Organizational Behavior, 5
Maslow's 5 Needs
1. Self-Actualization 2. Esteem 3. Love 4. Safety 5. Physiological
Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model
Another attempt to test Maslow's theory results in Herzberg's 2 Factor Theory. He found that job satisfaction is not a continuum from satisfied to dissatisfied, but rather, there are two continuums... No Satisfaction ...... Satisfaction Dissatisfaction ......No dissatisfaction If this is accurate, the implication is that we can set up a 2x2 matrix and be both satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time!
Using Self Determination Theory
Create environments that support and encourage the opportunity to experience the needs Competence - provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve competence Autonomy - empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy Relatedness - use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness
Job design- Scientific management
"Scientific Management" was the brainchild of Frederick Winslow Taylor (known as "the father" of Scientific Management). Taylor was an engineer fascinated with efficiency. Completed "motion studies" using cameras to film workers (for example Schmidt the laborer loading "pigs of iron") to study "micromotions" Determines the "most efficient way" to do a job. "Managers do the thinking, workers do the working" Efficiency and productivity increase Repetitive jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, stress, low sense of accomplishment and growth
understanding motivation
Motivation drives our decisions to do or not do things like: join the organization - we want to motivate high-quality job applicants to come to work for us stay with the organization - higher performers are more likely to leave an organization than average employees so we want to motivate talented employees to remain with the company in good times and bad be engaged at work perform OCBs help others - collaboration and cooperation are key in today's workplace so we want to motivate employees to help others in the pursuit of organizational goals
Adam's Equity Theory satisfaction
O/I ratio for person is equivalent to that of the relevant other Theoretically this is what everyone strives for (but not always)
Adam's Equity Theory Negative inequity
O/I ratio for person is less than relevant other's May result in satisfaction May result in anger or change in attitude or behavior leading person to attempt to change inputs or outcomes, or change comparison other
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory Power
People with a high need for power: like to be in charge. These people enjoy being in control of people and events and appreciate being recognized for this responsibility. You can delegate authority and responsibility to these people. The power need drives people to prefer goal-oriented tasks or projects, and they prefer direct feedback.
Basic Elements of Equity Theory
The subject creates a cognitive (mental) ratio using: Outcomes (O) are what a person (person) perceives they are getting out of their job Inputs (I) are what person perceives they are putting into their job or the relationship Comparison is looking at how person's O/I ratio compare with relevant others' O/I ratios A ratio is created for person and a "relevant other" (which can be anyone): O/I (self) vs. O/I (relevant other) Those ratios are then compared to determine whether there is equity (not equivalence) between them or dissonance (inequality) The comparison other does not have to be in the same job, organization, or even time since the comparison is using ratios The relevant other could also be person at a different point in time (for example to determine if they are being fairly compensated for adding qualifications like a college degree)
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
is about managerial beliefs, not worker prototypes.
Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model Hygiene
job characteristics associated with job dissatisfaction. Linked with where we do that work (where we do it). Includes things like: Salary Supervisory relations Working conditions
Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model Motivators
job characteristics associated with job satisfaction. Linked with the type of work we do (what we do). Includes things like: Achievement Recognition Responsibility
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Existence needs (E) - the desire for physiological and materialistic wellbeing Relatedness needs (R) - the desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others Growth needs (G) - the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to their fullest potential Alderfer also claimed that unlike Maslow's theory, multiple levels of needs can motivate us simultaneously and we can regress back to previously fulfilled needs.
Content theories
Focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction. Be sure you are familiar with the theories in the text. In class we will cover: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer's ERG Theory McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory Herzberg's Two Factor Theory
Job Design
Job Design (aka Job Redesign, Work Design) involves any set of activities that involve: alteration of specific or interdependent systems of jobs with the intention of increasing intrinsic motivation intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and on-the-job productivity
Motivation
Refers to the psychological processes "that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought" Direction pertains to what an individual is attending to at a given time Intensity represents the amount of effort being invested in the activity Persistence represents for how long that activity is the focus of one's attention.
Adam's Equity Theory
Stacey Adam's Equity Theory was adapted and developed from equity / justice theory and is based on cognitive dissonance theory. Cognitive dissonance theory posits that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior. Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance (psychological discomfort), which, in turn, motivates corrective action. Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in all social exchanges or give-and-take relationships to avoid cognitive dissonance
Job Characteristics Model
The "Job Characteristics Model" was designed by researchers Hackman and Oldman. They were trying to determine how work can be structured so that employees experience intrinsic motivation. They proposed that intrinsic motivation is determined by three psychological states. In turn, these psychological states are fostered by the presence of five core job characteristics
Using Job Characteristics Model
The Job Characteristics Model is useful to organizations. Can be used to increase job satisfaction Managers can enhance employees' intrinsic motivation Increases in quality of performance
Theory X
Theory X managers believe: Employees dislike work Are relatively simple and not creative Are easily duped and need constant supervision Can only be motivated with rewards and punishments
Theory Y
Theory Y managers believe: Employees are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative Are interested in doing a good job and want interesting work, not just money Do not need constant supervision
Job Design- Top Down
Top-down approaches to job design involve creating efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks. Based on research and experimentation to determine the most efficient way to perform jobs. These include: "Scientific Management" "Job enlargement" "Job rotation" "Job enrichment" "Job Characteristics Model"
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom started a "summer" research project in 1962 to summarize what we knew about motivation His book, "Work and Motivation", came out in 1964 Book never spells out the "equation" for this theory - other researchers did and attribute it to Vroom The theory, in short, holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes Outcomes include: primary outcomes (for example, a promotion) as well as subsequent resultant outcomes (for example, having to move or work longer hours because of the promotion)
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory
directs managers to drive employee motivation by appealing to three basic needs: Need for achievement, the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others. Need for affiliation, the desire to maintain social relationships, to be liked, and to join groups. Need for power, the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. Importantly, people vary in the extent to which they possess these needs, and often one need dominates the other two.
Self Determination Theory
identifies innate needs that must be satisfied for us to flourish Needs are learned over time Assumes that three innate needs influence behavior Competence Autonomy Relatedness Focuses on the needs that drive intrinsic motivation and ultimately enhance performance
Job Design- Job Enrichment
Job Enrichment involves modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience things like: Achievement Recognition Stimulating work Responsibility Advancement This is accomplished through "vertical job loading" Rather than giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (horizontal loading), vertical loading consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility.
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory Achievement
People with a high need for achievement: prefer working on challenging, but not impossible tasks or projects. like situations in which performance is due to effort and ability rather than luck like to be rewarded for their efforts like to receive a fair and balanced amount of positive and negative feedback enabling them to improve their performance. prefer to work with other high achievers or by themselves because they get frustrated with slackers.
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory Affiliation
People with a high need for affiliation: like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial. don't make the best managers because they tend to avoid conflict have a hard time making difficult decisions without worrying about being disliked avoid giving others negative feedback Should think twice before asking these people to lead groups or projects. It's important to give balanced feedback to these people but make it more personal. People high in affiliation may not like to stand out, so consider giving praise in private.
Use Maslow's theory to
motivate employees: Remember employees have needs beyond a paycheck Focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts: Self-esteem Self-actualization Satisfied needs lose their potential Should work to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs Be careful when estimating employee's needs
Intrinsic motivation
occurs when someone is "turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss)..." We create our own intrinsic motivation by giving ourselves intrinsic or internal/cognitive rewards such as: positive emotions satisfaction self-praise
Vroom's Expectancy Theory 3 Constructs
Expectancy - the person's expectation that effort will translate into performance Instrumentality - the person's expectation that their performance will lead to an outcome Valance - the "value" (not always monetary) the individual places on the outcome(s) - primary and resultant Levels are assigned to the various components ranging from -1 to 1 There are several ways the equation is expressed including additive and multiplicative Motivation will be high when all three elements in the model are high. If any element is at or near zero, motivation will be low.
Process Theories
Focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and environmental characteristics influence employee motivation. As above, we will cover: Adam's Equity Theory Vroom's Expectancy Theory Locke's Goal Setting Theory
Extrinsic motivation
results from potential or actual receipt of extrinsic or external rewards that represent a "payoff" like: recognition money a promotion
Job Design- Job Rotation
Like job enlargement, job rotation gives employees greater variety in their job Involves moving employees from one specialized job to another Provides several benefits: Engagement and motivation are increased by providing employees a broader perspective of the organization Increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling because employees are cross-trained to perform different jobs Increases employees' knowledge and abilities, improving an employee's promotability and builds a pipeline of internal talent for promotion
Adam's Equity Theory Positive inequity
O/I ratio is greater than relevant other's May result in satisfaction or may result in feelings of guilt leading person to attempt to change inputs or outcomes, or change comparison other
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
proposed that five types of needs are met sequentially and relate to each other in a prepotent hierarchy. "Prepotent" means that the current most pressing need would be met first before the next need becomes the most powerful or potent generally emerging in a predictable stair-step fashion. When a level of needs are met, the next level emerges, and so on up the need hierarchy, one step at a time. Once a need is satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy and will no longer motivate the person. This process continues until the need for self-actualization is activated. Interestingly, research does not clearly support this theory of motivation, yet it remains popular among managers and perhaps serves as the foundation for today's employer/ employee relationships!
Job Design- job Enlargement
First used in the late 1940s in response to complaints about tedious and overspecialized jobs created from the principles of scientific management Job Enlargement involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty Also known as "horizontal job loading" Recommended as a broader approach using multiple motivational methods
Locke's Goal Setting Theory Results
Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction Reinforces employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance Goals affect performance through several mechanisms: direct attention - attention and effort is directed toward goal relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities increase persistence - persistence represents the effort expended on a task over an extended period of time foster development and application of task strategies / action plans - prompt us to figure out how they can be accomplished regulate effort - goals have an energizing function in that they motivate us to act... harder goals foster greater effort than easy goals. Time deadlines also factor into the motivational equation
Using Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory has important practical implications for individual managers and organizations as a whole. Three practical lessons are essential for applying expectancy theory: Enhance effort → performance expectancies Use tools and techniques associated with performance management, goal setting, communication, feedback, coaching, providing consequences, and establishing/monitoring performance expectations. Determine desired levels of performance and set SMART goals Goals need to be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results oriented, and Time bound. Link rewards to desired outcomes This means that you need to get to know your employees so that you can reward them with outcomes they value. Can't assume you know what they want - they may surprise you!
Locke's Goal Setting Theory
Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance Goal specificity refers to the quantifiability of a goal Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work People need ability and resources People need to be committed to the goal Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient Higher performance when use feedback and participation to stay focused and committed
Practical application of Equity Theory
It doesn't matter what you (the manager) thinks - employee perceptions are what count Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them so they can feel "heard" and their concerns addressed Employees should be given an appeals process when they feel they are treated inequitably Leader behavior matters - if the leader gets something, everyone else may want a similar perk A climate for justice makes a difference - make sure people feel the system is striving for equity.