gas planets remain in the outer parts -"leftovers" from this process become asteroids (metal/rock) and comets (mostly ice)
The Cook Expedition Findings
-extensive scientific investigations -arctic to antarctic -mapping of the pacific ocean -depth soundings -winds and currents -subsurface temperature -biological sampling -general geography of the world
Farthest known extent of European exploration before Columbus (Vikings)
-first viking voyage to Iceland -Erik the Red discovered Greenland -Bjarni Herjolfsson- first to see North America (Vinland) Leif Eriksson- found North America (Vinland)
Meteorites
-give us access to debris left over from the formation of the solar system -can determine the age using using radioactive isotopes and their decay products
Edward Forbes
-he pursued the study of life in the littoral zones (the ocean from the shore to the continental shelf) and developed an interest in the geographical distribution of animals. -known for azoic theory
Types of Bonds
-ionic -covalent -hydrogen
scurvy symptons
-loss of teeth -sunken eyes -pale skin caused by deficiency of vitamin C
methods of early navigation
-reflection of islands in the clouds -followed birds (Frigate and terns- dawn and dusk patterns) -stars -swells -stick charts -smell of the water
earth composition general
-solid iron inner core -liquid iron outer core -mantle -crust on the outside
Geological time of earth
-sun formed -moon formed -earths core grows and differentiation completed -oldest mineral grain and continental rocks -earliest evidence of liquid water -earliest evidence of life -major phase of continent formation complete -build up of oxygen -ice covered earth -big bang -mass extinction -earliest land animals -mass extinction -earliest flowering plants -mass extinction -first hominids -first appearance of our species
Hydrothermal Vents
-that simple metabolic reactions emerged near ancient seafloor hot springs, enabling the leap from a non-living to a living world. -scientists discovered biological communities unexpectedly living around seafloor hydrothermal vents, far from sunlight and thriving on a chemical soup rich in hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur, spewing from the geysers.
Where did the Ocean come from ?
-two sources of water -Outgassing -Comets
density in order- lightest to heaviest
-water -glass -lead -mercury -gold
where did life on earth come from?
1. Panspermia 2. Frozen Ocean Theory 3. Hydrothermal Vents
Global Chemical Differentiation
Chemical seperation was completed by about 4.3 billion years ago, and the Earth had developed a inner and outer core, a mantle and crust
At intervals, the Challenger crew would
1. measure depth 2. sample of the bottom 3. A sample of bottom water for chemical/physical examination 4. recorded bottom temperature
evidence of The Giant Impact Hypothesis
1. moon rock is younger than other celestial bodies (~ 30-55 million years) - 2. similar composition to earth - 3. moon is less dense than earth and other planets.....
density of water
1.00 g cm-3
Colossal Squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni)
12 - 14 m long.....(39-46 ft) (think Olympic size swimming pool)
the big bang occured
13.7 billion years ago
density of gold
19.30
First people to explore the ocean
30,000 years ago - Polynesian Seafarers started migrating across the Pacific.
PLANET WATER
70.8% OF EARTH IS COVERED BY WATER -97% in oceans and seas - 2% lakes and rivers - 1% snow and ice as glaciers - >1% atmospheric water
Isotope:
Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. ex. Carbon-12 = 6 protons + 6 neutrons Carbon-14 = 6 protons + 8 neutrons
ecosystems
Biotic/Abiotic (i.e. - the living/non living) components of a system....
985 AD voyage
Bjarni Herjolfsson - missed Greenland - is thought to be the first to see New Foundland. He is believed to be the first to see North America.
Six elements are the major constituents of living tissue and they account for 95% of the biosphere...
CHONPS -carbon -hydrogen -oxygen -nitrogen -phosphorus -sulfur
Oservations of Venus Transit
During a transit, Venus appears as a small black disc traveling across the Sun. It takes place in a pattern that repeats itself every 243 years. It includes two transits that are 8 years apart. There are four phases, first is Venus touching outside rim of sun, second is Venus within the sun's disc, third Venus crossed the sun, and the fourth is Venus completely off the sun but still touching the outer rim. Observers had trouble recording the exact times of the different stages because of a haze.
Chemical Composition of Earth
Each of the major layers has a distinctive chemical composition, with the crust being quite different from the Earth as a whole
981 AD voyage
Erik the Red... sailed west from Iceland and discovered Greenland.
big bang nucleosynthesis
H and He forming seconds after Big Bang
seconds after the big bang
Hydrogen and Helium began to form
995 AD voyage
Leif Eriksson -son of Erik the red - set out to find New Foundland - and did - he named it Vinland because of the grapes.... But the Vikings left Greenland and Vinland - and were gone by around 1450.
What is density ?
Mass per unit volume
early earth (4 to 4.5 billion years ago)
Our recently formed moon rises in the night sky. Not in its final orbit yet, the moon is seen much larger in the sky than than today's moon. Magma flow from mare volcanism can be seen on its surface. Three comets, or water-rich asteroids, begin their descent into Earth, delivering with them a supply of frozen water
Origin of Earth's atmosphere
Partial melting resulted in outgassing about 4 billion years ago - Similar to gases emitted from volcanoes - Mainly water vapor - Carbon dioxide, hydrogen - Other gases such as methane and ammonia
Proto-earth (4.5 billion years ago)
The sky above a still-forming proto-Earth is filled with the dust, rocks and gas that are shaping our solar system. A rising proto-sun illuminates the dust and rocks that gravity brings hurtling toward this new planet. The first comets, scattered by the gravity of the giant outer planets, appear in our sky.
Kon-Tiki by Thor Heyerdahl
Theory- could Polynesia have been colonized by trans-Pacific emigres from the pre-Colombian cultures of South America? Heyerdahl gathered five friends and set sail from Peru across the Pacific to Tuamotus, French Polynesia Kon-Tiki demonstrated that it was possible for a primitive raft to sail the Pacific with relative ease and safety, especially to the west (with the trade winds).Sailors could have survived by fishing. Blood samples taken proved Heyerdahl's hypothesis but scientists argued contamination. The South American Sweet potato was part of a dietary supplement in Polynesia
Hokule'a
a traditional Polynesian canoe
Gokstad Ship
a viking ship intended for warfare, trade, transportation of people and cargo. Was used during the period that the Vikings expanded into Dublin, Ireland and York, England at the end of the 9th century
What is life?
a)Homeostasis b)Organization c)Metabolism d)Responds to stimuli e)Adapts f) Reproduces g)Growth
What is required for life?
a)Water - essential to all living things b)The right temperature range c)Renewing crust! (CHNOPS) d)Atmosphere (why?) e)Stable energy source
ocean acidification
is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the atmosphere. An estimated 30-40% of the carbon dioxide released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes.[3][4] To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid.
James Cook's third voyage- Adventure
led the public to believe the voyage was planned to return the pacific islander to Tahiti but were actually to locate a Northwest Passage to the American Continent. Cook became the first European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands (named them the sandwich islands). He then accidentally sailed towards Canada and anchored at Yuquot. He then went on to identify what became known as the Cook Inlet- 180 mile body of water on the gulf of Alaska. Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.
azoic theory
no life in the deep ocean (>550 m)
Atomic Number
number of protons
About 100 million years after initial accretion of the earth
temperatures at depths of 400 to 800 km below the Earth's surface reach the melting point of iron
Wyville Thomson on sampling
the Challenger made 362 sample/observation stations "at intervals as nearly uniform as possible
Dispelled the Azoics Theory
the challenger expedition disproved this theory -133 dredges taken -4700 new species discovered
During this time (temperatures below earth's surfaces reach the melting point of iron)
the heavier elements, including the melted iron, began to sink down into the core of the Earth, while the lighter elements such as oxygen and silica floated up towards the surface- density stratification and crust forms
Malama Honua
the polynesian voyaging canoes are sailing across the Earth's oceans to join the global movement towards a more sustainable world (started in 2013)
Panspermia
the proposal that microscopic life forms that can survive the effects of space, such as extremophiles, become trapped in debris that is ejected into space after collisions between planets and small Solar System bodies that harbor life. If met with ideal conditions on a new planet's surfaces, the organisms become active and the process of evolution begins.
Captain James Cook (1728-1779)
was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.
Stanley Miller Experiment
was a Jewish-American chemist who made landmark experiments in the origin of life by demonstrating that a wide range of vital organic compounds can be synthesized by fairly simple chemical processes from inorganic substances. He is aptly regarded as the "father of prebiotic chemistry"
Zheng He
was a navigator that lived from 1371 to 1433. had 48 to 317 ships and 28,000 crew members. He commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. He demonstrated the power and wealth of the Ming Dynasty- he spread the glory of China to the countries he visited. When a new emperor took the throne- he criticized Zheng and the sea voyages were abandoned. Zheng took seven voyages in his life time
Viking Colonies
were in Iceland and the south of Greenland but were gone by around 1450
Origin of Earth's oceans
• Water vapor released by outgassing • Condensed as rain • Accumulated in ocean basins • About 4 billion years ago • Ice Comets were (maybe) also important to adding water to the Earth system