Org Behavior 11-16

Ch 13 Power and Politics

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Need for cognition

aA personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities

Ch 14 Conflict and negotiation

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Full Range Leadership Model

.Laissez-faire is the most passive and least effective type, while management by exception is slightly better. Contingent reward leadership can be effective, but will not get employees to go above and beyond the call of duty.

Modes of Communication

Contrast Oral, written and non verbal communication

leader-participation model

Relates leadership behavior and participation in decision making. -Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure. The final contingency theory is the leader-participation model which argues that the way the leader makes decisions is as important as what she or he decides. The model, developed by Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton, relates leadership behavior and participation in decision making. Like path-goal theory, it says leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure.

Conflict and Unit Performance

pic

Conflict and Negotiation - Implications for Managers

•Choose an authoritarian management style in emergencies, when unpopular actions need to be implemented, and when the issue is vital to the organization's welfare. Be certain to communicate your logic when possible to make certain employees remain engaged and productive. •Seek integrative solutions when your objective is to learn, when you want to merge insights from people with different perspectives, when you need to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus, and when you need to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship. •Build trust by accommodating others when you find you're wrong, when you need to demonstrate reasonableness, when other positions need to be heard, when issues are more important to others than to yourself, when you want to satisfy others and maintain cooperation, when you can build social credits for later issues, to minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing, and when employees should learn from their own mistakes. •Consider compromising when goals are important but not worth potential disruption, when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals, and when you need temporary settlements to complex issues. •Distributive bargaining can resolve disputes, but it often reduces the satisfaction of one or more negotiators because it is confrontational and focused on the short term. Integrative bargaining, in contrast, tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships.

•Research shows that when you're engaged in distributive bargaining

•Research shows that when you're engaged in distributive bargaining, one of the best things you can do is make the first offer, and make it an aggressive one. -Shows power. -Establishes an anchoring bias. Another distributive bargaining tactic is revealing a deadline When engaged in distributive bargaining, research consistently shows one of the best things you can do is make the first offer, and make it an aggressive one. One reason for this is that making the first offer shows power; individuals in power are much more likely to make initial offers, speak first at meetings, and thereby gain the advantage. Another reason, the anchoring bias, was mentioned in Chapter 6. People tend to fixate on initial information. A savvy negotiator sets an anchor with the initial offer, and scores of negotiation studies show that such anchors greatly favor the person who sets it. Another distributive bargaining tactic is revealing a deadline. Negotiators who reveal deadlines speed concessions from their negotiating counterparts, making them reconsider their position. And although negotiators don't think this tactic works, in reality, negotiators who reveal deadlines do better.

•Compromise might be your worst enemy in negotiating a win-win agreement.

-The reason is that compromising reduces the pressure to bargain integratively. Finally, you should realize that compromise might be your worst enemy in negotiating a win-win agreement. The reason is that compromising reduces the pressure to bargain integratively. After all, if you or your opponent caves in easily, it doesn't require anyone to be creative to reach a settlement. Thus, people end up settling for less than they could have obtained if they had been forced to consider the other party's interests, trade off issues, and be creative.

Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioral Theories

-Leaders who have certain traits and who display culturally appropriate consideration and structuring behaviors do appear to be more effective. -Traits and behaviors do not guarantee success. §Context matters too.

•Sexual harassment

: any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment. -Organizations have generally made progress in the past decade toward limiting overt forms of sexual harassment. •Managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment, but they also need to protect themselves. Generally, sexual harassment is more prevalent in male-dominated societies.

11 Communication

Chapter 11

Trait theories of leadership

Focus on personal qualities and characteristics. -The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research. •A comprehensive review of the leadership literature, when organized around the Big Five, has found extraversion to be the most important trait of effective leaders, but it is more strongly related to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness. •Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability, conscientiousness and openness to experience also showed strong relationships to leadership, though not quite as strong as extraversion. •Good leaders: -Like being around people. -Are able to assert themselves (extraverted). -Are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious). -Are creative and flexible (open). •Another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence. -A core component of EI is empathy. •The link between EI and leadership effectiveness may be worth investigating in greater detail. •Two conclusions: -Traits can predict leadership. -Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than actually distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.

Factors That Influence Political Behavior

Individual factors. Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest. An individual's investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will also influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The organizational factors that influence politics are many. Political activity is probably more a function of the organization's characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organization's resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

Cultural Guide - Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication

When communicating with people from a different culture, what can you do to reduce misinterpretations? Fred Casmir, a leading expert in intercultural communication research, and other experts offer the following suggestions: •Know yourself. •Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy. •State facts, not your interpretation. •Consider the other person's viewpoint. Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

Written communication

Written communications include: •Letters - the oldest and most enduring form of written communication. •PowerPoint - can be an excellent mode of communication because it combines words with visual elements to help engage the reader and explain complex ideas; however, detractors argue that it is too impersonal, disengaging, and frequently misused. •E-mail - has become so pervasive it's hard to imagine life without it. •Instant Messaging - asynchronous technology, meaning that you need to be there to receive the message. •Text Messaging - usually done via cell phone and often as a real-time alternative to phone calls. •Social Media - has transformed communication. According to research advisory firm Gartner Inc., companies that use social media as more than a marketing tool may lead their industries in growth by 2015. Apps. LinkedIn and Twitter are two of the most widely used social media platforms. Apps are easily accessed mobile-friendly platforms •Blogs (short for weblog) - a website about a single person or company. Many organizations and organizational leaders have blogs that speak for the organization. •Others - Flickr, Pinterest, and Google+ are just a few of the many public and industry-specific social platforms.

•Political behavior:

activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the organization. -Outside of one's specified job requirements. -Encompasses efforts to influence decision- making goals, criteria, or processes. -Includes such behaviors as withholding information, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information. Political behavior is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. This definition encompasses key elements. Political behavior is outside one's specified job requirements. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from decision makers, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information. As the OB Poll shows, politics are not only inevitable, they might be essential too. People want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers.

•Authentic Leadership

-Authentic leaders: §Know who they are. §Know what they believe in and value. §Act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. -The result: people come to have faith in them.

Cultural barriers - Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication

-Caused by semantics - words mean different things to different people. -Caused by word connotations - words imply different things in different languages. -Caused by tone differences. -Caused by differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts.

•Transformational versus Charismatic Leadership

-Charismatic leadership places more emphasis on the way leaders communicate - are they passionate and dynamic? -Transformational leadership focuses more on what they are communicating - is it a compelling vision? -Both focus on the leader's ability to inspire followers.

•Formal Power

-Coercive Power -Reward Power -Legitimate Power Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization. There are three types of formal power: coercive, reward, and legitimate. Coercive power depends on fear of negative results. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Reward power is the opposite of coercive power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories. Legitimate power is shown in formal groups and organizations through one's structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

•How Transformational Leadership Works

-Creativity - theirs and others. -Decentralization of responsibility. -Propensity to take risks. -Compensation is geared toward long-term results. -Greater agreement among top managers about the organization's goals. Transformational leaders are more effective because they are more creative, but also because they encourage those who follow them to be creative, too. Companies with transformational leaders have greater decentralization of responsibility, managers have more propensity to take risks, and compensation plans are geared toward long-term results—all of which facilitate corporate entrepreneurship. One study of information technology workers in China found empowering leadership behavior led to feelings of positive personal control among workers, which increased their creativity at work. Companies with transformational leaders also show greater agreement among top managers about the organization's goals, which yields superior organizational performance. The Israeli military has seen similar results, showing that transformational leaders improve performance by building consensus among group members. Transformational leaders are able to increase follower self-efficacy, giving the group a "can do" spirit.

•Ethical Leadership

-Ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures. -Efforts have been made to combine ethical and charismatic leadership into an idea of socialized charismatic leadership - leadership that conveys other-centered values by leaders who model ethical conduct. Ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures. Leaders who treat their followers with fairness, especially by providing honest, frequent, and accurate information, are seen as more effective. Leaders must be willing to express their ethical beliefs and persuade others to follow their standards. To convey their beliefs, leaders should learn to express their moral convictions in statements that reflect values shared with their organization's members. Leaders need to set high ethical standards, demonstrate them through their own behavior, and encourage and reward integrity in others while avoiding abuses of power.

•Selecting Leaders

-Identifying effective leaders: §Review specific requirements for the position. §Consider personality tests to identify leadership traits. §Situation-specific experience is relevant. -Plan for a change in leadership. The process that organizations go through to fill management positions is essentially an exercise in trying to identify individuals who will be effective leaders. You might begin by reviewing the specific requirements for the position such as knowledge, skills, and abilities that are needed to do the job effectively. Personality tests can identify traits associated with leadership—extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Also, candidates with high emotional intelligence should have an advantage, especially in situations requiring transformational leadership. Experience is a poor predictor of leader effectiveness, but situation-specific experience is relevant.

•What Creates Dependence?

-Importance -Scarcity -Nonsubstitutability To create dependence, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience. A resource also needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependence. The scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Nonsubstitutability means the fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power control that resource provides.

•Training Leaders

-Leadership training is likely to be more successful with high self-monitors. -Teach implementation skills. -Teach trust building, mentoring, and situational-analysis. -Behavioral training through modeling exercises can increase an individual's charismatic leadership qualities. -Review leadership after key organizational events. -Train in transformational leadership skills. Billions are spent on leadership training and development every year. Here are some things management can do to get the maximum effect from their leadership-training budgets: Leadership training is likely to be more successful with individuals who are high self-monitors than with low self-monitors. Second, organizations can teach implementation skills. We also can teach skills such as trust building, mentoring, and situational-analysis skills. There is evidence suggesting that behavioral training through modeling exercises can increase an individual's ability to exhibit charismatic leadership qualities. Recent research also indicates that leaders should engage in regularly reviewing their leadership after key organizational events as part of their development. Finally, leaders can be trained in transformational leadership skills that have bottom-line results.

•Online Leadership

-Needs more research. -Today's managers and employees are increasingly linked by networks rather than geographic proximity. §Online leaders have to think carefully about what actions they want their digital messages to initiate. §Identification-based trust is difficult to achieve without face-to-face interaction. §Writing skills are likely to become an extension of interpersonal skills. Today's managers and employees are increasingly linked by online networks rather than geographic proximity. We propose that online leaders have to think carefully about what actions they want their digital messages to initiate. They confront unique challenges, the greatest of which appears to be developing and maintaining trust. Identification-based trust, based on a mutual understanding of each other's intentions and appreciation of the other's wants and desires, is particularly difficult to achieve without face-to-face interaction. And online negotiations can also be hindered because parties express lower levels of trust. We tentatively conclude that good leadership skills will soon include the abilities to communicate support, trust, and inspiration through keyboarded words and accurately read emotions in others' messages. In electronic communication, writing skills are likely to become an extension of interpersonal skills.

•Managing Functional Conflict

-One of the keys to minimizing counterproductive conflicts is recognizing when there really is a disagreement. §Many apparent conflicts are due to people using different language to discuss the same general course of action. -Successful conflict management recognizes these different approaches. §Attempts to resolve them by encouraging open, frank discussion focused on interests rather than issues. •Groups that resolve conflicts successfully discuss differences of opinion openly. -The most disruptive conflicts are those that are never addressed directly. •Managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts. -Groups with cooperative conflict styles and an underlying identification to group goals are more effective than groups with a more competitive style. •Differences across countries in conflict resolution strategies may be based on collectivistic tendencies and motives. -Collectivist cultures see people as deeply embedded in social situations. -They will avoid direct expression of conflicts, preferring indirect methods for resolving differences of opinion.

•Does Effective Charismatic Leadership Depend on the Situation?

-People are especially receptive when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives. Does effective charismatic leadership depend on the situation? Charisma appears to be most appropriate when the follower's task has an ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty. People are especially receptive when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives. This may explain why, when charismatic leaders surface, it's more likely to be in politics, religion, wartime; or when a business firm is in its infancy or facing a life-threatening crisis.

•Does power corrupt?

-Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others. -Powerful people react, especially negatively, to any threats to their competence. -Power leads to overconfident decision making. -Power doesn't affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power. Evidence suggests that power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others. Powerful people react—especially negatively—to any threats to their competence. Power also leads to overconfident decision making. Power doesn't affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power. Let's consider each of these in turn. First, the toxic effects of power depend on one's personality. Research suggests that if we have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt us because we are less likely to think that using power benefits us. Second, the corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. One study found, for example, that while power made people behave in a self-serving manner, when accountability of this behavior was initiated, the self-serving behavior stopped. Finally, remember the aphorism that those with little power grab and abuse what little they have? There appears to be some truth to this in that the people most likely to abuse power are those who are low in status and gain power. Why is this the case? It appears that having low status is threatening, and this fear is used in negative ways if power is given. As you can see, there are factors that can ameliorate the negative effects of power. But there also appear to be general positive effects. Power can energize people and motivate them to achieve goals (i.e., approach motivation). It also can enhance people's motivation to help others, at least for certain people. It is not so much that power corrupts as it reveals. For those with strong moral identities, power actually enhanced their moral awareness. And willingness to act.

•Some tactics are more effective than others.

-Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation are most effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes. -Pressure tends to backfire. -Both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes. Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. Pressure tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics. You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. Using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcomes of a decision process or the policy is routine.

Three Types of Conflict

-Researchers have classified conflicts into three categories: §Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. §Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. §Process conflict is about how the work gets done. Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts, at least in work settings, are almost always dysfunctional. It appears that the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding, which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. Of the three types, relationship conflicts also appear to be the most psychologically exhausting to individuals. While scholars agree that relationship conflict is dysfunctional, there is considerably less agreement as to whether task and process conflicts are functional

•Transformational versus Transactional Leadership

-Transformational leadership is more strongly correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, lower employee stress and burnout, and higher employee satisfaction. When comparing transformational leadership with transactional leadership, research indicates transformational leadership is more strongly correlated than transactional leadership with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, lower employee stress and burnout, and higher employee satisfaction. However, transformational leadership theory is not perfect. The full range of leadership model shows a clear division between transactional and transformational leadership that may not fully exist in effective leadership. And contrary to the full range of leadership model, the four I's of transformational leadership are not always superior in effectiveness to transactional leadership; contingent reward leadership, in which leaders dole out rewards as certain goals are reached by employees, sometimes works as well as transformational leadership. More research is needed, but the general supportable conclusion is that transformational leadership is desirable and effective, given the right application.

The General Dependency Postulate

-When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. -Dependence, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. The general dependency postulate says the greater B's dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than using just one. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.

The following are some ways managers can protect themselves and their employees from sexual harassment:

.Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual harassment, informs employees they can be fired for sexually harassing another employee, and establishes procedures for how complaints can be made. •Reassure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint. •Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human resource departments. •Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated. •Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the issues surrounding sexual harassment.

Formal Small-Group Networks

1. Chain 2. Wheel 3. All channel 1. Chain The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization. 2. Wheel The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. 3. All channel The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it's most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role.

Key Characteristics of a Charismatic leader. Contemporary Theories of Leadership

1.Vision and articulation. Has a vision—expressed as an idealized goal—that proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others 2.Personal risk. Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision. 3.Sensitivity to follower needs. Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings. 4.Unconventional behavior. Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.

Grapevine or word-of-mouth

An organization's informal communication network. . The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization's communication network. It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important and helps tap into employee anxieties. The grapevine also serves employees' needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the "out" group. There is also evidence that gossip is driven largely by employee social networks that managers can study to learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through their organization.

Political Map

Mapping your political career. One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career. Think about your career in your organization of choice. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you get there? What is your relationship with these people? The best way to answer these questions is with a political map, like the one shown in Exhibit 13-7, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people upon whom your career depends. Power and politics are a part of organizational life. To decide not to play is deciding not to be effective. Better to be explicit about it with a political map than to proceed as if power and politics didn't matter.

Social network analysis

One tool to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an organization is social network analysis. This method examines patterns of communication among organizational members to identify how information flows between them. Within a social network, or connections between people who share professional interests, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties. When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they are said to have very strong ties.

Situational leadership theory (SLT)

Situational leadership theory (SLT) is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. -Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the followers' readiness. First, situational leadership theory (SLT) is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. It proposes that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the followers' readiness. The term readiness refers to "the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task." A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on follower readiness. If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; If they are unable but willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for followers' lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get them to "buy into" the leader's desires. Conversely, if followers are able but unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style. If they are both able and willing, the leader doesn't need to do much.

Intentions

Stage III involves intentions, or decisions to act in a given way that intervene between people's perceptions and emotions and their overt behavior. Why are intentions separated out as a distinct stage? Merely one party attributing the wrong intentions to the other escalates a lot of conflicts. One author's effort to identify the primary conflict-handling intentions is represented in Exhibit 14-3 along two dimensions. First is cooperativeness or the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party's concerns. Second is assertiveness, which is the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns. Five conflict-handling intentions can be identified: competing, collaborating, avoiding, accommodating, and compromising. Keep in mind that intentions are not always fixed. They might change because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction. However, individuals have preferences among the five conflict-handling intentions. We can predict a person's intentions rather well from a combination of intellectual and personality characteristics.

Lateral Communication

Takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel. -Often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination. §May be formally sanctioned. §Can create dysfunctional conflicts.

least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire:

Task- or relationship-oriented. Assumes leadership style is fixed. •Defining the Situation -Contingency dimensions: §Leader-member relations §Task structure §Position power

Channel Richness

The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. Channels differ in the capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they have the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously, facilitate rapid feedback, and be very personal. Face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode, using multiple information cues such as words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations, immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present.

Conflict Process (5 stages)

The conflict process has five stages: potential opposition or incompatibility, cognition, and personalization, intentions, behavior, and outcomes.

Direction of Communication (through small groups-networks) and the grapevine

downward, upward, lateral it

Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership

experience and training are among the substitutes that can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure. Organizational characteristics such as explicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, and cohesive work groups can also replace formal leadership, while indifference to organizational rewards can neutralize its effects. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes. Sometimes the difference between substitutes and neutralizers is fuzzy.

•Negotiation

is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. -We use the terms negotiation and bargaining interchangeably.

Communication Major functions

•Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: -Management •Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways. -Authority hierarchies and formal guidelines. -Job descriptions and company policies. -Workgroup teasing or harassing. -Feedback •Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance. -Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation. -Emotional sharing •Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. •Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs. -Persuasion Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is trying to persuade a workgroup to believe in the organization's commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to meet an organizational goal. It's important to remember that persuasion can benefit or harm an organization. -Information exchange •The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. -Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

Functional & Dysfunctional Conflict

•Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects. -Functional conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. -Conflicts that hinder group performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict.

•Why don't we see more integrative bargaining in organizations?

-Need the right conditions: §Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns. §A sensitivity by both parties to the other's needs. §The ability to trust one another. §A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility. Why don't we see more integrative bargaining in organizations? The answer lies in the conditions necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed, including: parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns; a sensitivity by both parties to the other's needs; the ability to trust one another; and a willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility. These conditions don't exist in most organizations.

Fiedler contingency model

Effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader. -The least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire: Task- or relationship-oriented. Assumes leadership style is fixed. The first comprehensive contingency model for leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler, who proposed that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.. The first step In the Fiedler contingency model is identifying leadership style. Fiedler believed that a key factor in leadership success is the individual's basic leadership style. He created the least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire for this purpose, to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented. The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant-unpleasant, efficient-inefficient, open-guarded, supportive-hostile) and asks respondents to describe the one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of one-to-eight for each of the 16 sets of contrasting adjectives. Fiedler believed that, based on the respondents' answers to this questionnaire, he could determine their basic leadership style. Fiedler's model assumes that an individual's leadership style is fixed. Because of that assumption, there are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness: you can either change the leader to fit the situation, or change the situation to fit the leader.

Apply the Five Steps of the Negotiation Process

Exhibit 14-8 shows a simplified model of the negotiation process as made up of five steps: (1) preparation and planning, (2) definition of ground rules, (3) clarification and justification, (4) bargaining and problem solving, and (5) closure and implementation. When it comes to preparation and planning, first, do your homework. What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to this negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals? You also want to assess what you think are the other party's goals. Once you have gathered your information, use it to develop a strategy. Determine your and the other side's Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement, or BATNA. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse. Next, define the ground rules. Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an impasse is reached? During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands. When initial positions have been exchanged, explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. This need not be confrontational. You might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position. The essence of the negotiation process takes place in the bargaining and problem solving phase. This is the actual give-and-take in trying to hash out an agreement. Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties. The final step is formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. Major negotiations will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For most cases, however, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.

behavior

Stage IV is where conflicts become visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempts to implement each party's intentions. At the lower part of the continuum, conflicts are characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension. Conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along the continuum until they become highly destructive. If a conflict is dysfunctional, what can the parties do to de-escalate it? Or, conversely, what options exist if conflict is too low and needs to be increased?

Roles and Function of Third-party Negotiations

•Negotiating in a social context: -Reputation: the way other people think and talk about you. §Develop a trustworthy reputation - competence and integrity. -Relationships: think about what's best for the other party and the relationship as a whole. §Repeated negotiations built on trust provide more options. •When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party. -A mediator -An arbitrator -A conciliator A mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, and the like. They are widely used in labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. Their settlement rate is approximately 72%. The key to success - the conflicting parties must be motivated to bargain and resolve their conflict, intensity cannot be too high, and the mediator must be perceived as neutral and non-coercive. An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. It can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract). The big plus of arbitration over mediation is that it always results in a settlement. A conciliator is a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link among parties. This role was made famous by Robert Duval in the first Godfather film. Comparing its effectiveness to mediation has proven difficult. Conciliators engage in fact finding, interpreting messages, and persuading disputants to develop agreements.

How Individual Differences Influence Negotiations

•Personality Traits in Negotiation -Can you predict an opponent's negotiating tactics if you know something about his/her personality? §The evidence says "sort of." •Moods/Emotions in Negotiation -Influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on the type of negotiation. •Culture in Negotiations -Do people from different cultures negotiate differently? Yes, they do. -People generally negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. -In cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness. -Negotiators need to be especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation. •Gender Differences in Negotiations -Men and women negotiate differently and these differences affect outcomes. §There is some merit to the popular stereotype that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-oriented in negotiations than are men. -These gender differences can be lessened at both the organizational and individual level. This OB Poll shows that men and women negotiate differently, are treated differently by negotiation partners, and then have different negotiation outcomes.

Three Loci of Conflict

-Another way to understand conflict is to consider its locus, or where the conflict occurs. -There are three basic types: §Dyadic conflict is a conflict between two people. §Intragroup conflict occurs within a group or team. §Intergroup conflict is a conflict between groups or teams. Nearly all the literature on task, relationship, and process conflict consider intragroup conflict (within the group). That makes sense given that groups and teams often exist only to perform a particular task. However, it doesn't necessarily tell us about the other loci of conflict. Another intriguing question about loci is whether conflicts interact or buffer one another. Intense intergroup conflict can be quite stressful to group members and might well affect the way they interact. Thus, understanding functional and dysfunctional conflict requires not only that we identify the type of conflict; we also need to know where it occurs.

•How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers?

-Articulating an appealing vision. -Developing a vision statement. -Establishing a new set of values. -Conveying courage and conviction about the vision.

Path-goal theory:

-Contingency model of leadership that extracts key elements from the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of motivation. -Derived from belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help followers achieve work goals. One of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path-goal theory, developed by Robert House. It is a contingency model of leadership that extracts key elements from the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of motivation. The term "path-goal" is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their work goals. According to path-goal theory, whether a leader should be directive or supportive or should demonstrate some other behavior depends on complex analysis of the situation. The theory predicts the following: directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out, while supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability or considerable experience.

personal power

-Expert Power -Referent Power The second group of power—personal power—comes from an individual's unique characteristics, and includes expert power and referent power. Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Referent power's source is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. It also explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional effects on us.

Formal Channels

Communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members

Informal Channels

Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices

Upward Communication

Flows to a higher level in the group or organization. -Provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay current problems. §Communicate in headlines, not paragraphs. §Support your headlines with actionable items. §Prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss's attention well.

Employee Responses to Organizational Politics

For most people, those who have modest political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative. Exhibit 13-4 summarizes the extensive research on the relationship between organizational politics and individual outcomes. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it gets to be too much to handle, employees quit. When employees of two agencies in a recent study in Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their coworkers. Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria are perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in which to work, the negative consequences of politics appear to be the same as in the United States.

Dealing with gossip and rumors

Share, explain, respond, and invite 1.Share the information you have, and the information you don't—where there is good formal communication with much information, there is no need for rumors. When you don't know information that others are seeking, discuss when you will know and follow up. 2.Explain, explain, explain. As a manager, discuss what decisions are made and why they were made, as well as the plan going forward. 3.Respond to rumors noncommittally, and then verify for yourself the truths you can. Make certain to gather all sides of the story. 4.Invite employees to discuss their concerns, ideas, suggestions, thoughts, and feelings about organizational matters. Help them frame their thoughts into more objective viewpoints.

Communication

The transfer and understanding of meaning. Must include the transfer and the understanding.

Trust propensity

Trust propensity refers to how likely a particular employee is to trust a leader. Some people are simply more likely to believe others can be trusted. Trust may be built on very different perceptions from culture to culture. Time is the final ingredient in the recipe for trust. Trust doesn't happen immediately: we come to trust people based on observing their behavior over a period of time. Trust can also be won in the ability domain simply by demonstrating competence. Leaders who break the psychological contract with workers, demonstrating they aren't trustworthy, will find that employees are less satisfied and less committed, have higher intentions to turnover, engage in less citizenship behavior, and have lower task performance.

Potential opposition or incompatibility

in Stage I, potential opposition or incompatibility is present. Here, communication as a source of conflict represents those opposing forces that arise from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and "noise" in the communication channels. The potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much communication takes place. The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of specialization, jurisdictional clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence. Personal variables include personality, emotions, and values. People high in the personality traits of disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring are prone to tangle with other people more often, and to react poorly when conflicts occur. Emotions can also cause conflict even when they are not directed at others.

Barriers to effective communication

filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication apprehension, lying Filtering refers to a sender's purposely manipulating information so it will be seen as more favorable by the receiver. For example, telling the boss what she wants to hear. The more levels in an organization's structure, the more opportunities there are for filtering. Selective perception describes how receivers selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. Information overload occurs when the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity. The result is the tendency to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information. Or put it aside until the overload situation is over. The result is lost information and less effective communication. Emotions also influence how people receive messages. People in negative moods are more likely to scrutinize messages in greater detail, whereas those in positive moods tend to accept communications at face value. Extreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely to hinder effective communication. Language - Message senders tend to incorrectly assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the receiver as to them, but even when we're communicating in the same language, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. It's easy to ignore silence or lack of communication because it is defined by the absence of information. However, research suggests using silence and withholding communication are common and problematic. Silence is less likely where minority opinions are treated with respect, work-group identification is high, and high procedural justice prevails. An estimated 5 to 20% of the population suffers from communication apprehension. They experience undue tension or anxiety in oral and/or written communication. They may find it difficult to talk with others face-to-face or on the telephone. Studies show those who are oral-communication apprehensive avoid situations for which oral communication is a dominant requirement. Managers should be aware of the impact of communication apprehension on job performance. The final barrier to effective communication is an outright misrepresentation of information or lying. The problem is, there are no nonverbal or verbal cues unique to lying—averting your gaze, pausing, and shifting your posture can also be signals of nervousness, shyness, or doubt. In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong barrier to effective communication in organizations.

Communication Process

the steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning. Is made up of eight parts: the sender, encoding, the message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise, and feedback. *Sender - The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought *Encoding - is the message that has been encoded in a certain way * The message - The message is the actual physical product from the source *The channel - Is the medium through which the message travels. *Decoding - Is the translation of the symbols into an understandable form. *Receiver - is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into an understandable form *Noise - Represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. * Feedback - Is the final link in the communication process. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.

•Evaluation of Transformational Leadership

§It has a greater impact on the bottom line in smaller, privately-held firms than in more complex organizations. -Transformational leadership has been supported at diverse job levels and occupations, but isn't equally effective in all situations. Transformational leadership has been supported at diverse job levels and occupations (school principals, teachers, marine commanders, ministers, presidents of MBA associations, military cadets, union shop stewards, sales reps), but it isn't equally effective in all situations. Transformational leadership has a greater impact on the bottom line in smaller, privately-held firms than in more complex organizations. The personal nature of transformational leadership may be most effective when leaders can directly interact with the workforce and make decisions than when they report to an external board of directors or deal with a complex bureaucratic structure. Another study showed transformational leaders were more effective in improving group potency in teams higher in power distance and collectivism. Other recent research using a sample of employees both in China and the United States found that transformational leadership had a more positive relationship with perceived procedural justice among individuals who were lower in power-distance orientation, which in turn related to a stronger transformational leadership-citizenship behavior relationship among those higher in power distance. Another study looking at employee creativity and transformational leadership more directly found employees with transformational leaders had more confidence in their ability to be creative at work and higher levels of creative performance.

Choosing Communications Methods.

•The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine. -Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity. §Choose oral communication when you need to gauge the receiver's receptivity. §Written communication is more reliable for complex and lengthy communications. Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when signatures need to be authentic. In general, respond to instant messages only when they are professional, and initiate them only when you know they will be welcome. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business. However, some users view text messaging as intrusive and distracting. Many organizations are also concerned about the security of texting. social media are mixed. make certain you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort. Use discretion about which social media platforms are acceptable for business communications blog to your own blog page, or you may choose to comment on another person's blog. If someone in the company happens to read a critical or negative blog entry or post, there is nothing to keep him or her from sharing that information with others.

Outcomes

•Stage V: Outcomes -Conflict is constructive when it... §Improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity, provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released, and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. -Conflict is destructive when it... §Breeds discontent, reduces group effectiveness, and threatens the group's survival. Stage V of Exhibit 14-2, may be functional, that is, improving group performance, or dysfunctional in hindering it. Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, when it stimulates creativity and innovation, when it encourages interest and curiosity, when it provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released, and when it fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. Conflict can improve the quality of decision making. Conflict is an antidote for groupthink. Conflict challenges the status quo, furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes reassessment of group goals and activities, and increases the probability that the group will respond to change. The destructive consequences of conflict on the performance of a group or an organization are generally well known: Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. And, of course, a substantial body of literature documents how dysfunctional conflicts can reduce group effectiveness. Among the undesirable consequences are poor communication, reductions in group cohesiveness, and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting among members. All forms of conflict—even the functional varieties—appear to reduce group member satisfaction and trust. When active discussions turn into open conflicts between members, information sharing between members decreases significantly. At the extreme, conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and threaten the group's survival.

•People in different countries prefer different power tactics.

-Individualistic countries see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends. -Collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others. Those from individualistic countries tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others. A study comparing managers in the United States and China found that U.S. managers prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers prefer coalition tactics. These differences tend to be consistent with the values in these two countries. The reason is consistent with the U.S. preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indirect approaches. Research has also shown that individuals in Western, individualistic cultures tend to engage in more self-enhancement behaviors (such as self-promotion) than individuals in more collectivistic Eastern cultures.

•The Dark Side of Charismatic Leadership

-Many leaders don't necessarily act in the best interest of their companies. §Many have allowed their personal goals to override the goals of the organization. §Individuals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership. Some charismatic leaders don't necessarily act in the best interest of their companies, allowing their personal goals to override the goals of the organization. The results at companies such as Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, and HealthSouth are examples of leaders who recklessly used organizational resources for their personal benefit and executives who violated laws and ethical boundaries to inflate stock prices, allowing leaders to cash in millions of dollars in stock options. It's little wonder research has shown that individuals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership. It's not that charismatic leadership isn't effective; overall, it is. But a charismatic leader isn't always the answer. Success depends, to some extent, on the situation and on the leader's vision. Some charismatic leaders—Hitler, for example—are all too successful at convincing their followers to pursue a vision that can be disastrous.

•Applying Power Tactics

-People differ in terms of their political skill: their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. -Cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. People differ in terms of their political skill - their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all influence tactics. Political skill also appears more effective when the stakes are high. Also, we know that cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. Some cultures encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence. Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. Part of the reason people who fit the culture are influential is that they are able to perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. In other words, they are influential because they are competent. So the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use.

•Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?

-Personal sources are most effective. -Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. -Coercive power usually backfires. Personal sources are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. Coercive power usually backfires.

•The Ethics of Behaving Politically

-Questions to consider: §What is the utility of engaging in politicking? §How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? §Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should consider. For example, what is the utility of engaging in politicking? Sometimes we engage in political behavior for little good reason. Major league baseball player Al Martin claimed he played football at USC when in fact he never did. As a baseball player, he had little to gain by pretending to have played football. Outright lies like this may be a rather extreme example of impression management, but many of us have distorted information to make a favorable impression. One thing to keep in mind is whether it's really worth the risk. When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, one question to ask is, "How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others?" Complimenting a supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve. Also, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and nothing to the latter—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly. Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in terms of the organization's best interests. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any behavior. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are likely to be able to get away with unethical practices successfully. If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember that it's a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit.

•Servant Leadership

-Servant leaders go beyond their self-interest and instead focus on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. -Characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential. Because servant leadership focuses on serving the needs of others, research has focused on its outcomes for the well-being of followers. Characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential. This relationship between servant leadership and follower OCB appears to be stronger when followers are focused on being dutiful and responsible. Second, servant leadership increases team potency (a belief that one's team has above-average skills and abilities), which in turn leads to higher levels of group performance. Third, a study with a nationally representative sample found higher levels of citizenship associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn was associated with higher levels of creative performance. Servant leadership may be more prevalent and more effective in certain cultures. When asked to draw images of leaders, U.S. subjects tend to draw them in front of the group, giving orders to followers. Singaporeans tend to draw leaders at the back of the group, acting more to gather a group's opinions together and then unify them from the rear. This suggests the East Asian prototype is more like a servant leader, which might mean servant leadership is more effective in these cultures.

•Trust and Leadership

-Trust: a psychological state that exists when you agree to make yourself vulnerable to another because you have positive expectations about how things are going to turn out. §A primary attribute associated with leadership. §When trust is broken, it can have serious adverse effects on a group's performance. Trust is a psychological state that exists when you agree to make yourself vulnerable to another because you have positive expectations about how things are going to turn out. Trust is a primary attribute associated with leadership. When trust is broken, it can have serious adverse effects on a group's performance. People are unlikely to look up to or follow someone they perceive as dishonest or likely to take advantage of them. Thus, as you might expect, transformational leaders do generate higher levels of trust from their followers, which in turn is related to higher levels of team confidence and, ultimately, higher levels of team performance.

Career and Psychological Functions of the Mentoring Relationship

A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee (a protégé). Successful mentors are good teachers. They present ideas clearly, listen well, and empathize with protégés' problems. As shown in Exhibit 12-7, mentoring relationships serve both career functions and psychosocial functions. Traditional informal mentoring relationships develop when leaders identify a less experienced, lower-level employee who appears to have potential for future development. The protégé will often be tested with a particularly challenging assignment. If he or she performs acceptably, the mentor will develop the relationship, informally showing the protégé how the organization really works outside its formal structures and procedures. Why would a leader want to be a mentor? Many feel they have something to share with the younger generation and want to provide a legacy. Mentoring also provides unfiltered access to the attitudes of lower-ranking employees, and protégés can be an excellent source of early warning signals that identify potential organizational problems. You might assume mentoring is valuable for objective outcomes like compensation and job performance, but research suggests the gains are primarily psychological. So, while mentoring can have an impact on career success, research shows that it's not as important as ability and personality. Career Functions •Lobbying to get the protégé challenging and visible assignments •Coaching the protégé to help develop his or her skills and achieve work objectives •Providing exposure to influential individuals within the organization •Protecting the protégé from possible risks to his or her reputation •Sponsoring the protégé by nominating him or her for potential advances or promotions •Acting as a sounding board for ideas the protégé might be hesitant to share with a direct supervisor Psychosocial Functions •Counseling the protégé to bolster his or her self-confidence •Sharing personal experiences with the protégé •Providing friendship and acceptance •Acting as a role model

Conflict:

A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. -If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed no conflict exists. -Also needed to begin the conflict process are opposition or incompatibility and interaction. This text defines conflict as a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. Common to most definitions of conflict is the idea that conflict is a perception. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed no conflict exists. Also needed to begin the conflict process are opposition or incompatibility and interaction.

Conflict management techniques A)Conflict Resolution Techniques B) Conflict - Stimulation Techniques

A)Conflict Resolution Techniques Problem solving Meeting face to face for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion Superordinate goals Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties. Expansion of resources Expanding the supply of a scarce resource (for example, money, promotion, opportunities, office space). Avoidance Withdrawing from or suppressing the conflict. Smoothing Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between the conflicting parties. Compromise Having each party to the conflict give up something of value. Authoritative command Letting management use its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then communicating its desires to the parties involved. Altering the human variable Using behavioral change techniques such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict. Altering the structural variables Changing the formal organization structure and the interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordinating positions, and the like. B) Conflict - Stimulation Techniques Communication Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels. Bringing in outsiders Adding employees to a group whose backgrounds, values, attitudes, or managerial styles differ from those of present members. Restructuring the organization Realigning work groups, altering rules and regulations, increasing interdependence, and making similar structural changes to disrupt the status quo. Appointing a devil's advocate Designating a critic to purposely argue against the majority positions held by the group.

Defensive Behaviors (Avoiding Action, Avoiding Blame, and Avoiding Change)

Avoiding Action Overconforming. Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like "The rules clearly state..."or "This is the way we've always done it." Buck passing. Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else. Playing dumb. Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability Stretching. Prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a 4-month job. Stalling. Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately. Avoiding Blame Bluffing. Rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness, known as "covering your rear." Playing safe. Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts. Justifying. Developing explanations that lessen one's responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both. Scapegoating. Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. Misrepresenting. Manipulation of information by distortion, mbellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation. Avoiding Change Prevention. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring. Self-protection. Acting in ways to protect one's self-interest during change by guardinginformation or other resources. The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual's understanding of the "hows" and "whys" of organizational politics. Political behavior and work moderates the effects of ethical leadership. When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors — reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples of these behaviors. Defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

HIgh Vs Low Context Cultures Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication

Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences meaning, which is illustrated here in Exhibit 11-8. Countries like China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, are high-context cultures. They rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. A person's official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight and public apologies to restore relationships. People from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words.

Downward Communication

Flows from one level to a lower level. -Assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and procedures, and provide feedback. -Downward communication must explain the reasons why a decision was made. -One problem is the one-way nature of downward communication. When engaging in downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Explanations increase employee commitment and support of decisions. One problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise.

Behavioral theories of leadership

Imply that we can train people to be leaders. Proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. -Ohio State Studies found two behaviors that accounted for most leadership behavior: *Initiating structure *Consideration Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals. A leader high in initiating structure is someone who "assigns group members to particular tasks," "expects workers to maintain definite standards of performance," and "emphasizes the meeting of deadlines." Consideration is the extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings. A leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support.

Cognition and Personalization

In Stage II, Stage II is important for two reasons: because it's where conflict issues tend to be defined, where the parties decide what the conflict is about; and because emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions and therefore our reactions to the conflict. the potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualized. Because a disagreement is a perceived conflict, however, does not mean it is personalized. It is at the felt conflict level, when individuals become emotionally involved, that they experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility.

•Impression management (IM):

Is the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. -Mostly high self-monitors. -Impressions people convey are not necessarily false - they might truly believe them. -Intentional misrepresentation may have a high cost. •The effectiveness of IM depends on the situation. We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression management (IM). Who engages in IM—mostly the high self-monitors. Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false. Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region, or that you are the key to the tripling of your division's sales. However, misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited. Research shows that the particular situation also appears to influence the effectiveness of IM. For example, self-promotion tactics may be more important to interviewing success. Applicants who work to create an appearance of competence by enhancing their accomplishments, taking credit for successes, and explaining away failures do better in interviews. In terms of performance ratings, however, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance ratings, meaning those who ingratiate with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. However, self-promotion appears to backfire in this situation.

Oral communication

Oral communication is the chief means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and informal rumor mills or grapevines are popular forms of oral communication. Advantages or oral communications are speed and feedback and exchange. Four popular forms of oral communication used in organizations are: •Meetings - can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue. Good interpersonal communication is key to make meetings effective. •Videoconferencing - permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations. •Conference calling - generally limited to telephone exchanges where some people may gather around one speakerphone, and others call in through a secure line. •Telephone - offers many of the benefits of meetings (formal and informal), and can prompt immediate response. Disadvantage One major disadvantage surges whenever a message has to pass through a number of people. the more people the greater the potential distortion

attribution theory of leadership

Says leadership is merely an attribution people make about other individuals. Thus, we attribute to leaders intelligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understanding, and industriousness. At the organizational level, we tend to see leaders, rightly or wrongly, as responsible for extremely negative or extremely positive performance. Much of an organization's success or failure is due to factors outside the influence of leadership. In many cases, success or failure is just a matter of being in the right or wrong place at a given time.

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers (see Exhibit 12-2). These individuals make up the in-group—they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader's attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. The theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an "in" or an "out" and that relationship is relatively stable over time. The leader does the choosing on the basis of the follower's characteristics. Research to test LMX theory has been generally supportive, with substantive evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers. These disparities are far from random; and followers with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, engage in more helping or "citizenship" behaviors at work, and report greater satisfaction with their superior. Research to test this theory has also been conducted in different cultures, including Portugal and Turkey.

two general approaches to negotiation

There are two general approaches to negotiation - distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining. Exhibit 14-6 shows that the two types of bargaining differ in their goals, motivation, focus, interests, information sharing, and duration. An example of distributive bargaining is buying a car. You go out to see the car. It is great and you want it. The owner tells you the asking price. You do not want to pay that much. The two of you then negotiate over the price. The most identifying feature of distributive bargaining is that it operates under zero-sum conditions. The essence of distributive bargaining is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie. By fixed pie, we mean a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up. When the pie is fixed, or the parties believe it is, they tend to bargain distributively. .Distributive bargaining, however, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosity and deepen divisions when people have to work together on an ongoing basis. In contrast to distributive bargaining, integrative bargaining assumes that one or more of the possible settlements can create a win-win solution. Integrative bargaining bonds negotiators and allows them to leave the bargaining table feeling they have achieved a victory. Integrative bargaining is preferable to distributive bargaining because the former builds long-term relationships

Characteristics of Transactional and Transformational Leaders

Transactional Leader Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments. Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action. Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions Transformational Leader Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises. Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization. They change followers' awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals. Exhibit 12-4 shows that transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. Transactional and transformational leadership complement each other; they aren't opposing approaches to getting things done. The best leaders are transactional and transformational.

Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction

Upward Influence Rational persuasion Downward Influence Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Pressure Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Lateral Influence Rational persuasion Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Personal appeals Coalitions Rrational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture. You're more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. Interestingly, a single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics. The effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience. People especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflective, are intrinsically motivated, have high self-esteem, and have greater desire for control. In contrast, people especially likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action-oriented and extrinsically motivated, and are more focused on getting along with others than with getting their own way.

Sociogram

is the associations among individuals in a social network, . It functions like an informal version of an organization chart. The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization. Networks can create substantial power dynamics. Those in the position of brokers tend to have more power because they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups. In other words, many people are dependent upon brokers, which gives the brokers more power. There are many ways to implement a social network analysis in an organization. Some organizations keep track of the flow of e-mail communications or document sharing across departments. Other organizations look at data from human resources information systems, analyzing how supervisors and subordinates interact with one another.

The Nature of Trust

shows three characteristics: integrity, benevolence, and ability. Integrity refers to honesty and truthfulness. It seems the most critical of the three in assessing another's trustworthiness. Benevolence means the trusted person has your interests at heart, even if yours aren't necessarily in line with theirs. Ability encompasses an individual's technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills. The Outcomes of Trust: •Trust encourages taking risks. •Whenever employees decide to deviate from the usual way of doing things, or to take their supervisors' word on a new direction, they are taking a risk. •Trust facilitates information sharing. •One big reason employees fail to express concerns at work is that they don't feel psychologically safe revealing their views. •Trusting groups are more effective. •When a leader sets a trusting tone in a group, members are more willing to help each other and exert extra effort, which further increases trust. •Trust enhances productivity. The bottom-line interest of companies also appears positively influenced by trust. Employees who trust their supervisors tend to receive higher performance ratings.

Persuasive Communication

•Automatic processing: a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information. -It takes little time and low effort, but it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo. •Controlled processing: a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic. -Requires effort and energy, but it's harder to fool someone who engages in it. •Rules of thumb for determining the choice of processing: -Interest level -Prior knowledge -Personality -Message characteristics •Match your message to your audience One of the best predictors of whether people will use an automatic or controlled process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they're more likely to process information carefully. People who are very well informed about a subject area are also more likely to use controlled processing strategies. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence. Prior Knowledge- People who require many facts before making a decision have a high need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts. Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, tend to encourage automatic processing. Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels, like a long magazine article, tend to encourage more deliberative processing. Choosing the message: The most important implication of all this research is to match your persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. For example, when the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they'll be more likely to use automatic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case. Personality - Need for cognition A personality trait of individuals depicting the ongoing desire to think and learn. A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities

Nine distinct influence or power tactics.

•First is legitimacy: relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules. •Second is rational persuasion: presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable. •Third is inspirational appeals: developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. •Fourth is consultation: increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan. •Fifth is exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request. •Sixth is personal appeals: asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. •Seventh is ingratiation: using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request. •Eighth is pressure: using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. •Nine is coalitions: enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Implications for Managers Leadership

•For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that your preferences on the initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and culture. •Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated success in working through others to meet a long-term vision. Personality tests can reveal candidates higher in extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness, which may indicate leadership readiness. In summary, leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior, because it's the leader who usually directs us toward our goals. Knowing what makes a good leader should thus be valuable in improving group performance. The early search for a set of universal leadership traits failed. However, recent efforts using the Big Five personality framework show strong and consistent relationships between leadership and extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. The behavioral approach's major contribution was narrowing leadership into task-oriented (initiating structure) and people-oriented (consideration) styles. By considering the situation in which the leader operates, contingency theories promised to improve on the behavioral approach, but only LPC theory has fared well in leadership research. Research on charismatic and transformational leadership has made major contributions to our understanding of leadership effectiveness.

Information Security

•Information Security -Electronic information -Physical information -Information that employees know •Most companies monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some use video surveillance and record phone conversations

Ch. 12 Leadership

•Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. -Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders. •Nonsanctioned leadership is often as important or more important than formal influence. Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. The source of this influence may be formal, such as that provided by managerial rank in an organization. But not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders. Just because an organization provides its managers with certain formal rights is no assurance they will lead effectively. Nonsanctioned leadership—the ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organization—is often as important or more important than formal influence. In other words, leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment.

Nonverbal Communication

•Nonverbal Communication -Includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. -Body language can convey status, level of engagement, and emotional state. Body language adds and often complicates verbal communication Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart a nonverbal message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone. No discussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of nonverbal communication, which includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. Intonation- is that way you said it. The emphasis given to words or phrases is missing. Facial expressions also convey meaning. Along with intonations can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other characteristics. •Physical distance also has meaning. -What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. §A businesslike distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North America. -Distance may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest, or it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.

Power We can divide power into two general groupings: formal and personal.

•Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. -Power may exist but not be used. •Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. •A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. •Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. -Goal compatibility §Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. -The direction of influence §Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one's followers. -Leadership research emphasizes style.

Implications for Managers - power and politics

•To maximize your power, you will want to increase others' dependence on you. You can, for instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing knowledge or a skill she needs and for which she perceives no ready substitute. •You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to minimize it and increase their dependence on you. The result is a continual battle. •Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power. •By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit. •Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are adept at organizational politics, help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.