Organizational Behavior and Leadership Midterm

Cyberloafing

*Using the Internet at work for personal use *A primary concern for employers in their adoption of social media

Problem Solving

- A systematic process for closing the gaps between an actual and a desired state or outcome

Structural empowerment

-Based on transferring authority and responsibilities from management to employees -Draws on job design and characteristics *can boost employee empowerment by changing policies, procedures, job responsibilities, and team designs

Reward Power

-Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable -Obtaining compliance with promised or actual rewards

Process theories of motivation

-Focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and situational characteristics influence employee motivation Ex. Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory

Commitment is superior to compliance because

-It is driven by internal or intrinsic motivation

Conceptual

-People with this style have a high tolerance for ambiguity and tend to focus on the people or social aspects of a work situation

Tends to foster commitment

-Positive legitimate power, expert power, and referent power

Drivers of creative performance behaviors

-Problem formation and definition -Preparation and information gathering -Idea generation -Idea evaluation and validation

Tends to produce compliance and sometimes resistance

-Reward, Coercive, and Negative Legitimate Power

Coercive power

-Slightly negative effect

Ethics in Negotiations

-Success of negotiations is influenced by the quality of information exchanged -Telling lies, hiding key facts, and engaging in other potentially unethical tactics erodes trust and goodwill

Cons of Intuitive Decision Making

-Susceptible to bias -May be difficult to gain acceptance

Step 1 :Frame your Story

-Think of your presentation as a journey and decide where you want to start and end -Include only the most relevant details or points and try to bring them to life with examples -Try to plan your journey to end with a solution or conclude with a question to spur audience engagement or give them something to think about afterwards

Organizational Behavior

-an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding and managing people at work OB draws on research from -Anthropology -Economics -Ethics -Management -Organizational Theory -Political science -Psychology -Sociology -Statistics -Vocational counseling

Motivating factors/motivators

-cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction and include achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement

Flextime

-flexible scheduling, either when work is expected to be completed (e.g., deadlines) or during which particular hours of the day (e.g., 10-5, or anytime today)

holistic hunches

-judgement that is based on a subconscious integration of information stored in memory

Top-down approach to job design

-led by the manager

Anchoring bias

-occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision, even if it is irrelevant -yhis bias happens because initial information, impressions, data, feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions.

Creativity

-process of producing new and useful ideas concerning products, services, processes, and procedures -can create something new, combine or synthesize existing things, or improve or change things

Ethical Dilemmas

-situations with two choices, neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically acceptable manner -

Performance goal

-targets a specific end result *Managers typically emphasize performance goals over learning goals, but skills and experience are needed to achieve performance goals.

Flexspace

-when policies enable to do their work from different locations besides the office

A positive use of politics

Building a network of useful contacts

Crucial Conversations

Discussions between two or more people where 1) the stakes are high 2) opinions vary 3) emotions run strong

Non-verbal

E.g. body movements, touch, facial expressions, and eye contact

Avoidance of conflict can occur for many reasons such as

Fear of rejection, harm, damage to or loss of relationships, desire to avoid saying the wrong thing *Avoiding conflict doesn't make it go away; more likely the conflict situation will continue or even escalate

When should rich media be used?

In complex situations that are highly important to receivers

When should lean media be used?

In less-complex situations

Many politicians have charisma, which is often associated with

referent power

Hygiene factors in Herzberg's study include

relations with ones supervisor, salary, working conditions

According to Herzberg's theory, issues related to hygiene factors will cause an employee to move from a

state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction

Levels of Political Action

1. Network Level -Cooperative pursuit of general self-interests -Loose associations of individuals seeking social support for their general self-interests -People-oriented -Broader and longer-term agendas > coalitions 2. Coalition Level -Cooperative pursuit of group interests in specific issues -Coalition = an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue -Issue oriented 3. Individual Level -Individual pursuit of general self-interests

Communication skills that affect communication competence

1. Nonverbal communication 2. Active listening 3. Nondefensive communication 4. Empathy

Two ways or systems of thinking

1. Rely on intuition, involves mental short cuts -Can be quick, requires little cognitive effort -Can also be thought of as nonrational decision making 2. Utilize analytical and conscious thought -Slow, logical, and requires cognitive effort -Can also be thought of as rational decision-making

Three primary reactions to Power

1. Resistance -many forms and degrees, ranging from being passive-aggressive to sabotaging 2. Compliance -do only what is expected and exert no extra effort and provide no extra input 3. Commitment -believe in the cause and often go above and beyond to assure its success

The Communication Process

1. Sender encodes message, selects medium (e.g., cell phone) 2. Encoding/Message is transmitted through a medium (e.g. text messages) 3. Receiver decodes message and decides that feedback is needed 4. Receiver sends feedback through a medium (e.g., text messages)

Four-step process for goal implantation

1. Set goals 2. Promote goal attainment 3. Provide support, feedback 4. Create action plans

Linguistic style

=a person's characteristic speaking pattern - a set of culturally learned signals by which we not only communicate what we mean but also interpret others' meaning and evaluate one another as people -increased awareness of this can enhance your communication competence

Which is not true about conflict?

All conflict is negative

Changing the task boundaries

Alter the scope, nature, or number of tasks someone takes on

Autonomy

An individual experiences freedom, discretion, and independence doing the job

Noise

Anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of the message

Bottom-Up Approach

Employees redesign their own jobs, increasing engagement

Changing the relational nature of ones job

Enter the quantity or quality of the interactions one has at work

Vroom's Expectancy Theory "Can I achieve my desired level of performance?"

Expectancy

Richest form of communication

Face-to-face communication

The theory that proposes that job satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from the absence or weak presence of hygiene factors is based on research done by

Frederick Herzberg

Soft Tactics

Friendlier than, and not as coercive as some influence tactics: -Rational persuasion *trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts -Inspirational appeals *trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values -Consultation *getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes -Ingratiation *getting someone in a good mood before making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise, flattery, or humor -Personal appeals *referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request

Idiosyncratic ideals

Individual employees and managers jointly negotiate the tasks to be completed

Hard Tactics

Involve more overt pressure than some influence tactics: -Exchange *making express or implied promises and trading favors -Coalition tactics *getting others to support your effort to persuade someone -Pressure *demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats -Legitimizing tactics *basing a request on one's authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied support from superiors

Autonomy (Core Job Dimension) Example

Jorge would like to increase intrinsic motivation by giving his employees independence and discretion in certain aspects of their job. According to the job characteristics model, which core job dimension is he using?

What helps explain communication differences between women and men and across generations?

Linguistic style

Top-Down Approaches

Management changed the activities in jobs to increase motivation

Do women and men communicate in the same ways?

No, -Women are more likely to share credit for success, to ask questions for clarification, to tactfully give feedback by mitigating criticism with praise, and to indirectly tell others what to do -Men are more likely to boast about themselves, to bluntly give feedback, and to withhold compliments, and are less likely to ask questions and to admit fault or weaknesses

What are some key causes of political behavior?

Organizational justice, Trust on co-workers, Negative affect

Three common sources of feedback

Others, task, and self Others = peers, supervisors, lower-level employees, and outsiders Task = may provide a steady stream of feedback about how well or poorly one is doing Self = self-serving bias may contaminate this source

What are some outcomes of empowerment?

Performance, organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, creativity, and stress

4 Stages of Rational Decision Making

Stage 1: Identify the problem or opportunity -Determine the actual versus the desirable -Problem: difference or gap between actual and desired situations. -Opportunity: a situation in which results that exceed goals and expectations are possible. -The goal in Stage 1 is to make improvements that change conditions from their current state to more desirable ones Stage 2: Generate alternative solutions -Brainstorming is a common technique used by both individuals and groups to generate potential solutions. Managers may struggle during this stage if they rush to judgment, select readily available ideas or solutions, or make poor allocations of resources to study alternative solutions. -Decision makers are encouraged to slow down and use System 2 thinking when making decisions, to evaluate a broader set of alternatives, and to invest in studying a greater number of potential solutions Stage 3: Evaluate alternatives and select a solution -Alternatives need to be evaluated not only on costs and quality criteria, but also on whether or not an alternative is ethical, feasible, and if it would solve the problem Stage 4: Implement and evaluate the solution chosen -After a solution is implemented, the evaluation phase is used to assess its effectiveness -If the solution is effective, it should eliminate or significantly reduce the difference between the earlier, actual problem state and the desired outcome -If the gap is not closed, either the problem was incorrectly identified or the solution was inappropriately conceived or executed -If the solution fails, either the problem needs better identification or one of the previously identified, but untried, solutions can be implemented -This process can continue until all feasible solutions have been tried or the problem has changed

Interactional Perspective

States that behavior is a function of interdependent person and situation factors "Different people may perceive similar situations in different ways and similar people may perceive different situations in the same way"

Leanest form of communication

Static media such as newsletters, computer reports, and general e-mail blasts

Four Steps to Performance Management

Step 1: Define Performance -Set goals and communicate performance expectations Step 2: Monitor & Evaluate Performance -Measure and evaluate progress outcomes Step 3: Review Performance -Deliver feedback and coaching Step 4: Provide Consequences -Administer valued rewards and appropriate punishment *More than just appraisals

3 Step Approach to Problem Solving

Step 1: Define the problem -Define problems in terms of desired outcomes. Then test each one by asking, "Why is this a problem?" Step 2: Identify potential causes using OB concepts and theories -Test your causes by asking, "Why or how does this cause the problem?" Step 3: Make recommendations and (if appropriate) take action -Map recommendations onto causes

The Ted Five-Step Protocol (Boosting Your Communication Effectiveness)

Step 1: Frame your story Step 2: Plan your delivery Step 3: Develop your stage presence Step 4: Plan your multimedia Step 5: Put it together

What to do instead of avoiding/ignoring conflict

Stop ignoring a conflict by bringing both sides together to address the issues, act decisively to improve the outcome, make the path to resolution open and honest, use descriptive language instead of evaluative, make the process a team-building opportunity, keep the upside in mind Desirable outcomes from managing conflict: -Agreement -Stronger Relationships -Learning

What is the driving force behind technology including social media?

The desire to boost productivity

Communication

The exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved -Communication is a circular and dynamic process in which people interpret and make sense of the information they exchange -Effective communication helps individuals, groups, and organizations to achieve their goals

Job rotation (cross-training)

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design -Calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another Advantages: engagement and motivation increased, increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling, increased employee knowledge and abilities -By using job rotation, managers believe they can stimulate interest and motivation while providing employees with a broader perspective of the organization. -The cross-training used with job rotation can increase worker flexibility and ease scheduling. -Employees might be more promotable with their new knowledge and abilities

Scientific management

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design -Conducts a business by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning Plus: increased efficiency and productivity Negative: Encourages repetitive jobs which may lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, stress, and a low sense of accomplishment and personal growth

Job enlargement (Horizontal loading)

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design -also referred to as horizontally loading the job because employees perform additional tasks of similar difficulty -involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty -used alone without other motivational methods, it does not have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance

Job enrichment (vertical loading)

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design -modifying a job to give employees an opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement -Job enrichment is achieved by vertical loading, which consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility. -Job enrichment is the practical application of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

Are there exceptions to generalized trends, preferences, or perceptions to all men, women, or members of a particular generation with regards to communication tendencies/preferences?

Yes

David McClellands theory about the drivers of employee behavior is the

acquired needs theory

Theory Y

assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity -a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work which contends that they are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative

Self-determination theory assumes that our behavior and well-being are influenced by innate needs that include

autonomy, competence, relatedness,

Expectancy theory can be used to predict _______________ in situations where there is a choice between two or more alternatives

behavior

Cognitive crafting

changing one's perception of the existing tasks and relationships in a job

The forms of power associated with one's job or position in an organization are referred to as position power

coercive power, reward power, legitimate power

In Schwartz's theory what values are the dimensions of conservation

conformity, tradition, security

Influence tactics

conscious efforts to affect and change a specific behavior in others

Unitary

forming a single or uniform entity

The quantifiability of a goal is known as

goal specificity

The Normative Model

guided by bounded rationality- the notion that decision makers are bounded or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions

Equity theory explains

how people strive for fairness in social exchanges

Herzberg's theory classified company administration, salary, and working conditions as

hygiene factors

decision making

identifying and choosing among alternative solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs

Tacit Knowledge

information gained through experience that is difficult to express and formalize

Explicit knowledge

information that can easily be put into words

Key elements of equity theory

inputs, outputs (rewards), and comparisons Outputs: "What do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job?" Inputs: "What do I perceive that I'm putting into my job?" Comparison: "How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with relevant others?"

Altering specific jobs to improve employee experience and productivity is

job design

The psychological mechanisms that guide the intensity of one's behavior are known as

motivation

David McClellands theory states that employee behavior is driven by

needs we acquire as we live our lives

Referent power

power that comes from subordinates' and coworkers' respect, admiration, and loyalty

Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation

*a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships In his equity theory, knowledge, experience, education, and effort expended are all perceived as inputs

Situation factors

+Have there been changes in the job market, such as a sudden increase in employment opportunities at better wages? +Have working conditions such as promotion opportunities become less attractive in your organization?

Idiosyncratic approach to job design

-(i-deals) are jointly negotiated by employees and individual managers

Problem

-A difference or gap between an actual and a desired state or outcome

Advantages of Group Decision Making

-A group possesses more information and knowledge than one individual acting alone -Individuals with different backgrounds and experiences bring varied perspectives to diagnosing and solving problems. -Participation and a voice in decision making are more likely to result in commitment to a decision -Participating in a decision increases group members' understanding about why a decision is being made and what must occur to implement it -Less experienced group members learn about group dynamics and how to solve problems

Equity Theory

-A model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take-relationships -Based on cognitive dissonance theory, which contends that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior -Contends that when people are victimized by unfair social exchanges, their resulting cognitive dissonance prompts them to correct the situation

Conflict

-A pervasive part of human experience, and it produces undesirable consequences such as absences, avoiding work-related events, quitting, terminations, and project failures -Managing conflict effectively is essential for individual, departmental, and organizational effectiveness -Has positive and negative consequences -One party perceives its interests are being opposed or set back by another party -Sources of conflict and issues can be real or imagined -A lack of fairness, perceived or real, is a major source of conflict at work

Coercive Power

-A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply -Obtaining compliance through threatened or actual punishment

Monitoring performance

-measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate performance -managers need to monitor and evaluate progress toward the final goal and the ultimate achievement of the goal -this stage should be used as an opportunity to identify problems and recognize success -it can also be used to identify opportunities to enhance performance -accurately and appropriately monitoring and evaluating both progress and outcomes are critical components of effective performance management -performance measurement and monitoring can be improved by considering other types of measures including timeliness, quality, quantity, and financial metrics

Nonrational models of decision making

-Explains how managers ACTUALLY make decisions -Basic assumptions: decision making is uncertain, managers do not possess complete information, managers struggle to make optimal decisions -Two nonrational decision making models: Simon's Normative Model and Intuition Model -typically build on assumptions that decision making is uncertain, that decision makers do not possess complete information, and that managers struggle to make optimal decisions

Rational Decision Making

-Explains how managers should make decisions -Assumes managers are completely objective and possess complete information -Occurs in four stages

Many organizations fail to effectively management employee performance because

-PM policies often fail to keep pace with organizational change leading to disconnects -Done well, PM can be time-consuming -Performance reviews are often too narrow and only measure a limited set of elements *Volumes of research and employee surveys show that the majority of managers and organizations do a poor job of managing employee performance and that the systems used don't help to improve performance

Directive

-People with this style have low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and technical concerns when making decisions

Behavioral

-People with this style work well with others and enjoy social interactions in which opinions are openly exchanged

Communication competence

-Performance-based index of an individual's abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given context -Reflects your ability to effectively communicate with others

Factors to Consider When Choosing Which Approach to Take

-Personality matters in the negotiation process, with people with high levels of agreeableness being best suited for integrative negotiations. -Skilled negotiators manage expectations in advance of actual negotiations. -It is important to consider the other person's outcome and if that party is satisfied. -It is important to adhere to standards of justice. -You must remember your reputation and realize that winning at all costs often has significant costs.

How is defensiveness started?

-Poor choice of words we use and/or the nonverbal posture used during interactions

Common generational differences in communication

-Prefer different media -Hold different norms and expectations for communication *Millenials and Gen Xers are more likely to prefer instant messaging and texting rather than phone calls, letters, and reports than are boomers and traditionalists *Younger employees are more likely to use the internet and social media to accomplish their task

Step 2: Plan your Delivery

-Presenters can deliver a talk by reading it from a script, using bullet lists that outline what will be covered in each section, or memorizing what they want to say -Reading and memorizing are often ineffective -If you use the bullet list approach, be sure you know not only the content for each point, but also how you want to transition from one to the next

Work-family conflict

-occurs when the demands or pressures from work and family domains are mutually incompatible -can take two distinct forms: work interference with family and family interference with work -hostilities in one life domain can manifest in other domains as a result of the spillover effect *Since it may not be possible to avoid or remove conflicts completely, people need to manage or balance demands between the different domains of their lives *The value of most any type of flexible work arrangement can be undermined if the employee's immediate supervisor isn't supportive

Indirect Blindness

-We hold others less accountable for unethical behavior when it's carried out through third parties Ex. A drug company deflects attention from a price increase by selling rights to another company, which imposes the increases

Motivated Blindness

-We overlook the unethical behavior of another when it's in our interest to remain ignorant Ex. Baseball officials failed to notice they'd created conditions that encouraged steroid use

Ill-Conceived Goals

-We set goals and incentives to promote a desired behavior, but they encourage a negative one Ex. The pressure to maximize billable hours in accounting, consulting, and law firms leads to unconscious padding

Learning goal

-involves enhancing your knowledge or skill *When skills are lacking, it often is helpful to set learning goals first and then performance goals once you've developed some level of proficiency.

Representativeness heuristic

-is used when people estimate the probability of an event occurring -It reflects the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event occurring based on one's impressions about similar occurrences -the representativeness bias leads us to look for information that supports previously formed stereotypes

Frederick Herzberg's theory states

-job satisfaction is associated with motivating factors -job dissatisfaction is associated with hygiene factors -managers can improve motivation by improving both motivators that create satisfaction and hygiene factors that create satisfaction and hygiene factors that reduce dissatisfaction

Intuition

-judgments, insights, or decisions that come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues

Benefits of Goal achievement

-leads to job satisfaction which in turn motivates employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance

Passive listening

-listening without reacting -listening role in which the listener does not share in the responsibility nor involve himself in the communication process

Individual level

-locating the causes of behavior and outcomes in the nature and characteristics of people +Has the job itself become boring and less meaningful or rewarding to the employees who quit?

Performance Management is used to

-make employee-related decisions -guide employee development -send strong signals to employees

Negotiation

-may be thought of as a give-and-take decision-making process involving two or more parties with different preferences

Uncertainty

-may trigger political behaviors -Is a result of unclear objectives, vague performance measures, ill-defined decision processes, strong individual or group competition, or any type of change

Relatedness Need

-the need to be connected with others; the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others

Competence Need

-the need to feel efficacious; the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal efficacious = successful in producing a desired or intended result; effective

Autonomy Need

-the need to feel independent to influence one's environment; the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it

Valence

-the positive or negative value of a reward or outcome

Interactional Justice

-the quality of interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented -the perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.

Hindsight bias

-the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

According to Equity Theory, people compare

-their own inputs and outputs to those of relevant others -their own inputs to the outputs received by others

Psychological Empowerment

-through enhancing self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation -related to self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation -deals with employees' perceptions or cognitive states regarding empowerment *recent research and practice have shown that the same four elements that foster psychological empowerment for individuals apply to teams and organizations

Brainstorming

-used to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems -begins by asking group members to silently generate ideas/alternatives for solving the problem -these ideas/alternatives are solicited and shared in writing. It is recommended that this stage be conducted anonymously if the issue is emotional or political. -a second session is generally used to critique and evaluate the alternatives.

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

-uses faster, more user-friendly methods of dispute resolution instead of traditional, adversarial approaches such as unilateral decision making or litigation -ADR has enjoyed enthusiastic growth in recent years due to lower costs and speed -ADR methods vary with respect to difficulty and expense

Distributive negotiation

-usually involves a single issue-a "fixed pie"-in which one person gains at the expense of another -this position-based, "win-lose" approach of distributive negotiation is arguable the most common (Win-Lose)

Conflict Resolution

-work to eliminate specific negative interactions -conduct team building to reduce intergroup conflict, and prepare for cross-functional teamwork compassion) -avoid or neutralize negative gossip *practice the above be a role model -encourage and facilitate friendships via social events -foster positive attitudes (e.g. empathy and

Importance of balance to reducing conflict

-work-family balance begins at home -an employer's family-supportive philosophy is more important than specific programs -balance requires flexibility -importance of work-life family balance varies across generations

The Four listening styles

1. Active 2. Involved 3. Passive 4. Detached *Differ with respect to how invested the listener is, their level of participation, and the type of body language they display

Downside for businesses/organizations in restricting access to certain sites

1. Alienate employees 2. Fairness 3. Perceptions of lack of trust 4. Harm morale and loyalty

How power can be shifted to the hands of non-managers step by step

1. Authoritarian power (Domination) -Manager/leader imposes decisions 2. Influence sharing (Consultation) -Manager/leader consults followers when making decisions 3. Power sharing (Power Sharing) -Manager/leader and followers jointly make decisions 4. Power distribution (Power Distribution) -Followers granted authority to make decisions

Ways to improve communication

1. Clarify communication expectations and norms 2. Use a variety of communication tools, regardless of your preferred mode of communication (ex. face to face or texting) 3. Don't assume, based on somebody's gender or age, that he or she only likes one mode of communication 4. Make sure people get credit for their ideas and not their gender

If social media is deployed effectively, it enables businesses to

1. Connect in real time and over distances with many key stakeholders 2. Connect sources of knowledge inside and outside an organization 3. Expand and open the traditional boundaries to involve outsiders in problem solving

Effective policies a business could implement regarding social media concerns

1. Create safe channels for employees to air their concerns 2. Clarify what is confidential 3. Outline consequences for violations 4. Identify spokesperson 5. Discuss appropriate ways to engage others 6. Explain what is illegal 7. Align social policy with organizational culture 8. Educate employees

Expert Power

-Obtaining compliance through one's valued knowledge or information

Evidence is used in three different ways

(1) Evidence is used to make a decision whenever the decision follows directly from the evidence. (2) Evidence is used to inform a decision whenever the decision process combines hard, objective facts with qualitative inputs, such as intuition or bargaining with stakeholders. (3) Evidence is used to support a decision whenever the evidence is gathered or modified for the sole purpose of lending legitimacy to a decision that has already been made. -Using evidence to support a decision has both positive and negative effects, and managers need to carefully consider when it might be appropriate to ignore disconfirming evidence

Four Motivational Mechanisms behind the Power of Goal Setting

(1) Goals direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities ex. if a student has a term project due in a few days, their thoughts tend do revolve around completing it (2) Goals regulate effort and have an energizing function in that they motivate us to act ex. the deadline to turn in the project would motivate a student to act (3) Goals increase persistence (effort expended on a task over an extended period of time) when they are important (4) Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans so that we can accomplish them ex. teams of employees at a company may meet every 45, 60, and 90 days to create action plans for accomplishing goals

Uncommon Sense (3 major weaknesses)

(1) Overreliance on hindsight = common sense works best in well-known or stable situations with predictable outcomes not in responding to the unknown or unexpected (focuses on past not future) (2) Lack of rigor = people comfortable with common-sense responses may not apply the effort required to appropriately analyze and solve problems (3) Lack of objectivity = common sense can be overly subjective and lack a basis in science

Decision-making styles vary along two different dimensions

(1) value orientation -Value orientation reflects the extent to which an individual focuses on either task and technical concerns or people and social concerns when making decisions (2) tolerance for ambiguity -Tolerance for ambiguity represents the extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his or her life

Maslow's Need Hierarchy

-A theory of motivation based on a hierarchy of five needs; physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. Money is viewed as something that primarily satisfies lower-level needs -The five needs are arranged in a prepotent hierarchy, he believed that human needs generally emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion -Once a need is satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy until the highest need, the need for self-actualization is activated -- (1 - Top) Self-Actualization = Desire for self-fulfillment, to become the best one is capable of becoming (2) Esteem = Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others, also includes need for self-confidence and strength (3) Love = The desire to be loved and to love, includes the needs for affection and belonging (4) Safety = Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm (5- Bottom) Physiological = most basic need, entails having enough food, air, and water to survive

The four behaviors constituting creative performance behaviors unfold

-Accurate problem formulation/definition. =Preparation/information gathering to build a base of tacit and explicit knowledge from which creativity will flow. -Idea generation by making new mental connections regarding the creative task or problem at hand. -Idea evaluation/validation to select the most creative and promising idea from multiple options.

Characteristics of apologies?

-Acknowledgement of wrongdoing -Acceptance of responsibility -Expression of regret -Promise that the offense will not be repeated

Listening

-Actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages -the cornerstone of communication competence

Preventing Groupthink

-Assigning each group member the role of critical evaluator. -Top-level executives should not use policy committees to rubber-stamp decisions that have already been made. Use different groups with different leaders to explore the same issue. -Schedule debates among subgroups and invite participation from outside experts -Assign the role of devil's advocate to uncover negative factors -Once the group has reached a consensus, all the group members should be encouraged to rethink their position to check for flaws *Prevention is better than treatment or cure when dealing with groupthink

Devil's Advocacy

-Assigning someone the role of critic -Devil's advocacy alters the usual decision-making process by assigning an individual or group to criticize the proposal and having the critique presented to key decision makers -It is a good idea to rotate the job of devil's advocate so no one person or group develops a strictly negative reputation and to promote skill development *Important to use to actively stimulate functional conflict when necessary, such as when the risk of blind conformity or groupthink is high

Non-defensive listening

-Avoiding defensive language from either party, which can foster inaccurate and inefficient information

Step 5: Put It Together

-Be prepared far enough in advance to practice in front of others so they can give you effective feedback -Use these steps as a guide, but you still need to be yourself and not directly copy someone else

Why is empowerment becoming a necessity?

-Because of the time constraints placed on managers

Step 3: Develop Your Stage Presence

-Beware of how much you move - not too much or too little -An important element of stage presence is eye contact -Self-efficacy is an important part of overcoming nervousness, as is realizing that people expect you to be nervous

People tend to assign blame for failures by

-Blaming others -Blaming oneself -Denying blame *How one responds to underperformance-failure-is very important if you are to preserve your influence

Frequently used political tactics

-Building a network of useful contacts -Using "key players" to support initiatives -Making friends with power brokers -Bending the rules to fit the situation -Self-promotion -Creating a favorable image -Praising others (ingratiation) -Attacking or blaming others -Using information as a political tool

Bullying

-Bullying is different from other forms of mistreatment or incivility in at least three ways: bullying is often evident to others; bullying affects even those who are NOT bullied; and bullying has group-level implications

How can we improve out listening skills?

-By showing respect, listening from the first sentence, being mindful, keeping quiet, asking questions, summarizing and paraphrasing, remembering what was said, and using nonverbal cues

Why are goals important?

-Can lead to happier workers who achieve more -Provide focus -Enhance productivity -Bolster self-esteem -Increase commitment

Media richness

-Capacity of a communication medium to convert information and promote understanding -Can vary from rich to lean -Richness is based on feedback, channel, type of communication, and language source

Escalation of conflict when

-Change in tactics from light to heavy tactics (i.e., from persuasive arguments, promises, and efforts to please the other side to threats, power plays, and violence) -Number of issues grows -Issues move from specific to general -Number of parties grow -Goals change from "doing well" or resolution to winning and even hurting the other party *When conflict escalates, the intensity increases; people can then take positions that are increasingly extreme and hard to justify.

Bounded rationality

-Cognitive limitations that constrain one's ability to interpret, process, and act on information -Rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time they have to make a decisio.

Judgement heuristics

-Cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions. -Because heuristics derive from knowledge gained from past experience, they can help managers make decisions, but they can also lead to bad decisions, particularly for people facing severe time constraints

Influence tactics

-Conscious efforts to affect and change a specific behavior in others -General influence tactics can be used in all directions (i.e., downward, upward, or lateral)

Situational. Characteristics

-Creative behavior is promoted by high-commitment work systems, work systems that rely on selective hiring, comprehensive training, comparatively high pay, pay contingent on performance, and good benefits. -Other important situational factors include interpersonal diversity, time pressure, positive relationships with supervisors and coworkers, mutual accountability among group members, and spatial configuration of work settings. -Companies can design the work environment to encourage casual conversations among employees who don't generally work together. Organizational climate and organizational culture also contribute to the expression of creative behaviors.

Person factors

-Creativity requires motivation and domain-relevant knowledge. In other words, people need to be motivated to apply their knowledge and capabilities to create new ideas, new products, and solutions to all sorts of problems. -Other drivers of creativity include the Big Five personality dimensions, self-efficacy, national culture, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and proactive personality. -represent the infinite number of characteristics that give individuals their unique identities +Do your departing coworkers have something in common? +Is there anything about their personalities that makes work difficult for them, such as a preference to work collaboratively rather than independently? +What about their ages? Gender? Skills?

Receivers

-Decode and create meaning after receiving a message -Process of interpreting and making sense of a message -Can be influenced by cultural norms and values

Rules for brainstorming

-Defer judgment -Build on the ideas of others -Encourage wild ideas -Go for quantity or quality -Be visual -Stay focused on the topic -One conversation at a time

The following tips can help you prepare emotionally for an impending negotiation

-Determine the ideal emotions that will best suit your objectives -Manage your emotions and determine what you can do in advance to put yourself in the ideal emotional state -Know what your hot buttons are and manage them appropriately -Use appropriate tactics to keep your balance. Set your emotional goals of how you want to feel when you are finished negotiating (e.g., relieved, satisfied, etc.).

Applying the Expectancy Theory (for managers)

-Determine the outcomes that employees value -Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded -Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels -Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance -Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort -Monitor the reward system for inequalities

Best Anti-Bullying Strategies

-Develop a workplace bullying policy -Encourage open and respectful communication -Develop clear procedures -Identify and model appropriate behaviors -System for reporting bullying -Identify and resolve conflicts quickly and fairly-avoid escalation -Determine the situations, policies, and behaviors likely to cause or allow bullying to occur. -Provide training to employees regarding how to manage conflict. -Clear consequences for engaging in bullying. -Monitor and review employee relationships with particular attention to fairness. *Virtual bullying is more common than face-to-face bullying, although the two often co-occur *Not only do face-to-face and cyber bullying directly harm the targeted person, but the fear of future mistreatment amplifies this effect. *Employers should create policies to prevent and address virtual incivility, and employees should follow best practices for appropriate e-mails and social media use.

How do bad impressions happen?

-Doing only the minimum -Having a negative mindset -Overcommitting -Taking no initiative -Waiting until the last minute to deliver bad news

Creativity can be accomplished by

-Effectively managing creative performance behaviors -Creating an environment that encourages risk taking -Developing a peer environment: the group is more important than the individual -Being willing to give feedback -Hiring great people possessing required person factors *Boredom or doing "nothing" can enhance creativity. *Rewards have conflicting effects on creative behavior, and thus managers should not use a "one size fits all" approach when linking extrinsic rewards to creative behavior

Empowerment

-Efforts to enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes by -Giving employees greater influence -Use of centralized management practices -Is a matter of degree, not an either-or proposition -One element involves pushing decision-making authority down to lower levels -Not a zero-sum game where one person's gain is another's loss ; sharing power is a means for increasing your own power

Using equity and justice theories

-Employee perceptions are what count -Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them -Employees should be given an appeals process -Leader behavior matters -A climate for justice makes a difference *Employees' perceptions of the equity of the organization's policies, procedures, and reward system are what count *Employees' perceptions of justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process *Team performance was found to be higher in companies that possessed a climate for justice

Recommendations for fostering a psychologically safe climate

-Ensure leaders are inclusive and accessible. -Hire and develop employees who are comfortable expressing their own ideas and receptive and constructive to those expressed by others. -Celebrate and even reinforce the value of differences between group members and their ideas.

Three different equity relationships resulting from equity comparison

-Equity (i.e., person fares comparably) -Negative inequity (i.e., person fares worse than others) -Positive inequity (i.e., person fares better than others) *Your feelings of inequity revolve around your evaluation of whether you are receiving adequate rewards to compensate for your collective inputs in comparison to the ratio of relevant others

The Male Perspective

-Expected to communicate more aggressively, interrupt others more than women, and hide their emotions because they have an inherent desire to possess features attractive to females -See conversations as negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the upper hand -Psychologists propose that men cannot turn off the biologically based determinants of their behavior

Overvaluing Outcomes

-We give a pass to unethical behavior if the outcome is good Ex. A researcher whose fraudulent clinical trial saves lives is considered more ethical than one whose fraudulent trial leads to deaths

Forms of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

-Facilitation = a third party informally urges disputing parties to deal directly with each other in a positive and constructive manner -Conciliation = a neutral third party informally acts as a communication conduit between disputing parties -Peer review = a panel of trustworthy co-workers hears both sides of a dispute in an informal and confidential meeting and may make binding decisions depending on the company -Ombudsman = someone who works for the organization and is widely respected and trusted by his or her co-workers hears grievances on a confidential basis and attempts to arrange a solution -Mediation = a trained, third-party neutral actively guides the disputing parties in exploring innovative solutions to the conflict to help the disputants to reach a mutually acceptable decision -Arbitration = a third-party neutral makes final and binding decisions based on legal merits

Content theories of motivation

-Focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation Ex. McGregor's Theory X & Y, Maslow's Need Hierarchy

McGregor's Theory X and Y

-Formulated two contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature

Employees who merely comply require

-Frequent "jolts" of power from he boss to keep them going

Expert and referent power have this affect

-Generally positive

How Does Goal Setting Work?

-Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance -Avoid general goals like "do your best" or "improve performance." -In order for goal setting to work, people must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal or goal setting will not lead to higher performance -Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work

Cohesion and "in-group thinking:

-Group cohesiveness can turn a "group" into a "team," but excessive levels can impact the team's ability to think critically -Research has identified challenges associated with increased group cohesiveness -Managers cannot eliminate in-group thinking, but they certainly should not ignore it when handling intergroup conflicts

Why is feedback important?

-Has the potential to boost performance -Given less often and less well than people would like -Dramatically underutilized

Situation characteristics

-High commitment work practices -Organizational culture and climate

When performance management is done well it leads to

-Higher profitability -Higher productivity -Higher employee engagement -Higher customer service -Lower turnover

What can enhance the sense of empowerment?

-Individual differences, such as the extent to which employees have positive self-evaluations, psychological capital, and a need for achievement

Why are men and women thought to communicate differently (competing explanations)?

-Inherited biological differences (evolutionary psychology) -Social role theory

Five Common Conflict-Handling Styles

-Integrating (problem-solving) = interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternatives, and select a solution concern for others: high concern for self: high -Obliging (smoothing) = people show low concern for themselves and a great concern for others concern for others: high concern for self: low -Dominating = high concern for self and low concern for others, often characterized by "I win, you lose" tactics concern for others: low concern for self: high -Avoiding = passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common concern for others: low concern for self: low -Compromising = give-and-take approach with a moderate concern for both self and others concern for others: moderate concern for self: moderate

Conflicts may arise due to

-Interdependencies -Incompatibilities -Overlapping or unclear boundaries -Competition over limited resources -Unreasonable or unclear organizational policies

Symptoms of Groupthink

-Invulnerability: an illusion that breeds excessive optimism and risk taking -Inherent morality: a belief that encourages the group to ignore ethical implications -Rationalization: protects pet assumptions -Stereotyped views of opposition: cause groups to underestimate opponents -Self-censorship: stifles critical debate -Illusion of unanimity: silence interpreted to mean consent -Peer pressure: loyalty of dissenters is questioned -Mind-guards: self-appointed protectors against adverse information

Step 4: Plan Your Multimedia

-Keep your technology simple and don't let it distract the audience -People respond differently to pictures and videos than they do words, as they convey emotion better than words

The Female Perspective

-Learn conversational skills and habits that focus on rapport and relationships -View communication as a network of connections in which conversations are negotiations for closeness

What fosters psychological empowerment?

-Managerial support, leadership, and organizational support through resource availability

Individuals who are strictly non-political

-May experience slower promotions -May feel left out -May be considered poor team players

Person Factors

-Motivation -Personality -Self-efficacy -National culture

Motivation is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations

-Motivation is affected by an individual's expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal. -Motivation is also influenced by the employee's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a result of accomplishing his or her performance goal.

Legitimate Power

-Obtaining compliance through formal authority -May be expressed either positively or negatively -Positive legitimate power focuses constructively on job performance -Negative legitimate power tends to be threatening and demeaning to those being influenced

Motivator-hygiene theory

-Proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors-satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors -To improve motivation, managers can improve the motivators that drive satisfaction and improve hygiene factors that otherwise reduce job satisfaction -Proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances *Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors and that managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual's job *Insights from Herzberg's theory allow managers to consider the dimensions of both job content and job context so they can manage for greater job satisfaction overall

Using the self-determination theory, managers should influence behavior by creating work environments that support each need

-Provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve competence -Empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy -Use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness

Rate errors

-Rater errors can lead to biases and undermine performance management systems Halo effect = a rater forms an overall impression about a person or object and then uses that impression to bias ratings about the same Leniency = a personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion Central tendency = the tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral Regency effects = the tendency to remember recent information Contrast effects = the tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects *Some bias can be overcome with the use of 360-degree feedback.

Using Maslow's Theory to motivate employees

-Remember employees have needs beyond a paycheck -Focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts *Self-esteem *Self-Actualization -Satisfied needs lose their potential -Be careful when estimating employee's needs

Applying the Expectancy Theory (for organizations)

-Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret -Design challenging jobs -Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation -Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment

Individuals who are highly political

-Run the risk of being called self-serving -May lose credibility -May be considered poor team players

How does one make a good first impression?

-Set an intention -Consider your ornaments -Remember your body speaks -Bust bad moods and bad days -Be interested to be interesting

Conflict states

-Shared perceptions among team members about the target (i.e., tasks or relationships) and intensity of the conflict

Reward and legitimate power have a

-Slightly positive effect

Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

-States that three needs-achievement, affiliation, and power-are the key drivers of employee behavior

Examples of work-related critical conversations

-Talking to a coworker who behaves offensively -Critiquing a colleague's work -Talking to a team member who isn't keeping commitments -Giving an unfavorable performance review

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

-The desire to look good in front of others leads to conformity and stifles creativity -The quality of a group's decision can be influenced by a few vocal people who dominate the discussion -Goal displacement can occur when the group's primary goal is overridden by a secondary goal such as winning an argument, getting back at a rival, or trying to impress the boss -Groups can become victims of groupthink when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action

Power

-The discretion and the means to enforce your will over others *All about influencing others *The more influence you have the more powerful you are (vice versa) *Power should be accepted as a natural part of any organization

Distributive Justice

-The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated

Procedural Justice

-The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions

Instrumentality

-The perceived relationship between performance and outcomes ex. Jane believes if she works hard and takes an online class she will receive a promotion

Active listening

-The process of actively decoding interpreting verbal messages -Requires cognitive attention and information processing unlike hearing

Motivation

-The psychological processes that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought -Direction pertains to what an individual is attending to at a given time -Intensity represents the amount of effort being invested in the activity -Persistence represents for how long that activity is the focus of one's attention *The fuel that drives results and performance

The benefits of trying to follow a rational process as much as realistically possible

-The quality of decisions may be enhanced, in the sense that they follow more logically from all available knowledge and expertise -It makes the reasoning behind a decision transparent and available to scrutiny -If made public, it discourages the decider from acting on suspect considerations (such as personal advancement or avoiding bureaucratic embarrassment)

Analytical

-This style has much higher tolerance for ambiguity and is characterized by the tendency to overanalyze a situation

Pros of Intuitive Decision Making

-Useful when a quick decision is required or -Good when resources are limited or difficult or costly to acquire

The Slippery Slope

-We are less able to see others' unethical behavior when it develops gradually Ex. Auditors may be more likely to accept a client firm's questionable financial statements if infractions have accrued over time

Referent Power

-When one's personal characteristics and social relationships become the reason for compliance -One's network of relationships can be a source of referent power, as can one's reputation -Can be used in marketing programs or to target new sales -a form of reverence gained by a leader who has strong interpersonal relationship skills

Voice Climate

-a climate in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings

Intrinsic motivation

-a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Intrinsic Motivation

-a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake -occurs when an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well

Extrinsic Motivation

-a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment -results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards such as recognition, money, or promotion

Apologies

-a form of trust and influence repair when harm-real or perceived-has been done -a form of trust repair in which we acknowledge an offense and usually offer to make amends for perceived or actual harm -considered effective to the extent they restore trust and positively affect your ability to influence the offended party in the future *A failure to apologize, or to do so in a timely manner, can turn a bad situation worse

iation

-a host of interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties -this kind of interest-based negotiation is a more collaborative, problem-solving approach (Win-Win)

Integrative Negotiation

-a negotiation approach in which the parties' goals are not seen as mutually exclusive, but the focus is on both sides achieving their objectives

Evidence-based decision making (EBDM):

-a process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions

Performance management

-a set of processes and managerial behaviors that involve defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations -successfully managing performance is a powerful means for improving individual, group, and organizational effectiveness -effective performance management generally influences important outcomes such as greater employee engagement and better organizational performance -performance management processes have three primary functions: make employee-related decisions, guide employee development, and signal desired employee behavior

Psychological safe climate

-a shared belief among team members that it is safe to engage in risky behaviors, such as questioning current practices without retribution or negative consequences -when employees feel psychologically safe, they are more likely to speak up and present their ideas and less likely to take disagreements personally.

Self-determination theory

-a theory that assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being: competence, autonomy, and relatedness -focuses on needs that we are born with which are proposed to produce intrinsic motivation, which in turn is expected to enhance task performance

SMART goals

-acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound goals

Distributive Negotiation

-adversarial negotiation in which the parties in conflict compete to win the most resources while conceding as little as possible

Situation factors

-all the elements outside ourselves that influence what we do, the way we do it, and the ultimate results of our actions

Expectancy

-an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance

Impression Management

-any attempt to control or manipulate the images related to a person, organization, or idea using 1. Speech 2. Behavior 3. Appearance -encompasses things such as speech, behavior, and appearance

Incivility

-any form of socially harmful behavior such as aggression, interpersonal deviance, social undermining, interactional injustice, harassment, abusive supervision, and bullying Some employees' common responses and frequencies in reaction to this behavior = aggression, interpersonal deviance, social undermining, interactional justice, harassment, abusive supervision, bullying

Job design/job redesign/work design

-any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity -focuses on increasing employee motivation by changing the type of tasks employees complete

Theory X

-assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should be directed from above -a pessimistic view of employees which contends that they dislike work, must be monitored, and can only be motivated with rewards and punishment

Hygiene Factors

-cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction and include company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's superior, and working conditions

Satisfying

-choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications, one that is "good enough."

Decision support systems (DSS)

-computer-based interactive systems that help decision makers to use data and models to solve unstructured problems -increased globalization of organizations, the existence of big data, and the advancement of information technology have led to the development of decision support systems

Intergroup conflict

-conflict among work groups, teams, and departments is a common threat to individuals and organizational effectiveness; conflict states, conflict processes, cohesion and "in-group-thinking"

Programmed conflict

-conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers -gets contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than personal preference or political interest

Bottom-up approach to job design

-driven by the employee

Job Crafting (Bottom-Up)

-employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics -the job-crafting approach to job design represents proactive and adaptive employee behavior aimed at changing tasks, relationships, and cognitions associated with one's job -three key forms of job crafting -job crafting can change how employees perceive their jobs, resulting in more positive attitudes about their jobs, which, in turn, results in increased employee motivation, engagement, and performance (1) First form of job crafting involves changing one's task boundaries by altering the number, scope, or nature of job tasks (2) The second form of job crafting changes the relational nature of a job by changing the quality and/or amount of interaction with others encountered on the job (3) The final form of job crafting is cognitive crafting by altering perceptions or thoughts about the tasks and relationships associated with the job

Climate

-employees' shared perceptions of policies, practices, and procedures

Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)

-employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development -tend to involve task and work responsibilities, schedule flexibility, and compensation *The goal of such ideals is to increase employee motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values

Feedback

-enables you to learn how your performance compares to the goal, which you can then use to modify your behaviors and efforts -many people neither receive nor provide feedback as often and as well as they would like -research indicates that many employees feel they don't get enough guidance to improve their performance -hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects are all candidates for effective feedback programs -performance appraisal programs that discourage two-way communication and treat employee involvement as a bad thing do not represent feedback -among the reasons people don't provide more feedback are concerns about how feedback could strain relationships, time constraints, lack of confidence in providing effective feedback, and the lack of consequences for not providing feedback

Dialectic method

-fostering a structured debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision -this method alters the usual decision-making process by generating a counterproposal based on different assumptions and having the advocates of each position present and debate the merits of their proposals before key decision makers -Drawbacks of the dialectic method technique are that winning the debate may overshadow the issue at hand, and this method requires more skill training than does devil's advocacy *Important to use to actively stimulate functional conflict when necessary, such as when the risk of blind conformity or groupthink is high

Creative performance behaviors

-four key behaviors that drive the production of creative outcomes

Decision tree

-graphical representation of the process underlying decision making *a decision tree cannot provide a quick formula that managers and organizations can use to evaluate every ethical question, but it can provide a framework for considering the trade-offs between managerial and corporate actions and managerial and corporate ethics

Delphi technique

-group process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts -is useful in several situations, such as when face-to-face discussions are impractical, when disagreements and conflict are likely to impair communication, when certain individuals might severely dominate group discussion, and when groupthink is a probable outcome of the group process

Ethics

-guides behavior by identifying right, wrong, and the many shades of gray in between

Groupthink occurs when

-happens when members fail to exercise sufficient reality testing and moral judgment due to pressures from the group -members become deeply involved in a cohesive in-group -striving for unanimity overrides motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action -more likely when there are high levels of cohesiveness (sense of "we-ness" that overrides individual differences and motives)

The conditions needed to optimize

-having complete information -leaving emotions out of the decision-making process honestly and accurately evaluating all alternatives -having abundant and accessible time and resources, and having people willing to implement and support decisions —are all rarely met.

Expectancy Theory

-holds that people are motivated to behave ins ays that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes -motivation is the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation

Contingency Approach

-holds that there are no universal management theories and that the most effective management theory or idea depends on the kinds of problems or situations that managers are facing at a particular time and place -calls for using the Organizational Behavior concepts and tools that best suit the situation, instead of trying to rely on "one best way" -Managers can be more effective still if they define performance goals in ways that match the situation and realize that not all performance can or should be measured in dollars and cents

Decision-making style

-how an individual perceives and comprehends stimuli and the general manner in which he or she chooses to respond to such information

Favorable upward impression-management tactics

-include job-focused, superior-focused, and self-focused techniques -moderate amount of upward impression management is a necessity to make sure your valuable contributions are not overlooked, but people run the risk of being branded as "schmoozer" or a "phony" with too much impression management

Organizational politics

-intentional acts in pursuit of self-interests that conflict with organizational interests -intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect self-interest of individuals or groups that are not endorsed by or aligned with those of the organizations -focus on self-interests (may or may not serve the organization's interests) -are positive if political action helps an organization adapt or if they counter when bad actors create organizational goals and objectives to suit their own interests -can negatively affect outcomes across all three levels int he Organizing Framework -political maneuvering can and should be managed to keep it constructive and within reasonable bounds -an individuals degree of political ness is a matter of personal values, ethics, and temperament -people who are either strictly nonpolitical or highly political generally pay a price for their behavior -a moderate amount of prudent political behavior generally is considered a survival tool in complex organizatons

Personality conflicts

-interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or agreement -common and can be troublesome since personality traits are stable and resistant to change -if ignored or avoided these conflicts can escalate

Confirmation bias

-pertains to how we selectively gather information. -With the confirmation bias, the decision maker (1) subconsciously decides something even before investigating why it is the right decision; and (2) seeks information that supports the decision while discounting information that does not. *This bias leads us to collect information that supports our beliefs or views.

Organizational Justice/Justice Theory

-refers to the extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work -three types: Distributive Justice, Procedural Justice, Interactional Justice

Escalation of commitment bias

-refers to the tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action when it is unlikely that the bad situation can be reversed. -Researchers recommend the following actions to reduce the escalation of commitment bias: Set minimum targets for performance, and have decision makers compare their performance against these targets. -Regularly rotate managers in key positions throughout a project. -Encourage decision makers to become less ego-involved with a project. -Make decision makers aware of the costs of persistence

Soft Skills

-relate to human interactions and include both interpersonal skills and personal attributes

Framing bias

-relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed -framing is important because it shows that our decisions are influenced by the manner in which a problem or question is framed

automated experience

-represents a choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of learned information related to it

Availability heuristic

-represents a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory. -this leads us to overestimate the importance of information we recently received or thought about, even if it is not the best or most accurate information. This heuristic is likely to cause people to overestimate the occurrence of unlikely events.

Overconfidence bias

-results in us overestimating our skills relative to those of others and overestimating the accuracy of our predictions -this bias grows in strength when people are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones -entrepreneurs often fall prey to this bias when deciding to start and sustain new ventures.

Optimizing

-solving problems by producing the best possible solution

Interactional Perspective

-states that behavior is a function of interdependent person and environmental factors

Contact hypothesis

-suggests that the more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience -has been recommended as a way to reduce intergroup conflict, but just increasing the amount of interaction across groups may be a naive and limited approach for overcoming stereotyping and in-group thinking -research indicates that contact matters, quality contact matters more, but both matter most from the in-group's perspective -Intergroup friendships are desirable, but they are readily overpowered by negative intergroup interactions -top priority for managers faced with intergroup conflict is to identify and root out specific negative linkages between or among groups

Hard Skills

-technical expertise and knowledge to do a particular task or job function (financial analysis, accounting, or operations)

Need for achievement (McClelland)

-the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others -people motivated by the need for achievement prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects and like to be rewarded for their efforts

Need for power

-the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve -people with a high need for power like to be in charge, and they enjoy coaching and helping others develop

Need for affiliation (McClelland)

-the desire to maintain social relationships, to be liked, and to join groups -people motivated by the need for affiliation like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial, and they tend to avoid conflict

Voice

-the discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization

Minority dissent

-the extent to which group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members

Person Factors

-the infinite characteristics that give individuals their unique identities

Creative outcome effectiveness

-the joint novelty and usefulness (quality) of a product or service as judged by others

Conflict processes

-the means by which team members work through task and relationship disagreements *Conflict processes and how teams manage their differences matter, and processes are at least as important as the source of the conflict.

Recommended ways to gauge your boss' receptiveness

1. Learn your manager's view of coaching 2. Explain what's in it for him or her 3. Ask for permission to provide coaching or feedback 4. Fine how best to deliver criticism 5. Ask for agreement and commitment

The Five Bases of Power

1. Legitimate power 2. Reward power 3. Coercive power 4. Expert power 5. Referent power

Six principles of persuasion

1. Liking -people tend to like those who like them 2. Reciprocity -the belief that good and bad deeds should be repaid in kind 3. Social proof -people tend to follow the lead of those most like themselves 4. Consistency -people tend to do what they are personally committed to do 5. Authority -people tend to defer to and respect credible experts 6. Scarcity -people want items, information, and opportunities that have limited availability *use the above in combination for maximum effectiveness

Psychological Empowerment occurs when we feel a sense of

1. Meaning from our work -belief that your work values and goals align with those of your manager, team, or employer 2. Competence in our ability to perform -personal evaluation of your ability to do your job 3. Self-determination -sense that you have control over your work and its outcomes 4. Impact at work -feeling that your efforts make a difference and affect the organization

Four factors affect media richness

1. Speed of feedback 2. Channel 3. Type 4. Language source

The four different generations currently in the workforce are

1. Traditionalists 2. Baby Boomers 3. Gen Xers 4.Millennials

Herzberg's theory states that there are how many factors that create satisfaction and dissatisfaction on the job?

2

Job Characteristics Model

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design -promotes high intrinsic motivation by deigning jobs that possess the five core job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback from job Skill variety = extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities Task identity = extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization Task significance = extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization Autonomy = extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job Feedback = extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job

Job Characteristics Model

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design Linked to -Increased job satisfaction -Enhanced employee intrinsic motivation -Increased performance -Reduced stress -Lower absenteeism *Research demonstrates the model can be used to increase employee job satisfaction *Moderator variables, including knowledge and skill, growth need strength, and context satisfactions, impact an individual's responses to job enrichment, and not everyone desires a job containing high amounts of the core job characteristics.

Social Media

Uses web-based and mobile technologies to generate interactive dialogue with members of a network *A fundamental driving force behind technology at work, including social media, is to boost productivity *Used by a significant proportion of people across all age groups, and employers and managers

Job enrichment is the job method that uses __________ loading to improve motivation

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