Organizational Behavior Exam 1

Performance Equation

Job performance is viewed as a function of three factors (motivation, ability, environment) performance = ability x motivation x environment

Social Oriented Roles

Keep the team operating effectively. - Help the team to be more cohesive. - less likely to have group biases such as social loafing, groupthink, and lack of participation. 1. Calibrator: keep the team on track in terms of suggesting any needed changes to the team's process. 2. Communicator: facilitate communication and create a supportive environment. 3. Cooperator: conforms to expectations, supports others' decisions.

Bounded Rationality Model

Knowingly limit their options to a manageable set and choose the first acceptable alternative. - Satisfice - Difference between rational decision making & bounded rationality model: rather than choosing the best option and maximizing the potential outcome, the decision maker saves cognitive time and effort by accepting the first alternative that meets the minimum threshold.

The Age Discrimination Act of 1975 & Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964:

outlaw discrimination based on age, gender, race, national origin, or religion.

Unconscious/Implicit Bias

stereotypes that are held that are outside of conscious awareness.

Is all stress Bad?

- NO Ex: Having responsibility, time pressure are stressful, but positively related to high level of satisfaction.

The Interactionist Perspective

(Causes of behavior/attitudes within organizations): Behavior is a function of the person and the situation interacting with each other - Oganizations Want FIT

How large should my team be?

- A good rule of thumb is 2-20 members. - The larger the team, the harder it is to coordinate and interact as a team.

Racial Diversity in the Workplace

- Callbacks for "whitened" Resumes higher - 280 minority managers earning more than $100,000, 60% of the respondents reported that they had seen discrimination in their work assignments and - 45% had been the target of racial or cultural jokes. - Race and sex also interact and often constitute a "double jeopardy." e.g., women of color are asked to do more "office housework" such as being expected to order lunch for everyone. Unconscious biases and racial profiling are harmful to employees, businesses, and societies.

Individualism vs Collectivism cultures in Work Environment

- Collectivists are more attached to their groups while individualists attempt to change groups more often and have weaker bonds to them. - individualists may evaluate the performance of their colleagues more accurately - collectivists are more likely to be generous when evaluating their in-group members. - Collectivists' indirect way of communication can be confusing to individualists. - Collectivist cultures may have a greater preference for team-based rewards as opposed to individual-based rewards.

1920's Hawthorn Studies

- Famous for Observer Effect - Treatment group's productivity was boosted, but could not reduce the productivity level by simply not providing the benefits. - Following interview revealed that the workers worked harder because they were a part of one team and had a sense of belonging. - They admitted that the close and intimate atmosphere of the smaller group created a feeling of freedom, which they couldn't enjoy on the big assembly line.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

- Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. - We must fulfill lower needs before higher needs - a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment. 5. self-actualization needs: "becoming all you are capable of becoming." This need manifests itself by acquiring new skills, taking on new challenges, and behaving in a way that will lead to the satisfaction of one's life goals. 4. self- esteem needs: the desire to be respected by one's peers, feeling important, and being appreciated 3. love/belonging needs: bond with other human beings, to be loved, and to form lasting attachments. Note: having no attachments can negatively affect health and well-being. The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. 2. safety needs: Are they safe from danger, pain, or an uncertain future? 1. physiological needs: air, food, and water.

Performance Incentives

- Incentives are reward systems that tie pay to performance. - 75% of organizations in the U.S. utilize a pay-for-performance approach. - companies using pay-for-performance systems achieve higher productivity, profits, and customer service. Pros: a. Employees try harder and increase their effort when they are paid for their performance. b. Encourage less productive workers to quit, and they are often replaced by workers who are more productive, resulting in net productivity gains for organizations. Cons: a. Can reduce creativity b. Being a good citizen of the company can be neglected.

The Equity theory and Organizational Justice

- Initially, the equity theory focused on fairness of rewards (distributive justice). - Recently, workplace fairness takes a broader view of justice (4 types of organizational justice).

Benefits of Highly-cohesive Groups

- Members are generally more personally satisfied and feel greater self-confidence and self-esteem. - buffer against stress, which can improve mental and physical well-being. - likely to regularly attend and actively participate in the group, taking more responsibility for the group's functioning. - can draw on the strength of the group to persevere through challenging situations that might otherwise be too hard to tackle alone. - tendency to share information and knowledge. - When efficiency, or completing a task quickly and using fewer resources is the goal, cohesion is an advantage

long-term orientation culture (pragmatic)

- People encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. - People believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. - People are interested in creating long lasting relationship and they would not deal with a new partner in order to make one time deal. - Relationships and market positions are important. - leisure time is not so important.

short-term orientation culture (Normative):

- People prefer to maintain traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. - People pay tremendous respect to absolute good and evil (religious and national subjects). - Immediate results, bottom lines are important. - Leisure time important.

Personalities that lead to High Job Satisfaction and Commitment =

- Positive affective disposition - Positive core self-evaluations -high generalized self-efficacy and self-esteem -internal locus of control -low levels of neuroticism - High agreeableness

Big Five Personality Dimensions (Big 5 Model)

- Researchers suggested 5 personality traits to describe the broad traits as building blocksof personality. Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism - Big 5 is more reliable/consistent - Big 5 more accurate outcome predictions/performance and leader effectiveness

How Diverse should my team be

- Teams whose members have complementary skills are more successful. - Diversity helps teams come up with more creative & effective solutions. - Different kinds of mistakes from diverse team members can be easily detected and corrected by other team members. - However, diversity in individual values can lead to conflict.-> Teams with diversity needs to learn to manage potential conflicts. Remember inclusion is important!

Work-Life Balance

- When work life interferes with family life, we are more stressed and unhappy with our jobs. - Research shows that family-supportive workplace policies and supervisory family support are related to more positive job attitudes.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions (study on values)

- identified five largely independent dimensions 1. Individualism vs Collectivism 2. Power Distance 3. Uncertainty Avoidance 4. Aggressive vs Nurturing 5. Long-term vs Short Term orientation - Cultural variation influences many aspects of organizational behavior: employee job behaviors, attitudes, well-being, motivation, leadership, negotiations, and etc.

low-uncertainty avoidance culture

- more comfortable with taking risks and making decisions that could result in unknown consequences. - organizations do not have rule-oriented cultures. -When they create rules, they also selectively enforce rules and make a number of exceptions to them. - employees are more likely to look for other employments. - employees are more likely to suggest new ideas, innovative ideas. (more innovative and less bureaucracy)

low-power distance cultures

- people believe in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities (egalitarianism). - control tends to be decentralized. - the organizational structure is flat, and status doesn't have the same importance that it does in high power distance cultures. - the leadership team is easily accessible, - employees are actively encouraged to participate at all levels of the organization.

high-power distance cultures

- people occupying more powerful positions such as managers, teachers, or elder people are viewed as more powerful and deserving of a higher level of respect. - generally a centralization of decision-making as a result of a rigid hierarchy (Leaders at the top have significantly more power than their general workforce.) - special treatments for people in power are normal (special dining areas or parking places). - more layers of management exist. - employees are dependent on those with power to provide direction and are not able to take their own initiative on work assignments.

high-uncertainty avoidance culture

- prefer predictable situations and have low tolerance for ambiguity. - employees expect a clear set of instructions and clarity in expectations. - greater level of creating procedures to deal with problems and writing out expected behaviors in manuals. - tend to avoid risky endeavors such as entering foreign target markets unless the target market is very large.

Pay Gap between men and women

- the median earnings of women in 2018 was 85% of men in the United States - Many organizations do not have family-supportive policies, forcing women to choose such flexible and/or shorter jobs. (selection issue) Common Explanation: women are less likely to negotiate and regardless male evaluators expressed an unwillingness to work with a woman who negotiated. -Women are less likely to negotiate probably not because they were shy, but they predicted the backlash from negotiating.

Masculine (aggressive) cultures

- value achievement, competitiveness, acquisition of money and other material objects, dominance. - characterized by a separation of gender roles. (Men are more likely to be assertive and competitive compared to women) - men hold more positions of power, get paid more, and are expected to act in a masculine manner, while women are expected to be caretakers, are paid less, and are not fairly represented in positions of power in any field. At work: - the pay gap between CEO & other management-level employees & gender pay gap are larger. - fewer women are in top management. - Preference for higher pay.

Individualistic cultures

-people define themselves as an individual and form looser ties with their groups. -value autonomy, independence, self-reliance, and creativity. -place a greater emphasis on standing out and being unique -the rights of individuals tend to take a higher precedence.

Collectivistic cultures (we>me)

-people have stronger bonds to their groups, and group membership forms a person's self identity. -Individuals define themselves in relation to others (e.g., "I am a member of..."). -communication often more indirect to avoid potential conflict or embarrassment. -Greater emphasis is placed on common goals than on individual pursuits. -The rights of families and communities come before those of the individual.

What Makes an effective Review System?

1. Adequate Notice: Letting employees know what criteria will be used during the review. 2. Fair Hearing: Ensuring that there is two-way communication during the review process and the employee's side of the story is heard. 3. Judgment based on Evidence: Documenting performance problems and using factual evidence.

Negative Aspects of Too much Cohesivness

1. An internal pressure to conform may arise where some members modify their behavior to adhere to group norms. 2. Members become conflict avoidant, focusing on trying to please one another so as not to be ostracized. 3. The groups is dominated by a superficial sense of harmony and discourages diversity of thought. 4. The more strongly members identify with the group, the easier it is to see outsiders as inferior, or in extreme cases, as enemies. 5. Downward spiral effect 6. Groupthink 7. Social Loafing - Ringelmann effect

2 Components of effective listening

1. Behavioral: paraphrasing (repeating) what was heard, asking probing questions to clarify a point, and answering questions when asked. 2. Emotional: showing that you care about the speaker, trying to actively understand the speaker, trying to relate to the speaker, and showing concern about what is being said and what is being left unsaid.

Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion

1. Better Decision Making and Performance (stimulates creativity to create new alternatives and correlates with better performance) 2. Better Understanding and Service of Customers 3. High Job Satisfaction and Low Litigation Expenses

4 Types of Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Schedule: When reinforcers follow all instances of positive behavior. 2. Fixed-Interval Schedule: Fixed-interval schedules involve providing rewards after a specified amount of time. 3. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Rewarding behavior after a set number of occurrences. 4. Variable Ratio: Providing the reinforcement in a random pattern.

3 Types of Negative Work Behavior

1. Counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWB): - Abusing others (gossip, rumors, ostracism, harassment) - Production deviance (intentional poor performance) - Theft (stealing money, stapler) - Sabotage - Withdrawal (long lunch breaks, excessive social media use) 2. Absenteeism: making excuses to not come into office 3. Turnover: Voluntary or involuntary termination - Note: company wants to keep their highly valued employees but doesn't really mind if employees w poor performance leave

7 Potential Responses to Inequity

1. Distort perceptions 2. Increase referents inputs 3. Reduce own input 4. Increase own outcomes 5. Change referent 6. Leave the situation 7. Seek legal action

4 types of Organizational Justice

1. Distributive Justice 2. Procedural Justice 3. Interpersonal Justice 4. Informational Justice

3 Process Based Theories of Motivation

1. Equity Theory of Motivation 2. Expectancy Theory of Motivation 3. Reinforcement Theory

4 Ways Employees can Express Dissatisfaction in the workplace

1. Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the org 2. Voice: Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions 3. Loyalty: Passively waiting for conditions to improve 4. Neglect: allowing conditions to worsen

Stages of Group Development

1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning

3 Types of Team Task

1. Idea-generation tasks: creative tasks e.g., brainstorming a new direction or creating a new process 2. Production tasks: making something e.g., building, products/services 3. Problem-solving tasks: making plans and decisions.

Benifits of teamwork

1. In a high-functioning team, the synergy from the team is greater than simply adding the parts. 2. Team members not only benefit from each other's diverse experiences and perspectives, but also stimulate each other's creativity. 3. Working in a team can be more fun than working alone

2 Types of Positive Work Behavior (in role vs extra role performance/OCB's)

1. In-role performance: activities employees perform that are explicitly indicated in job description. (What is typically covered in performance reviews) Can be either: a. Objective (e.g., number of widgets produced) b. subjective (e.g., effort contributed) 2. Extra-role performance/Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs): discretionary behaviors employees perform to help others and benefit the organization.

3 Key levels of Analysis in Org Behavior

1. Individual: The manager's personality itself - getting along with others, lowering stress levels, making more effective decisions, etc. 2. Group: How a given manager's personality affects the team - resolving intra- and intergroup conflict and building cohesion 3. Organization: How the organization's culture affects organizational performance - understanding and valuing the people within the organization

The 10 Oxygen Behaviors of Google's Best managers

1. Is a good coach 2. Empowers team and does not micromanage 3. Creates an inclusive team environment, showing concern for success and well-being 4. Is productive and results-oriented 5. Is a good communicator — listens and shares information 6. Supports career development and discusses performance 7. Has a clear vision/strategy for the team 8. Has key technical skills to help advise the team 9. Collaborates across Google 10. Is a strong decision maker

Alternatives to Job Specialization

1. Job Rotation 2. Job Enlargement 3. Job Enrichment 4. Job Crafting

What are the tools companies can use to motivate employees?

1. Job design 2. Goal setting 3. Performance reviews 4. Performance incentives

2 job attitudes that have the greatest potential to influence how we behave

1. Job satisfaction: the feelings people have toward their job. 2. Organizational commitment: the emotional attachment people have toward the company they work for.

4 Need Based Theory of Motivation

1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2. ERG Theory 3. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory 4. Acquired Needs Theory

Benefits of Hiring employees with good fit

1. More satisfied with their job. 2. More committed to the company. 3. Less likely to burnout. 4. Stay longer in their company. 5. Perform better?

2 Personality Assesments

1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 2. Big Five Personality Dimensions- OCEAN (Big 5 Model)

Tools for Creating an Inclusive Workplace

1. Need a shift in mindset - From managing diversity to leveraging diversity - Focus on inclusion, not just maximizing difference 2. Speak up when you witness discrimination. 3. Create an inclusive culture - Signals, involvement from top management matter

2 Theories of Motivation

1. Need-based theory of Motivation: Early researchers thought that employees are motivated to satisfy their needs. - Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Two-factor theory, Acquired-needs theory 2. Process-based theory of Motivation: Views motivation as a rational process. - Employees analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain ways. - Thought process of individuals who demonstrate motivate behavior. - Equity theory, Expectancy theory, Reinforcement theory

Specific Diversity Issues

1. Pay gap between men and women 2. Glass Ceiling 3. Glass Cliff 4. Racial Diversity in the Workplace 5. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Diversity in the Workplace

8 Factors Contributing to Job Attitudes

1. Personality 2. Person-environment fit 3. Job characteristics 4. Psychological contract 5. Organizational justice 6. Work relationships 7. Stress 8. Work-life balance

10 most frequently used incentives

1. Piece rate systems 2. Individual bonuses 3. Merit pay 4. Sales Commissions 5. Employee Recognition Awards: 6. Team Bonuses 7. Gainsharing: 8. Profit Sharing 9. Stock Options 10. Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)

Different Decision Making Models

1. Rational Decision-making model 2. Bounded Rationality Model 3. Intuitive Decisions 4. Creative Decisions

Challenges to Achieving Diversity and Inclusion

1. Similarity-Attraction Phenomenon 2. Faultlines 3. Stereotypes and Unconscious Biases

5 Factors Affecting Group Cohesion

1. Similarity: The more similar group members are in terms of age, sex, education, skills, attitudes, values, and beliefs, the more likely the group will bond. 2. Stability: The longer a group stays together, the more cohesive it becomes. 3. Size: Smaller groups tend to have higher levels of cohesion. 4. Support: When group members receive coaching and are encouraged to support their fellow team members, group identity strengthens. 5. Satisfaction: Cohesion is correlated with how pleased group members are with one another's performance, behavior, and conformity to group norms

Types of Decisions by levels

1. Strategic Decisions: Should we merge with another company?, Should we pursue a new product line? Should we downsize our organization? - Decisions Typically made by top management teams, CEO's, Board of Directors 2. Tactical Decisions: What should we do to help facilitate employees from the two companies working together? How should we market the new product line? Who should be let go when we downsize? - Decisions Typically made by Managers 3. Operational Decisions: How often should I communicate with my new coworkers? What should I say to customers about our new product? How will I balance my new work demands? - Decisions Typically made by employees throughout the org

Team Roles

1. Task Oriented Roles 2. Social Oriented Roles: 3. Boundary-Spanning Roles

Team Processes for Effective Teams

1. Team Norms 2. Team contracts 3. Psychological safety

one on one meeting

A short, frequent, and regularly held meeting with an employee to provide timely feedback and support.

8 Barriers to Effective Communication

1. filtering 2. selective perception 3. information overload and illusion of multitasking 4. emotional disconnect 5. Lack of source familiarity or credibility 6. Workplace Gossip/Grapevine 7. jargon 8. poor listening

Types of Faulty Decision Making

1.Anchoring & Adjustment Bias 2. Availability Bias 3. Confirmation Bias 4. Escalation of Commitment Bias 5. Framing Bias 6. Fundamental Attribution Error 7. Hindsight Bias 8. Correlation and Causality Bias 9. Hasty Generalization Fallacy/Faulty Generalization 10. Undercoverage Bias

History of Teamwork

1920's Hawthorn Studies 1940's & 1950's Total Quality Control/Management (TQM) 1970's: As the US entered a recession in the late 70's and competed with Japan for industry efficiency. As Japanese approach to TQM was very successful, and this made US firms to focus more on their focus on TQM and teamwork 1980's The culture of teamwork expanded in many firms. Employees start venturing out of the office and physical team building activities such as rafting, camping. 1990's: The birth of the team building industry

Absolute Ratings vs Relative Ratings

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Individual Bonuses

A bonus is a financial compensation that is above and beyond the normal payment expectations of its recipient. - Performance-based bonuses and other types (signing, referral, and retention)

Organization

A system of two or more people, engaged in cooperative action, trying to reach a purpose or goal

Board of Directors

A governing body elected by shareholders in the case of public companies. - Typically, the board of directors supervises the CEO to ensure that the CEO carries out responsibilities and activities that serve the better interest of the company and its shareholders. - makes key strategic decisions on issues such as mergers and dividends, hires senior managers, and sets their pay.

Minnesota twin study (1979-1999)

A landmark study followed identical and fraternal twins who were separated at an early age. Studied 137 pairs of twins and resulted in more than 170 individual studies focusing on different medical and psychological characteristics.The study found that genetics plays a larger role on personality than previously thought (70% of IQ variation, 50% of religiosity, 50% of happiness and well-being )

360-degree feedback

A system where feedback is gathered from supervisors, peers, subordinates, and sometimes even customers.

Equity Sensitivity

A personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity.

Performance Review

A process in which employee performance is measured and then communicated to the employee. Purpose: a. used to give raise b. Developmental: you are doing this work and here is how you can do better. - more appealing to intrinsic motivation)(

Anchoring & Adjustment Bias

A tendency that an individual bases their initial ideas and responses on one point of information and makes changes driven by that starting point. - Can be used to advantage in sales and price negotiations where setting an initial anchor can influence subsequent negotiations in your favor. - Ex: a used car salesman can offer a very high price to start negotiations that are arguably well above the fair value. - Experiment: participants spun a wheel to select a number between 0 and 100. The volunteers were then asked to adjust that number up or down to indicate how many African countries were in the U.N. Those who spun a high number gave higher estimates while those who spun a low number gave lower estimates.

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values.

Add High-LOW Charts of OCEAN Characteristics

Add High-LOW Charts of OCEAN Characteristics

Job Enrichment (+Positive and Negative Outcomes)

Allows workers more control over how they perform their own tasks. - Having authority and responsibility over their work ➞ more efficient, eliminate unnecessary tasks, take shortcuts, and increase overall performance. Positive outcomes: 1. reduces turnover and absences 2. increases productivity and efficiency Negative outcomes: 1. can cause dissatisfaction if greater level of pay or other compensation is not provided. 2. not all employees desire to have control over how they work

Team Contracts

An agreement between you and your team members about how your team will operate (e.g., rules, goals, and roles). - Works as a roadmap.

Organizational Justice

An employee's perception of fairness in the workplace

Diversity

Any characteristic that varies within a particular work unit such as gender, race, age, education, tenure, or functional background. alone may lead to higher levels of conflict, lower levels of team performance, and higher levels of turnover.

Top Management Team

Appointed by the chief executive officer (CEO) and reflect the skills and areas that the CEO considers vital for the company. - Includes C-Suite: chief operating officer (COO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief marketing officer (CMO), or chief technology officer (CTO). - Set the company's vision and strategic directions. - Symbolic role: behavior can be emulated, resource allocation-.e.g, more innovation? More sales?

Motivating Potential Score (MPS)

Are all five job characteristics equally valuable for employees? MPS = [(Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance) ÷ 3] × Autonomy × Feedback Note: Autonomy and Feedback have the most impact as they are worth more in formula

Reinforcement Thoery

Behavior is a function of its outcomes Based on the work of pavlov Positive Reinforcement: Positive behavior immediately followed by positive consequences (Manager praises the employee) - the employee will see a link between the behavior and positive consequences and will be motivated to repeat similar behaviors. Negative Reinforcement: Positive behavior followed by removal of negative consequences (Manager stops nagging the employee) - the negative stimulus may lead to unexpected behaviors and may fail to stimulate the desired behavior. Punishment: Negative behavior followed by negative consequences (Manager demotes the employee) Extinction: Negative behavior followed by removal of positive consequences (Manager ignores the behavior)

Team Bonusses

Bonuses given to employees are tied to team performance - Tend to be more effective if employees have a reasonable ability to influence their team's performance level

Job Specialization

Breaks down jobs into their simplest components. - a select number of tasks in a repetitive manner. - Reduces the skill requirements of the jobs ➞ decreases the effort and cost of staffing. Training times tend to be short. Note: Downside= Boring and repetitive. Also resulted in counterproductive work behaviors.

Team

Cohesive coalition of people working together to achieve mutual goals. - Smaller than Groups - Ex: writing a report, developing a new product.

programmed decisions

Decisions that occur frequently enough that organizations develop an automated response to them. - Nature of Problem: structured/routine/well defined - Recurrence of Problem: repetitive - Method of Solving: policies/standards/rules - Probability of Outcome: some degree of certainty - Levels of Management : middle/lower level - Ex: Employee tardiness, customer complaints

Job characteristics Model

Describes five core job dimensions leading to three critical psychological states, resulting in work-related outcomes a. Skill variety: the extent to which the job requires a person to utilize multiple high-level skills b. Task identity: the degree to which a person is in charge of completing an identifiable piece of work from start to finish c. Task significance: whether a person's job substantially affects other people's work, health, or well-being d. Autonomy: the degree to which a person has the freedom to decide how to perform his or her tasks e. Feedback: the degree to which people learn how effective they are being at work

Process Model of Communication

Encode: translates the idea into words Sender: Person who originates the message with a thought Decode: The message by assigning meaning to the words Receiver: Person who receives the message Noise: Anything that interferes with or distort the message being transmitted Medium: the method used to convey a senders message

Personality

Encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. gives us clues about how that person may act or feel. - change over long periods of time. - understanding is helpful to effectively manage organizational behavior and assign ppl roles

Ways in Which Managers Can Influence Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

Expectancy: - make sure employees have proper skills, abilities, and knowledge - ensures that the environment facilitates performance - provide encouragement to make ppl believe that their effort makes a difference Instrumentality - reward employee performance - inform ppl in advance of the reward - try to eliminate non-performance influence over rewards Valence: - find rewards that are desirable to employees - Make sure the rewards are viewed as fair - Give employees choice over rewards

Hasty Generalization Fallacy/Faulty Generalization

Fallacy wherein a conclusion is drawn about all or many instances of a phenomenon on the basis of one or a few instances of that phenomenon.

Task Oriented Roles

Focus on completing tasks 1. Contractor: organizes and coordinates actions, allocates tasks e.g., timelines, schedules. 2. Creator: create new structures or visions for processes e.g., reframe team goals. 3. Contributor: brings information, expertise, and share them with team members. 4. Completer: follow through, complete individual task 5. Critic: devil's advocate, challenge assumptions made by the team.

Time studies

Frederick Taylor used a stopwatch to measure how long it took a worker to perform a task and experimented with different ways to do the tasks to save time. (max efficiency) - Ex of experiment: Devised the "science of shoveling": time studies to determine how much weight a worker could lift with a shovel without tiring (21 Ibs).

Frustration-regression hypothesis

Frustrated by the growth opportunities in his job leads to Regress to relatedness need, socializing with coworkers (ex: upset at work so goes out and parties)

Performing

Galvanized by a sense of shared vision and a feeling of unity, the group is ready to move into high gear. - Members are more interdependent, individuality and differences are respected, and group members feel themselves to be part of a greater entity. - Focus on maximizing their performance. - Group leaders can finally move into coaching roles and help members grow in skill and leadership.

Personality Testing in the Workplace: good for and bad for

Good for: a. Helping ppl better understand themselves b. helping ppl better understand how they relate to coworkers Bad for: a. Hiring decisions (possibility of faking) b. predicting who shouldn't get promoted (don't need all leaders to be v extroverted) c. Firing decisions (personality is not all that predictive of performance)

"20% time"

Google engineers get to spend 20% of their time pursuing projects of their own creation, ones that align with their own core passion and purpose. - Over 50% of Google's largest revenue-generating products have come out of 20% time, including AdSense, Gmail, Google Maps, Google News, Google Earth, and Gmail Labs. - Companies like Google and 3M have tried to motivate employees by giving them "autonomy" as a benefit

Ability

Having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job - Sometimes key determinant of effectiveness

Boundary-Spanning Roles

Help to connect the team to the larger organization. 1. Consul: gather information from the larger organization and inform people in the organization about team activities, goals, and success. 2. Coordinator: interface with others within the organization so that the team's efforts are in line with other individuals and teams within the organization

Motion Studies

How people/workers move (obsessed w efficiency) - Bricklaying study: devised a way for workers to lay bricks that eliminated wasted motion and raised their productivity from 1,000 bricks per day to 2,700 bricks per day. - "the best way to get dressed in the morning": from bottom up than top down. (most efficient way to button shirt)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Identifies 8 personality preferences: 4 pairs of opposites 1. Extroverts vs Introverts 2. Sensors (realists, focus on facts) vs Intuitives (enjoy abstract thinking and future possibilities) 3. Thinkers (logical/analytical decision makers) vs Feelers (care more about how their decision affects others wellbeing) 4. Judgers (highly organized) vs Perceivers (adaptable, spontaneous, flexible)

Entitleds

Individuals who expect to receive a lot without giving much in return.

Benevolants

Individuals who give without waiting to receive much in return.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic: pursuing an activity because it is inherently enjoyable and absent of apparent rewards. - Ex: reading for fun Extrinsic: performing an activity because it is related to desirable outcomes such as financial rewards, status, or approval from others. - Ex: reading a book bc you have to write a book report NOTE: - when individuals are intrinsically motivated, they tend to perform well - when there are indirect rewards for performance, performance was largely a function of intrinsic motivation, - when there are direct rewards for performance, the importance of intrinsic motivation lessened, and rewards became a more powerful predictor of performance - having rewards increased intrinsic motivation - intrinsic mattered more for performance quality, whereas external rewards mattered more for performance quantity)

The Following tools aim to utilize which type of motivation: Job design, goal setting, performance reviews, performance incentives

Intrinsic: job design, goal setting,performance review for development or feedback Extrinsic: performance incentives, performance reviews for promotion and pay raise.

Job Rotation

Involves moving employees from job to job at regular intervals. - Reduces the monotonous aspects of a job - Creates an effective way for employees to acquire new skills - Increases the flexibility of managers to assign employees to different parts of the organization when needed - Proves a way to transfer knowledge between departments

Total Quality Control/Management (TQM)

It is the responsibility of every member of the organization to ensure the production of quality products and services. Teamwork was emphasized because: a. Pooling expertise and resources can tackle a greater variety of complex issues. b. Pooling a greater diversity of knowledge, skill, and experience can expose diverse problems. c. Teamwork boosts morale and ownership through participative decision making. d. Recommendations from a team are more likely to be implemented than the ones from an individual.

Factors Contributing to Job Attitudes

Job attitudes form work behaviors. Job attitudes are formed by individual factors, organizational factors, Job Factors, and Environmental Factors.

Prospect Theory on Loss

Losses are treated in the opposite manner as gains. When aiming to avoid a loss, people become risk-seeking and take the gamble (B) over a sure loss (A) in the hope of paying nothing. - Again, both options have equal expected values.

Intuitive Decisions

Making decisions without conscious reasoning under challenging circumstances (e.g., time pressures, constraints, high uncertainty, rapidly changing conditions)

Traditional Manager-Led Teams

Managers are leaders. - Managers have power to hire and fire team members and being held accountable for the team's results. - A study on 14,000 teams found the more hierarchical that teams were, the more conflict they had and the less effective they were. This does not mean that having a leader is always bad. - Having a 'good leader' is important e.g., Google's Project Oxygen

Adjourning

Many groups or teams formed in a business context are project-oriented and therefore are temporary. - A group may dissolve because of organizational restructuring.

Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth

Motion studies creators who popularized Taylorism

ERG Theory

Need based theory of motivation that is a modification of Maslow's hierarchy, in which the five needs are collapsed into three categories without a strict hierarchy (existence, relatedness, and growth). Existence: corresponds to Maslow's physiological and safety needs, Relatedness: corresponds to social needs, Growth: refers to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization. Note: 2 needs can operate at one time - Frustration-regression hypothesis

Do all employees expect to have a job with a high motivating potential?

No. Employees with high growth need strength (self-esteem, self-actualization) respond more favorably to jobs with a high motivating potential. "a world without bosses" article (removed middle-managment but there are still executives)

Norming

Once group members discover that they can be authentic and that the group is capable of handling differences without dissolving, they are ready to enter the stage of norming. - Group members often feel relief at this point, and they are much more committed to each other and the group's goal. - More cohesive and cooperative, members establish their own rules (or norms). - At this point, the leader should become more of a facilitator by stepping back and letting the group assume more responsibility for its goal.

Storming

Once group members feel sufficiently safe and included, they tend to enter the Storming phase. - Group members begin to explore their power and influence (become more authentic & argumentative). - Discussions can become heated as participants raise conflicting points of view and values, or disagree over how tasks should be accomplished. - During this chaotic stage, a great deal of creative energy is released

Hindsight Bias

One becomes convinced they accurately predicted an event before it occurred (also known as knew-it-all-along phenomenon or creeping determinism). - It causes overconfidence in one's ability to predict other future events and may lead to unnecessary risks.

Rokeach Value Survey (1973)

One of the most established surveys to assess individual values Terminal and Instrumental Values - Adresses why we have diff values: a. shaped early in life and show stability over the course of a lifetime. (ex: Early family experiences, parenting) b. Values of generation also change and evolve in response to the historical context that the generation grows up in.

Why are People Important to Organizations?

Organizations that value their employees are more profitable than those that do not. Research shows that successful organizations have a number of things in common:e.g., providing employment security, engaging in selective hiring, utilizing self-managed teams, being decentralized, paying well, training employees, reducing status differences, and sharing information. Such organizations also attract better employees.

Attitude

Our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment.

Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of decision-making processes - How fair is the process that leaders use to make decisions? - Ex of low procedural justice: Favoritism, Unwillingness to listen to other POV, Unwillingness to consider all the information available, Inconsistent rules

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of outcomes (equity) - How fair is what I receive for my work? E.g., pay, feedback, benefits - High financial reward doesn't always predict high job satisfaction

Interpersonal Justice

Perceived respect in enactment of decisions - To what degree do leaders treat people with dignity, respect, and emotional support? - Ex of low interpersonal justice: Treating employees with no respect, Improper remarks or comments, Podcast on a**holes

Psychological safety

Perception that the consequences of taking interpersonal risks in workplace contexts are worth the risk. - Google's project Aristotle looked at 180 teams in the company to find the most important factor that leads to successful teams

2 Types of Fit

Person-organization fit: The degree to which a person's values, personality, goals, and other characteristics match those of the organization. Person-job fit: The degree to which a person's skill, knowledge, abilities, and other characteristics match the job demands. - ex: Overqualification

Equity Theory of Motivation

Process based theory of motivation which argues that Individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions. Fairness: when the input-to-outcome ratio is similar to the input-to-outcome ratio of a comparison person. Inputs: the contributions people feel they are making to the environment Outcomes: the perceived rewards A referent: another comparable person or a category of people

Job Enlargement

Refers to expanding the tasks performed by employees to add more variety - Reduces boredom and monotony - Has similar benefits to job rotation - Employees view themselves as being capable of performing a broader set of tasks - Positively related to employee satisfaction and higher quality customer services - Depend on the type of enlargement (adding simple task x, tasks that require to be knowledgeable in diverse areas o)

Job Crafting

Refers to the changes employees make to their own job description - Co-creates with employees (Bottom-up) a. Task crafting: changing the content of the job b. Relational crafting: changing the quality and amount of interactions involved with other people c. Cognitive crafting: changing the way the person thinks about the job

Decision Making

Selecting choices among alternative courses of action. - Critical components of management. - However, only a small % of managers think that their peers make well-thought-out decisions (24%) and that their organizations make decisions at a satisfactory speed (14%) (2020 Gallup survey). - Huge room to increase effectiveness in decision making at work!

Goal Setting

Setting goals is related to performance improvements, but the mere presence of a goal does not motivate individuals. Pros: - Energize - Give direction - Provide challenge - Make you think outside the box Cons: - Learning decreases - Adaptability declines - Singlemindedness develops - Ethical Problems increase

Team Norms

Shared expectations about how things operate within a team. - Understanding norms helps teams to be more cohesive and perform better.

Smart Goals

Specific & Measurable: ex: increase sales to a region by 10% vs. do your best. Aggressive: When goals are aggressive and require people to work harder or smarter, performance tends to be dramatically higher. Realistic: if a goal is viewed as impossible to reach, it will not have any motivational value and demotivate employees. Time bound: "increase sales to a region by 10% by December of the current fiscal year"

Values

Stable life goals that are established throughout one's life as a result of the accumulating life experiences - tend to be relatively stable, - Affect the types of decisions people make and their behaviors, and Impact how people perceive their environment - Can be arranged in hierarchical fashion(ex: values can be compared, and some value can be sacrificed to achieve the others)

Rational Decision Making Model

Step 1: ID the Problem (e.g., told to increase monthly profits) Step 2: Establish Decision Criteria (e.g., increase revenue, reduce costs, and impact on customers) Step 3: Weigh Decision Criteria (e.g., the long-term impact on employee motivation, customer perception more important than short-term impact) Step 4: Generate Alternatives (e.g., lay off, save costs, increase price, increase sales via promotions etc.) Step 5: Evaluate Alternatives (e.g., laying off employees as a first tool will lower employees 'motivation, increasing price may lower customer loyalty and trust) Step 6: Choose the best alternative (e.g., launch promotion to increase sales) Step 7: Implement the Decision (e.g., launch BOGO sales, point system & etc.) Step 8: Evaluate the Decision (e.g., did the revenue and profit increase?)

Creative Decisions

Step 1: Problem Recogition Step 2: Immersion (thinks about the problem consciously and gathers info. Having expertise is important) Step 3: Incubation (sets the problem aside adn doesnt think about it for a while, your brain is working on it) Step 4: Illumination (eureka) Step 5: Verification & Application (consciously verifies the feasibility of the solution and implements the decision)

Tightness-Looseness of Culture

Strength of social norms that reside in a culture.

Empowerment Process

Structural Empowerment -> Felt Empowerment

Surface-level diversity vs. Deep-level diversity

Surface-level diversity: highly visible traits (race, gender, and age). Deep-level diversity: invisible traits (values, beliefs, and attitudes). Note: •The initial influence of surface-level traits is replaced by deep-level traits such as similarity in values and attitudes. •Age, race, and gender dissimilarity are stronger predictors of employee turnover during the first few weeks or months within a company.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

Test to assess the dominant need. Method: presenting research subjects with an ambiguous picture and asking them to write a story based on it. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person.(analyzed by experts) - Currently, used to access motivation & occupation, personality disorders, forensic examination, and etc. Criticisms: a. With so much variability, serious validity and reliability problems. b. Lack of standardization of the cards(drawings) and scoring systems. Ex: Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is he doing? Why is he doing it?

Frederick Taylor

The "father" of scientific management, Taylorism

Structural Empowerment

The aspects of the work environment that give employees discretion and autonomy, and enable them to do their jobs effectively.

Undercoverage Bias

The bias that occurs when some members of a population are inadequately represented in the sample. - The point of collecting data for a sample is to obtain data in a way that is quicker and easier than collecting data for an entire population, and to be able to extrapolate the findings from the sample to the larger population. - Ex: survey on Facebook, survey at a mall

Cohesion

The degree of camaraderie within the group. - a collective identity - Members of cohesive groups tend to: a. experience a moral bond and a desire to remain part of the group b. share a sense of purpose, working together on a meaningful task or cause c. establish a structured pattern of communication.

Agreeableness

The degree to which a person is affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm

Emotional Stability (reverse of Neuroticism)

The degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody. - Has the strongest (and most negative) correlation with job satisfaction.

Openness (to Experience)

The degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas. - High openness->Do well in jobs that require high levels of creativity, new ideas, and constant learning

Goal Commitment

The degree to which a person is dedicated to reaching the goal.

Conscientiousness

The degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable. - Typically has the biggest effect on job performance.

Extraversion

The degree to which a person is outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoys socializing. - Typically has the strongest influence on first impressions and leadership evaluations

Uncertainty Avoidance

The degree to which people feel threatened by ambiguous, risky, or unstructured situations.

Instrumentality

The degree to which the person believes that performance is related to secondary outcomes such as rewards.

Power Distance

The degree to which the society views an unequal distribution of power as acceptable.

Motivation

The desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior - If someone is motivated, They want to try hard and perform well

Self-monitoring (Outside of the big 5)

The extent to which a person is capable of altering his or her actions and appearance in social situations - High self-monitors understand what the situation demands and modify their behavior accordingly tend to be more successful in their careers and are more likely to advance - Tend to be less accurate when evaluating someone else's performance - May experience higher levels of stress - May be less committed to their companies - Low self-monitors tend to act the way they feel

The Punctuation Equilibrium Model

The five-stage model assumes a linear process. In reality, some researchers have found that the life of a group is much more dynamic and cyclical in nature. - Evolution occurred in rapid, radical spurts rather than gradually over time -> similar patterns in social behavior/organizational change. - Groups can repeatedly cycle though the Storming and Performing stages. (insert image)

Forming

The group comes together for the first time. - There is a level of formality, some anxiety, and a degree of guardedness as group members are not sure how they will fit into the group. - Get to know each other. Find common grounds. - Characterized by abstract discussions about issues to be addressed by group.

Work Relationships

The people we interact with, their degree of compassion, our level of social acceptance in our work group, whether we are treated with respect

Correlation and Causality Bias

The situation where correlation is confused with causality.

Organizational Behavior

The systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work.

Social Loafing

The tendency of individuals to put in less effort when working in a group context

Prospect Theory

The theory suggests that individuals assess their losses and gain in an asymmetric manner.proposed that losses have a greater emotional impact than a gain of the same amount. - Developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979. - The theory led Kahneman to win Nobel prize in Economic sciences

Valence

The value of the rewards awaiting the person as a result of performance.

Self Managed Team

These teams manage themselves and do not report directly to a supervisor. - More firms use self-managed team to reduce hierarchy. - Employees have higher job satisfaction, increased self-esteem, and grow more on the job. - Reduce absenteeism, because employees do not want to let their team members down.

Non-programmed decisions

Unique and important decisions that require conscious thinking, information gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives. - Nature of Problem: unstructured, novel, ill defined - Recurrence of Problem: Non- Repetitive - Method of Solving: Managerial Initiatives - Probability of Outcome: Uncertain - Levels of Management: top level - Ex: weather to acquire another firm, weather to sell unprofitable business

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Diversity in the Workplace

Until recently, there was no federal law in the US prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation. in 2020 Supreme court stated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would be extended to protect gay, lesbian, and transgender employees, making discrimination in employment decisions based on sexual orientation and gender identity illegal. 91% of Fortune 500 companies have implemented non-discrimination policies that include sexual orientation and gender identity.

Prospect Theory on Gain

When dealing with gains, people are risk averse and will choose the sure gain (A) over a riskier prospect (B), even though with the risk there is a possibility of gaining a larger reward. Note: also that the overall expected value (or outcome) of each choice is equal.

Expectancty

Whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest such as performance or success

Analysis Paralysis

While increased choice allows us to achieve objectively better results, it also leads to greater anxiety, indecision, paralysis, and dissatisfaction.

Group

a collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one person's actions have an impact on the others - Individuals are responsible for their own area. - Ex: product group or division, or an entire store or branch of a company.

Gainsharing

a company-wide program in which employees are rewarded for performance gains compared to past performance. - Gains may take the form of reducing labor costs compared to estimates or reducing overall costs compared to past years' figures

Glass Ceiling

a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy.

Group Think

a phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives. - Based on desire not to upset the balance of the group

CEO Duality (+Pros and Cons)

a practice in which the CEO has both the presidency of the company as the chairperson of its board of directors. Pros: a. Faster Decision Making by CEO b. Stronger and unified Leadership Cons: a. Power and position abuse b. Executive compensation conflicts

Communication (+Functions)

a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior related to a manager's performance as 50-90% of a manager's time is spent communicating. Companies value communication skills. The market values good communications from companies. 3 Functions of Communication: 1. Coordination 2. Transmission of Info 3. Sharing emotions and Feelings

performance appraisal

a process through which employee performance is measured and then communicated to the employee

Availability Bias

a situation in which information that is more readily available is seen as more likely to occur.

Management By Objectives (MBO) (+Steps)

a systematic approach to ensure that individual and organizational goals are aligned MBO process: 1. Setting companywide goals derived from corporate strategy 2. Determining team- and department-level goals 3. Collaboratively setting individual-level goals that are aligned with corporate strategy 4. Developing an action plan 5. Periodically reviewing performance and revising goals

Survival Team Activity Objectives

a. Learn that a group may accomplish more than individual efforts. b. Understand that good communication is important for a successful team. c. Think about the different attitudes each individual needs to make to be on a successful team.

Personality Testing in the Workplace is used for:

a. Selection/hiring b. To facilitate collaboration among team members c. To predict who will be a strong, & successful leader • Even in firing decisions

Job Characteristics that lead to high job satisfaction and commitment

a. Using a variety of skills b. Having empowerment (don't want to be disposable) at work c. Receiving feedback on the job d. Performing a significant task

Why do we have different personalities? (Nature vs Nurture?)

a. genetics - Ex: Minnesota Twin Study b. cultural and environmental factors - A study on separated identical twins raised in the US and Korea. Unlike the Minnesota twin study, the twins show stark differences in general intelligence and non- verbal reasoning scores, resulting in 16 points IQ differences.

Satisfice

accepting the first alternative that meets your minimum criteria

Faultiness

an attribute along which a group is split into subgroups. - teams with faultlines experience more conflict, are less cohesive, and have less satisfaction and performance. - more likely to appear in diverse teams

Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)

an employee benefit plan that gives workers ownership interest in the company in the form of shares of stock. - to align the interests of their employees with those of their shareholders. - encourage employees to give their all as the company's success translates into financial rewards. - employees who have equity in the companies they work for report 33% higher median income, 53% longer median job tenure and 92% higher household net worth.

Acquired Needs Theory

argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others; and that the type of need that is dominant will drive behavior. - Individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences: 1. The need for achievement: want to be successful 2. The need for affiliation: want to be liked and accepted by others 3. The need for power: want to influence others and control their environment

Lack of source familiarity or credibility

can derail communications, especially when humor is involved (e.g., sarcasm). - If the sender has communicated erroneous information in the past or has created false emergencies, his/her current message may be filtered. - it is important to recognize that who communicates the message is often as important as what is being communicated

price-rate system

employees are paid on the basis of individual output they produce. - suitable when employee output is easily observable or quantifiable and when output is directly correlated with employee effort. - very effective in increasing worker productivity

Empowerment

employees have the ability to make decisions and perform their jobs effectively if management removes certain barriers. - Extends the idea of autonomy - Employees who feel empowered believe that their work is meaningful. (meaningful work lowers other bad things altruism etc)

Terminal values

end states people desire in life - Ex: leading a prosperous life, a world at peace, happiness

Inclusion

ensures that all individuals are allowed to participate in the organizational life fully, their voices are heard, and concerted efforts are made to remove barriers to the fair treatment of everyone. - With inclusion, an organization can reap the benefits of diversity

Environment

external factors that affect performance - Ex: having the resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance

Selective Perception

filtering information to suit our own needs. Ex: fans watched a particularly violent football game between Princeton and Dartmouth and each side counted more infractions committed by the other side. Ex2: If a manager doesn't like a particular employee, she may be super critical of that person's behavior and notice every time he is a minute late to a meeting. However, when a favorite employee coming late to work one morning might elicit concern that she had car trouble. ↳ What should we do? a. Challenge your own assumptions. Examine how someone else could interpret behavior and situations.

Stereotypes

generalizations about a particular group of people.

emotional disconnect

happen when the sender or the receiver is upset, whether about the subject at hand or about some unrelated incident that may have happened earlier. - A receiver who is emotionally upset tends to ignore or distort what the sender is saying. - A sender who is emotionally upset may be unable to present ideas or feelings effectively.

Psychological Contract

if people don't get what they expect it Leads to low job satisfaction and commitment Ex: If you work really hard and then there is a fam emergency that you have to be home for but the company says no. You realize you care more about company than they do about you

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation. According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions (in order). 1. Will my effort lead to high performance? Expectancy: Whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest such as performance or success 2. Will performance lead to outcomes? Instrumentality: The degree to which the person believes that performance is related to secondary outcomes such as rewards. 3. Do I find the outcomes desirable? Valence: The value of the rewards awaiting the person as a result of performance.

profit sharing

involve sharing a percentage of company profits with all employees - May be more effective in creating loyalty and commitment to the company

merit pay

involves giving employees a permanent pay raise based on past performance.

Performance Management

methods organizations use to support and improve employee performance. - In recent years, performance management systems include shortening review forms, increasing the frequency of reviews, adding new scales, and adding peer feedback

employee recognition awards

methods that motivate employees through awards, plaques, or other symbolic methods of recognition

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

need based theory that differentiates between factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees (motivators). - Factors that satisfy employees are very different from factors that dissatisfy them. Hygiene factors: part of the context in which the job is performed, can cause dissatisfaction and demotivate. (satisfying these will not motivate employees) - ex: company policy, salary, security, working conditions, supervision/relationships, etc Motivators: are intrinsic to the job, a part of a job that motivates. - ex: achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibility, advancement and growth Criticism: The classification of the factors are not clear (ex: pay=hygiene factor?) Practical application: a. Improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees. b. Managers should also focus on opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities, advancement opportunities for employees.

tight cultures

norms highly pervasive, visible, and the society does not tolerate deviance from these norms. - (ex: Japan, Singapore, and South Korea)

looser cultures

norms more divergent, and there is a much greater tolerance for behavior that deviates from norms. (ex: Estonia, Ukraine, and Hungary)

stock options

not a grant of stock itself, just the right to buy a share of stock at some predefined price Purpose: to align company and employee interests by making employees owners - However, options are not very useful for this purpose, because employees tend to sell the stock instead of holding onto it. - Options remain popular in start-up companies that find it difficult to offer competitive salaries to employees.

Information overload

occurs when Information processing demands are too high. - negative effect on efficiency, creativity, and mental acuity.

Escalation of Commitment Bias

occurs when individuals continue on a failing course of action after information reveals this may be a poor path to follow. - Also called sunk costs fallacy because the continuation is often based on the idea that one has already invested in this course of action.

Informational Justice

perceived truthfulness and adequacy of explanations - Is the information used for decision-making being shared fairly? - Ex of high informational justice: The info is perceived as true and logically consistent, Provides sufficient justification for the decision, Timely, Clear and specific, not vague

(illusion of ) Multitasking

performing more than one activity at the same time. when participants were multitasking by interacting with multiple partners over text messages and phone, their task performance suffered compared to participants who were focused on a single task.

Ringlemann Effect

physically measured by an agricultural engineer, Max Ringelmann, in 1913. As the number of people pulling a rope increased, the group's total pulling force was less than the sum of individual efforts had been when measured alone.

How can organizations satisfy their employees needs?

physiological needs may be satisfied by a paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and esteem as well. Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security, will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment and providing a workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Company picnics and other social get-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are not and if they have to sacrifice a Sunday afternoon for a company picnic). Providing promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person's accomplishments verbally or through more formal reward systems, and conferring job titles that communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status within the organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging. By making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act:

prohibits discrimination against employees based on physical or mental disabilities who are able to perform the essential aspects of their jobs with or without accommodations.

Sales Commission

reward sales employees with a percentage of sales volume or profits generated. - the paycheck of sales employees is a combination of a base salary and commissions.

Stress

the amount of stress in our job is negatively related to our job satisfaction & commitment. - Ex: role ambiguity, organizational politics, job security.

Filtering

the distortion or withholding of information to manage a person's reactions. - ex: not reporting the negative sales figures - prevents members of an organization from getting a complete picture of reality. ↳ What should we do? a. deliver a message in multiple ways and seek information in multiple sources. b. reward employees who clearly convey information, regardless of whether the news is good or bad

Downward Spiral Effect

the group is not getting corrective feedback from within its own confines, and it is closing itself off from input and a cross-fertilization of ideas from the outside.

Workplace Gossip/Grapevine

the informal structure can be a barrier to effective communication from the managerial point of view. Pros: - The likelihood that information would be shared made individuals less likely to act in a selfish manner. Cons: -Can be used as a tool for politically minded insider to disseminate self-promoting contents. -Sender is unknown -> create a sense of distrust •Reduce the gossip by sending official messages quickly and accurately when big news arise.

Job engagement

the investment of one's mental, emotional, and physical energies into work.

Jargon

the language of specialized terms used by a group or profession. Pros: -a quicker way to have an effective communication in a shorter, yet understandable way. -Communicates expertise Cons: -can be an obstacle to effective communication, causing listeners to tune out or fostering ill feelings between partners in a conversation.

Tokenism

the practice of doing something (such as hiring a person who belongs to a minority group) only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated fairly. - not likely to allow positions of significant power, while representation can allow any top positions. - People who hold identities that aren't represented in positions of leadership have a more difficult time climbing corporate ladders as well

Framing Bias

the tendency of decision makers to be influenced by the way that a situation or problem is presented.

Glass Cliff

the tendency of women and minority members to be promoted to leadership positions in poor-performing, struggling firms. (be promoted when firms are struggling) Note: Women leaders are more likely to be forced out of office than men after taking the position.

Similarity-Attraction Phenomenon

the tendency to be more attracted to similar individuals. - Unfairness in hiring may occur or on job treatment

Feminine (nurturing) cultures

value maintaining good relationships, caring for the weak, and emphasizing quality of life over materialistic items. - values are not separated by gender, and both women and men share the values of maintaining good relationships. - tend to have loose gender roles, equal pay, female representation in most positions of power - better work/life balance. - Smaller gender pay gap and more women in top management. - Preference for less working hours.

Culture

values, beliefs, and customs that exist in a society

Instrumental values

views on acceptable modes of conduct - Ex: being honest, ethical, clean, ambitious

Fundamental Attribution Error

when positive outcomes are seen as a function of personal characteristics while negative outcomes are attributed to external circumstances.

Long Term vs Short Term orientation (pragmatic vs. normative)

whether a society exhibits a pragmatic future-oriented perspective or a conventional historic point of view

Selection issue

women tend to choose more flexible and/or shorter hours to take care of children, resulting in lower pay.