PAAE Quiz, PsyAAE: Quiz 2, PsyAA Quiz 1

What is self-fulfilling prophecy?

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a process in which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation.

Traditional African Religion: Belief in Divinities

Divinities are ministers of God who have derived powers and act as intermediaries between God and man.

Who was the first African American to publish a journal article in Psychology?

J. Henry Alston was the first African American to publish a journal article in Psychology.

How does identity develop as individuals age?

As children's social cognitive development progresses, they move from understanding and describing themselves based on individual external characteristics to increasingly emphasizing more internal, multidimensional, psychological, and situational factors

What problems are encountered in assessing the mental health of African Americans?

Standardization of Measures with Non-Diverse Samples Mistrust

What is the difference between African American feminism and White feminism? What is womanism?

The importance of feminism for White women was associated with their support for gay and lesbian issues, along with nontraditional gender ideology. On the other hand, African American women's gender beliefs and support for gay and lesbian issues was unassociated with the importance of feminism in their lives. African American feminism may be associated more with social and economic justice issues, such as educational equality and economic equalities, than it is with attitudes or beliefs about sexual orientation.

Use of the Word Been with Stress to Convey the Remote Past

""She had been finished cleaning the room," or "We had been home." The stress on the word been indicates that this action occurred some time ago. "

Using a Pronoun to Repeat the Subject for Emphasis

"For example, "John, he left two hours ago," or "The baby, she is learning to walk." The SAE usage. "The baby is finally learning to walk." This feature of speech is seen in some West African languages."

Turning a Word Into Its Opposite

"For example, the word bomb is used to denote something that is really good. "I loved that video. It was the bomb," may be used to denote liking something a lot rather than something dangerous, such as an explosion."

Use of the Verb Be to Express Habitual Action

"He be playing" instead of "He is playing"

Zero Copula

"He strong," as opposed to, "He is strong"

Zero Past

"In African American English, -ed is not always used to convey regular past constructions, or the present tense form is used in place of the irregular past form, for example, "Her dress was stain,"instead of, "Her dress was stained." Another example: "The bicycle was damage," instead of, "The bicycle was damaged.""

Lack of Subject -Verb Agreement

"In African American English, subject and verb may differ in number or person—for example, "What do this mean?" instead of, "What does this mean?" Another example. "The toys is broken rather than, "The toys are broken.""

When did Psychology begin?

3200 B.C.E.

What is the definition of race?

A family, tribe, people, or nation belonging to the same stock; a class or kind of people unified by shared interests, habits, or characteristics; a category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits". The most commonly used human racial categories are based on visible characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture; other categories include self-identification.

Albert Jenkins + Self-Concept

A primary assumption of Jenkins's model is that the self is an active agent. We recognize ourselves as persons who can take action, initiate, and make decisions.The humanistic model of the self conveys that even under conditions of oppression and discrimination, African Americans are active in shaping their own destiny.

Self-Schema

A self-schema is a cognitive representation of the self. It organizes how we process information about the self and others

What's different about single-headed households with a mother vs. a father?

A small proportion of African American children, 3.9%, live in single-father-headed families. The percentage of single-father-headed households is comparable across the three ethnic groups. Single-father-headed families tend to be more economically advantaged than single-mother-headed families and to have more support from others in the household than do single-mother-headed families

Cosmolgy

A system for organizing, experiencing, and describing the cosmos; the universe. The philosophical basis of culture and provides its worldview

How can the Black family be appropriately described? What terms are associated with this (ex., extended, fictive kin)?

According to Hill, the Black family is a household related by blood or marriage or function that provides basic instrumental and expressive functions to its members. Families serve instrumental functions by providing for the physical and material needs of the family members, such as providing clothing, shelter, and food. The expressive functions of a family take into account the emotional support and nurturance needs met by the family. The family network can include biological relations as well as nonbiologically related members. The African American family is characterized as an extended family. The extended family is a network of functionally related individuals who reside in different households. The immediate family consists of individuals who reside in the same household, regardless of the number of generations within that household. Akin to the extended family is the notion of the augmented family. The augmented family is defined as a family group where extended families and/or nonrelatives live with and provide significant care to one or more children. The presence of additional adult care providers distinguishes the augmented family from nuclear and single-parent families. Fictive kin are often included as members of African American families. Fictive kin are those members of the family who are not biologically related nor related through marriage but who feel as if they are family and function like family. Friends who are fictive kin are incorporated into the extended family network and are seen socially and emotionally as kin. A person who is considered fictive kin may be seen as a father, mother, grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, sister, brother, or cousin, depending on the role he or she plays. Fictive kin may be referred to as play mother, play father, play cousin, play aunt, and so forth. The notion of fictive kin is also prevalent in African culture whereby all members of a tribe or community are considered family. It is common in African culture for friends to refer to each other as brother or sister and use other terms denoting family relations.

What is the argument about whether Black English is a language or a dialect?

According to Smitherman, whether a language is defined as such depends on who has the power to define. - Because Blacks have less power than the majority Whites in this country, they alone cannot define Black English as a language. - Validation and recognition from the majority culture is necessary for Black English to be recognized as a language. - The language of African Americans has been considered inferior and consequently has been used to justify the discrimination and exclusion of Black people from major social, political, and economic institutions. According to sociolinguists, dialect means a variety of a language—like Appalachian English or Boston English or any other variety of English. Among sociolinguists, all dialects are created equal. Williams rejects the notion that Black English is not a language. He discusses two theories on the origins of Ebonics: (a) the pidgin/creole theory and (b) the African retention theory. - According to the pidgin/creole theory, Africans who were brought to the United States from Africa spoke many languages. Pidgin is a simplified version of the language of different slave groups. The children of slaves acquired as their language the pidgin their parents spoke, and the new language that the slaves' children spoke was called creole. Eventually, a process referred to as "Englishization" began. The speaker maintained the original communication style, some lexical items, and the ability to code-switch. During the Englishization process, enslaved Africans and their descendants began to speak some SAE. - The second theory on the origin of Ebonics is that it is the retention of features of African languages that represents the deep structure of Ebonics. Some West African languages such as Ibo, Twi, Ful, Yoruba, and Wolof are relatives of Ebonics.

Dimension of the African Worldview: Sensitivity to Affect and Emotional Cues

Attention is given to the emotional state of others, and it is important to recognize and share the joy and pain of others.

Explain these Africentric models of mental health: Azibo's Nosology

Azibo's model of mental health and disorder takes "the Black perspective (cultural, historical, and conceptual analysis that employs and affirms principles deriving from the African social reality) as the conceptual base for addressing the psychology of African people" (emphasis in original). His definition assumes that "personality has a biogenetic basis" (and that there is a natural order to all things. Azibo operates from a "meta-personality" perspective that articulates three levels or components of a racially (i.e., genetically) based human personality. The "inner core" includes physical or biological factors, such as spirituality, melanin, and rhythm. The "outer core" consists of cognitive components, such as attitudes, values, and beliefs, as well as the behavioral manifestations of these components. Azibo also identifies a third core of "nonracial" aspects of personality. These are peripheral individual differences, such as shyness and assertiveness. Azibo provides an alternative conceptual model of maladaptation for African Americans that includes "psychological misorientation," a basic Black personality disorder that results from an individual operating without an African belief system. According to Azibo (2013), misorientation is a precursor to another African American personality disorder—materialism depression. Materialism depression is a sense of relative deprivation and need for possessions to support one's sense of self. Materialistic depression is defined as "An orientation that values and emphasizes money, being fashionable, good looks, and being personally connected to all that . . . . Because of the sheer prevalence in Euro-American social reality of materialism and individualism orientations, it is plausible that the acquisition by U.S. Africans of materialism and individualism orientations is likely, perhaps even inescapable". Azibo identifies several symptoms of materialist depression: wanting a lifestyle that one cannot afford, engaging in crime to obtain money to buy material things, desiring status symbols and items of conspicuous consumption, and feeling ashamed of oneself, family, or community because of poverty. Azibo writes that misorientation and mentacide may play a role in a range of personal identity conflicts (e.g., individualism and anxiety over one's collective identity); reactionary disorders (e.g., psychological brainwashing, burnout, oppression violence reactions), as described by Fanon (1963); self-destructive disorders (e.g., suicide, prostitution, drug and alcohol abuse, Black-on-Black crime), as described by Akbar (1981); and theological (i.e., religious) misorientation (e.g., adherence to a religious system in conflict with one's culture and ethnicity), as described by Azibo (1989). It is important to note that mentacide may occur without misorientation. For example, persons may suffer problems in psychological adaptation from the process of mentacide (e.g., developing a generalized anxiety disorder associated with life stress) without being misoriented (i.e., the individual would still have a "correct" Black cognitive orientation). Discussions of this system for describing adaptive and nonadaptive mental health among African Americans are consistent with this earlier work.

What are the dimensions of the African Worldview/Philosophy?

Balance and Harmony with Nature Orality Sensitivity to Affect and Emotional Cues Spirituality Collectivism Verve and Rhythm Time Orientation

What two (2) Africentric mental health assessments are available?

Baldwin's African Self-Consciousness (ASC) Scale The Systematic Assessment of Quality in Observational Research Cultural Psychiatry Epidemiology ranking system was adapted to create a Cultural Psychiatry Epidemiology version.

According to the National Survey of Black Americans, what major religious activities are characteristic of African Americans?

Being members of places of worship, prayer, reading religious material, engaging in Church activities, attending church

What are the features of Traditional African Religion?

Belief in a Supreme Being God is Good Belief in Divinities Belief in Spirit Beings Belief in Ancestors Belief in the Practice of Magic and Medicine The Soul is Immortal Little Concern with Afterlife Communalism Provides a Moral Code

What is Bell's Cultural Model of Knowledge Acquisition?

Bell identifies two features of a cultural model of knowledge acquisition among African Americans. Her cultural model assumes that attention is paid to both affect and symbolism. The affect dimension captures the preference for social, personal, and spiritual aspects of knowledge acquisition. Consistent with Kochman's observation, knowledge is acquired within the context of social and personal relationships. One's spiritual beliefs also play a role in knowledge acquisition. Here, learning is linked to one's belief that there is spiritual significance to acquiring knowledge. Similarly, Obasi and Smith acknowledge the role of spirituality in knowledge acquisition. They describe key features of African epistemology (e.g., how knowledge is acquired) and note that knowledge acquisition is not limited to space, time, and the five senses but that spiritual mediums in the forms of prophecy, telepathy, and dreams are all ways in which knowledge can be obtained about the past, present, and future. Knowledge is arrived at from active participation and experiences in the universe. The other dimension of knowledge acquisition described by Bell involves the symbolic dimension. This dimension captures the conceptual organization of information for the learner. This dimension is rational. It recognizes that the analytical approach to knowledge acquisition co-occurs with the affective approach.

Explain these alternative theoretical perspectives on mental health among African Americans: The biopsychosocial perspective on adaptation

Biopsychosocial perspectives emphasize the interaction of biological, psychological, and social systems in our understanding of an individual's behavioral, emotional, and cognitive functioning. A behavioral problem (i.e., a psychological symptom) may be rooted in a genetic vulnerability (i.e., a biological factor), which may or may not be exacerbated by an environmental condition (e.g., higher levels of stressful experiences because of social stratification, limited access to resources).

What is Black English?

Black English is a systematic, rule-governed linguistic system that is spoken by many but not all African Americans in the United States

What name is appropriate and why (Black; African; African American; Negro; ******)?

Black and African-American are both appropriate because it acknowledges the past and present experiences of this group of people the best.

What is cross cultural psychology?

Cross-Cultural Psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with comparisons between two or more cultures.

What is cultural psychology?

Cultural Psychology is the umbrella term under which cross-cultural, ethnic, and indigenous psychologies are described.

Cultural Racism

Cultural racism is seen in the assumed superiority of a language or dialect, values, beliefs, worldviews, and cultural artifacts dominant in a society. This racism is perhaps the most insidious of all in terms of identification and change because culture, by its nature, is institutionalized, with pervasive effects on all aspects of life. An example of cultural racism might be the assumed superiority of classical music to hip-hop.

What's the difference between a collective and an independent culture?

Cultures can be categorized as collective, where people have a interdependent view of the self, or individualistic, where people hold an independent view of the self. Interdependent cultures include many from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Independent cultures include the cultures of Europe and the United States.

What are the perceptions of Black English in our society?

The language of African Americans has been considered inferior and consequently has been used to justify the discrimination and exclusion of Black people from major social, political, and economic institutions.

Model of Racial Identity: Multidimensional/Sellers

The multidimensional model of racial identity (MMRI) builds on symbolic interactionism and outlines four primary dimensions of racial identity: salience, centrality, ideology, and regard. The MMRI model seeks to address a variety of research and conceptual issues on racial identity.

What is ethnic psychology?

Ethnic Psychology is exclusive attention to a particular ethnic or racial group.

What's the difference between ethnicity and race?

Ethnicity is culturally prescribed, whereas race is conceptually linked to biologically based characteristics

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

Ethnicity refers to clusters of people who have common cultural traits that they distinguish from those of other people. People who share a common language, geographic locale or place of origin, religion, sense of history, traditions, values, beliefs, food habits, and other social behaviors are perceived and view themselves as constituting an ethnic group. Race, on the other hand, is based on biological ancestry.

What is the name of the popular book, written by an African American Psychologist in 1976, that reviews the contributions of the European scientific community in influencing American psychology and (misrepresentations) beliefs about Blacks, etc? Who is the author?

Even the Rat Was White by Robert Guthrie

When did African Americans begin to go to school? What events prompted this?

Following the Civil War, in 1865, the Freedmen's Bureau was established by the U.S. federal government as a relief agency. It had success in establishing schools and providing educational funding for Blacks. Northern missionary societies also worked to increase access to educational opportunities for former slaves, and Blacks themselves spent more than $1 million on private education

Who was the first African American to earn a PHD in Psychology and also referred to as the Father of Black Psychology ?

Francis Cecil Sumner is the first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology and is referred to as the Father of Black Psychology.

Human Authenticity

Human authenticity is the condition of being sincere and being who you are meant to be. It is the quality of being genuine and free of imitation. When authenticity is absent, one is not sure who to trust or rely on.

How does acquisition of knowledge differ culturally?

In contrast to a Eurocentric approach to knowledge acquisition, an Africentric framework places the origins of knowledge within an intrapersonal and social context.

Describe the extended family

Included within the family network are immediate family members, extended members, friends, neighbors, fictive kin, and Church members. There is diversity in living arrangements that goes beyond marriage, parentage, and children to include other adults and children in shared residence situations. African American children may live in households with grandparents and other adults who are not members of the immediate family. Elderly African Americans are likely to be living with grandchildren. Young, low-income, and single mothers also are likely to be sharing a residence with other family members. Those of higher socioeconomic status acknowledged all of their family connections but began by distinguishing immediate (nuclear) family from other relationships. Members of families of lower socioeconomic status were less likely to make this distinction. The family members also acknowledged the importance of fictive kin, although this was not a term that they used. One of the respondents described fictive kin as people who are "grafted" into families. Once in the family, they became a functioning part of the group. Romantic relationships were sometimes the reason for a person to become fictive kin. Even when romantic relationships dissolve, fictive family members remained close to the family. Others become fictive kin when they moved to a new community and found family that functioned like their biological family. Although this ethnographic study included only one large family, it illustrated how African American families in contemporary society function as they did historically during enslavement and, before that, in Africa. African American extended family members provide support to one another in several ways, including emotional and psychological support and economic and financial support, as well as tangible support (e.g., providing transportation, childcare). Support from the extended family is linked to better psychological well-being and fewer mental health problems. Support from extended family members is reciprocal, and 80% of African Americans report involvement in reciprocal support exchanges The role of the grandmother i. Grandmothers may provide an especially important form of assistance in child-rearing. Grandmothers may be the primary caregiver of the children, as well as the secondary caregiver. Maternal grandparents are more likely than any other group to coparent with single parents. Grandmothers are a key source of support for their parenting adolescent children. Several types of support were provided by grandmothers to their adolescent child. These included babysitting support, providing advice and mentoring, daily caregiving to the adolescent child and the grandchild, financial support, and purchasing needed items for the grandchild and the child. ii. Support from maternal grandmothers contributes positively to well-being, adolescent parenting skills and competencies, and completion of high school and vocational training of their daughters. Grandmothers' support for their adolescent parenting son also has a positive influence, resulting in more responsible fatherhood, including involvement in the child's life. Grandparents also provide support that may help to increase cognitive competence of their grandchildren. In one study, researchers found that the presence of grandparents increased African American children's cognitive scores at age 2; this increase in cognitive scores was not found for White children living with grandparents. The improvement in cognitive skills might be due to increased financial and social resources. iii. Other studies also suggest that children raised by grandmothers alone may have more conduct and behavioral problems than do children raised by parents. Kelley, Whitley, and Campos (2011) studied 2,309 mostly African American children ages 2 to 16 who were being raised by grandparents in homes with no parent present. They found that almost one-third (31.3%) of the children scored in the clinical range for behavioral problems. Children's behavioral problems were linked to increased psychological stress among grandmothers, a less supportive home environment, and fewer family resources. c. The role of fathers i. A substantial line of research shows the diversity among African American fathers, including research on middle-income fathers ii. Research indicates that African American fathers are actively involved in the socialization of their children. iii. Black fathers (compared with Latino and White fathers) provided the highest levels of caregiving, play, and visiting activities with their children. iv. When African American fathers engage with their children, their children show higher academic achievement. Young children of fathers who engaged in home literacy practices, such as having books in the home, reading books with their children, telling stories, and singing, at 24 months had higher reading and math scores in preschool than children whose father was not engaged in literacy activities v. Other studies have shown that when African American fathers do not live with their children, they still remain emotionally involved in their children's lives. African American fathers generally are more involved with their children when they are infants and again when they enter early adolescence, when compared with other developmental periods. vi. Research has shown that adolescent sons engage in less risky behavior when nonresidential fathers are involved in their lives vii. Involvement includes providing racial socialization messages, monitoring their sons' whereabouts, involvement in school and extracurricular activities, and communication. viii. Fathers encouraged their sons to verbalize rather than suppress their emotions. Fathers reminded their sons that challenging situations were temporary and of the importance of maintaining a positive outlook. A second theme was encouragement. Fathers encouraged their sons to develop interest and skills in sports and hobbies and to remain motivated in the face of setbacks. Fathers showed encouragement by "being there" and "being present." A third theme was discipline. Fathers viewed discipline as very important to helping their sons develop into healthy African American adults.

Inclusive Metaphysical Epistemology

Inclusive metaphysical epistemology refers to the use of both affective and cognitive syntheses of information as a way of knowing. Reality is not limited to what is understood by the five senses, and rational logic is not the only way of obtaining knowledge.

What is indigenous psychology?

Indigenous Psychology is an approach to studying relatively distant and unknown cultures.

Which schools were more accepting of Blacks in Psychology programs?

Northern universities were more accepting of Blacks in Psychology programs.

What were the names of the four kingdoms of African rule?

Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Kingdom

old-fashioned racism

Old-fashioned racism is the type of racism seen in Whites' beliefs in the inferiority of African Americans (e.g., Blacks and Whites should not attend school together).

Who invaded Kemet?

Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs

Who was the first female Pharaoh?

Pharaoh Hatsheput: Finished the expulsion of the Hykos (Asian invaders) and ruled with Queen Nefertiti

What is the best method to study African Americans? Quantitative or Qualitative?

Qualitative

Under what circumstances might ethnic identity change?

Situational and environmental factors have an impact on one's ethnic identity. Identity change may occur if an individual moves into a new situation or a new environment or has a change in life circumstances, such as relocation, marriage, new job, new school, and so on. When a new situation is encountered, the individual is prompted to search for a new source of support. The new support may move the individual into another context in which he involves himself in activities and organizations that support that new identity.

What was the role of Herman Canady in the organization of the Association of Black Psychology?

Spearheaded the effort to organize Division 6 as the Department of Psychology of American Teachers Association Mailed out ideas about a name for this type of organization, major objectives, specific purposes, membership requirements, officers, and policies for meetings

Spiritness

Spiritness is a concept whose meaning is to be full of life—to have a mind, soul, energy, and passion. From the Africentric perspective, spirit is both real and symbolic and is the divine spark that makes humans who they are.

Who was Imhotep?

The father of medicine, philosopher, priest, astronomer, prime minister, engineer, and teacher Builder of the first pyramid

Who authored the first books on the Black family? What were the titles?

W. E. B. Du Bois authored the first books on the Black family, The Philadelphia Negro and The Negro American Family.

Dimension of the African Worldview: Collectivism

Well-being of the group to which one belongs is most important. Emphasis is place on maintain harmony within the group

Dimension of the African Worldview: Time Orientation

Time is cyclical rather than linear. Time is flexible and is to be used rather than be dictated. The past is as important as the present and the future.

Veneration

Veneration of the person assumes the value of all living beings. A person's life is interwoven with the lives of everyone else. This includes both the living and the departed. In short, life is venerated, cherished, and celebrated.

What was the Climate in Psychology prior to 1968 for African Americans pursuing degrees in Psychology?

Very few African Americans were awarded degrees and it was very difficult to even be accepted into institutions who awarded PhDs in psychology.

When was the Association for Women in Psychology founded?

1969

When did APA establish the Minority Fellowship Program?

1974

When did APA establish the committee on Minority Affairs that called for curricular reform?

1978

What is APA?

American Psychological Association

Omission of the Final Consonant in Some Words

"In African American Vencular English (AAVE), scome words are pronounced with the final consonant omitted. For example, words like past are pronounced "pas," desk as "des," and build is "buil." According to Rickford (n.d), this feature also occurs in some White English, especially in the South, but, in general, occurs more frequently in Ebonics."

Showing Possession by Context and/or Juxtaposition

"In Black English, there is no standard rule for how possession is shown. For example, "My sister name is Shanita," or "He live near my cousin house," rather than, "He lives near my cousin's house." In SAE, possession is shown by the letter "s" preceded by an apostrophe."

Multiple Negation

"Two or more negative markers in one sentence may be used in African American English. This may be used to emphasize a point: "I don't got no money," may be used instead of, "I don't have money." Or "Shana can't buy no car," instead of, "Shana cannot buy a car.""

What three basic beliefs does Traditional African Religion share with other religions?

- Belief in a Creator who is in control of the universe - Belief that man's bond to his Creator and his later separation from the Creator is due to his own fault - Belief that man will attempt to reconcile himself with his Creator and that this reconciliation will lead to his salvation

How is religion and spirituality measured among African Americans? What are the complications and limitations of measuring these constructs?

- Measures of religion include measures of religious beliefs and practices, religious attitudes, religious orientation, religious morals and values, religious coping and problem solving, and relationship-with-God scales. Most measures of religion and spirituality have not been developed with African American samples and should be used cautiously. The religious measure from the National Survey of American Life is an exception, as is the Attitudes toward Religious Help-Seeking Scale.

What is the significance of spirituality in everyday challenges for African Americans (ex., stressful events, health, etc.)?

- The findings from several studies show that various dimensions of spirituality and religiosity increase subjective well-being, lower depression and mental distress, reduce mortality and illness, and improve relationship quality. - Several studies have shown that among diverse African American populations, spiritual and religious beliefs are an integral part of coping with adverse situations. Spiritual beliefs are linked to positive and adaptive coping strategies, such as planning and organization. - Indirectly, spirituality promotes better mental health by reducing stress through the adaptive coping strategies, mentioned previously. Religious practices and spiritual beliefs, in and of themselves, are coping strategies that are linked to other positive coping. strategies. Spirituality and religiosity help to protect individuals from the effects of stress on physical health. Those with high religiosity and spirituality have better physical health and recover from illnesses more quickly than those with low spiritual beliefs. Religious practices and spirituality are also linked to less pain and better medical and rehabilitation outcomes

Seven Principles of Kemetic Spirituality

1. The One and the Many - Viewed the divine force as one force that differentiates itself as different souls 2. The Force Within a. The God power is within you. 3. The Blessing in Balance a. Ma'at : The highest moral/spiritual code i. Balance, reciprocity, justice, etc. 4. Tools for the Path of Spiritual Development a. Prayer b. Ritual ceremony practices 5. Sacred Myths and Messages a. Mythology is core in African Spirituality as well as in all of the core religions 6. The Sacred in Symbolism - Symbol of the ank represents the symbol of life, used for meditation - Presented in wedding ritual shown; similar to communion and other practices such as Islam and Buddism 7. Reconciliation at the end of life; The Final Judgment - In the end, we are going to be judged by our deeds

When did APA establish an Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs?

1979

Dynasty

A family or rulers that governed the land

Model of Racial Identity: Nigrescence

Accounts for what happens during each of the stages African Americans go through to reach racial awareness 1) Preencounter (to racism) 2) encounter 3) immersion-emersion (into personal culture) 4) internalization 5) internalization-commitment

Acculturation

Acculturation refers to both individual and group-level changes in behaviors, attitudes, and values that take place over time as two or more cultural groups come into contact

I. How does Shade explain the cognitive styles of African Americans?

African American children's perception of their environment shows that they usually attend more to social and interpersonal aspects than to physical aspects of their environment. Another reason for the preference among African Americans for social stimuli over physical stimuli is that people of African descent tend to place value on communalism and relationships. African Americans differ from Whites not only in what is attended to in the physical environment but also in their preference for certain sensory channels. Within the United States, most information is transmitted via the visual channel. However, the visual channel may not be the only preferred modality for African Americans. Studies suggest that African Americans may prefer auditory (hearing) and tactile (touching) channels when receiving information. African American children may prefer to use kinesics or movement in learning contexts. African American children likely attend to multistimuli and especially social stimuli. They also may prefer receiving information via auditory and tactile channels, along with visual channels. Some may be likely to organize information more holistically rather than in a piecemeal fashion. These preferences are socioculturally and not biologically determined.

What is the case with schizophrenia, depression, and ADHD among African Americans?

African Americans are more likely to be diagnosed as having schizophrenia and less likely to be diagnosed as having a psychotic affective disorder than are Whites. Data from mental health service settings similarly suggests a discrepancy, such that African Americans are more likely to be overdiagnosed with schizophrenia and underdiagnosed with depression. The overdiagnosis of schizophrenia may be related to African Americans' greater likelihood of presenting in clinical settings with Schneiderian first-rank symptoms (i.e., auditory hallucinations, delusions, and loss of agency) Whaley's work also suggests that issues of mistrust may play a role in the overdiagnosis of schizophrenia and underdiagnosis of depression among African Americans. Although ADHD is believed to be biological in nature, cultural factors also may play an important role in the manifestation of the disorder and its diagnosis. Findings from comparative studies conducted in the 1970s show African American children are rated higher than White children on symptoms of ADHD on parent and teacher rating scales More recent findings on racial and ethnic differences in ADHD diagnosis are mixed. In an examination of 133,091 children receiving services in the New York State public mental health service system, African American and Hispanic children ages 3 to 17 were more likely to receive a diagnosis of ADHD. African American and Latino children were less likely to have a diagnosis of ADHD once socioeconomic factors and ADHD symptoms were controlled. Among children in the sample diagnosed with ADHD, parents of African American children were less likely to report medication use. Similarly, African American children in the nationally representative Early Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class 1998-1999 were less likely to have received a diagnosis of ADHD and, if diagnosed, less likely to be taking prescription medication related to ADHD.

What professions were African Americans limited to who held degrees in Psychology?

African Americans were limited to professorship because most African American colleges were teacher training institutes

How can the sexual identity of Black LGB be explained?

African Americans who are LGBTQ must contend with the values and expectations of the communities in which they live and work. Family and religious institutions can be both supportive and nonsupportive systems for African Americans. In fact, some researchers have suggested that the combined effects of racism in lesbian and gay communities and homophobia in racial or ethnic communities may limit (among some) the internalization of a sexual identity and also the disclosure of sexual identity

Africentric Values

Africentric values are the beliefs, attitudes, and worldview that come from people of African descent.

Traditional African Religion: Belief in Spirit Beings

After God and the divinities come the spirit beings. These spirits may be good or bad, but they are usually good. Spirits are immaterial but can assume dimensions when they wish to be seen. Ghost spirits are spirits of those who die a cursed or bad death—that is, by hanging, drowning, or disease. Sometimes, these spirits may enter into animals or birds to destroy or harm people. These spirits are bad spirits.

Explain these Africentric models of mental health: Akbar's Nosology

Akbar (1981) articulated a classic nosology of mental disorders based on the premise that a pathological society (i.e., a social system that incorporates racism, oppression, and unnaturalness) leads to four types of disorders: (a) self-destructive (described earlier), (b) alien-self, (c) anti-self, and (d) organic. Within the alien-self disorder, individuals behave in ways that do not support their survival. Akbar indicates that individuals may manifest this disorder through neurotic anxiety and identity disturbances, such as low self-esteem. A person with an anti-self disorder identifies with and has internalized the majority culture's negative stereotypes and pejorative attitudes regarding Blacks. Anti-self individuals express overt and covert hostility toward their own group. Akbar argues that organic disorders (e.g., hypertension, schizophrenia) may also be related to pathological social processes and linked to anti- and alien-self disturbances.

What dynamics determine how racism is experienced?

Although racism affects all African Americans, it may have less of an impact among African Americans of higher socioeconomic status because they have resources to buffer against some of the negative effects of racism. Subtle and covert forms of institutional racism affect almost all African Americans, and more direct, obvious forms of racism may less frequently affect those African Americans who have access to wealth, power, and influence.

Nigrescence: Pre-Encounter

An orientation toward White culture and away from Black culture. People in this stage may feel ashamed and embarrassed about being African American and may hold the values of the White culture.

Traditional African Religion: Belief in Ancestors

Ancestors are believed to have special powers in the afterlife and, through these powers, to intervene in the lives of the living. They also act as intermediaries between God and the divinities and men. Ancestors are the unseen members at family or tribal meetings and serve as guardians. The ancestors are respected and honored and are remembered, especially at annual festivals.

What is "transubstantive error"?

Applying the norms and standards of one group to another

Explain these contributions to mental health care for African Americans: Boyd-Franklin's family therapy

Boyd-Franklin's work with African American clients emphasizes the culturally shaped social contexts of Blacks and is based on a multisystem model of psychotherapy. Boyd-Franklin (1989) proposes that therapeutic work with African Americans should focus on the family. Therapy with African American families should involve work across multiple systems, including the individual; the "real" (i.e., the functional as opposed to nuclear or biological) family and household; the extended and nonblood family; and Church, community, and social service organizations. Boyd-Franklin suggests that the treatment process is circular, involving (a) joining and engaging the family, (b) initial assessment of the family, (c) problem solving, (d) family prescriptions and assignments, (e) information gathering through completing a family genogram (i.e., a family tree), and (f) work to "restructure" the family.

Explain these alternative theoretical perspectives on mental health among African Americans: Welsing's symbolism

Building on the psychodynamic tradition, Welsing emphasizes the role and importance of symbolism. For example, Welsing suggests that the shape, color, and size of balls used in American sports, as well as weapons (e.g., guns, missiles) and historical monuments, reflect psychodynamic and symbolic issues that have deeper racial and sexual implications.

How did the Black migration from the South to the North affect the Black family?

By 1925, Blacks in the urban North, Midwest, and West no longer had the cultural practices that had enabled them to survive in the South. During this time and the decades that followed, new phenomena surfaced: children reared by mothers only, welfare dependency, juvenile delinquency, and drug addiction. According to Staples, about 10% to 15% of all Black families experienced these problems in the 1950s. Social policies that included welfare and poverty programs were developed during the period of the 1950s. However, many of these programs did not consider other factors that affected the African American community. For example, social policies were based on a "breadwinner" model that assumed that husbands would provide the basic needs for their families. This model did not consider the low wages and the high level of unemployment among African American men that made it impossible for them to take care of their families. Consequently, some of the early programs that were intended to benefit families may have encouraged fathers to be absent from the home. For example, public assistance requirements prohibited male presence in homes in which public assistance was received, as discussed previously (i.e., man-in-the-house rule).

Multidimensional: Centrality

Centrality refers to the extent that race is core to an individual's self-concept and how she normally defines herself.

What are the three areas that researchers must be aware of when conducting survey research with African American participants?

Cognitive frames, language, and refusal rates

What other learning styles describe the style of African Americans?

Communal learning

Describe features of African American churches.

Community Fellowship The Church becomes part of the extended family, and Church life is often intermixed with family life. The concept of the Church family is relevant to many African Americans and describes the overarching involvement of the Church in its members' lives. The Church provides stability, affirmation, connection to others, recreational activity, and opportunities for educational and learning experiences. Most African Americans participate in activities and services outside of routine Sunday worship services. Children participate in activities such as Sunday school and Vacation Bible School. Adults participate in Sunday school, Bible study, choir, and special interest groups (i.e., women's ministry, couples ministry, prison ministry, and so on). Women Are Followers The leadership structure usually involves men in the pulpit and majority women in the pew—men in power and women following their edicts. The extensive and significant contributions of African American women are made as lay leaders, not as religious heads of Churches. Women usually conduct most of the Church activities, from organizing fellowship dinners to laying out the clothes for a baptism.

Darwin's Theory and Scientific Colonialism

Darwin's theory of the strongest and most intelligent could survive was used to determine that the differences between African Americans and white people were present because African Americans were inferior.

Nigrescence: Encounter

During the dissonance or encounter stage, individuals encounter an event or series of events that shatter the perception of themselves or the perception of the conditions of Blacks in America.

What subfields were African Americans studying Psychology limited to?

Education psychology and adolescent psychology.

Why have African Americans considered education valuable?

Education was seen as a tool and resource of resistance and liberation.

Explain Edward's model of psychologically healthy African Americans.

Edwards (1999) provides a hierarchy of dimensions that define the "essential characteristics of a psychologically healthy African American/Black person". Starting with the most important one, the dimensions of African American psychological health are the following: i. Ideological/Beliefs: Possessing a sense of spirituality, including the need for a belief in God and being in touch with a greater power or Supreme Being; having a strong cultural identity, and being proud of one's cultural heritage; being practical and having common sense ii. Moral Worth: Showing self-respect, positive self-esteem, demonstrating a sense of honesty, and responsibility and being true to oneself and others; expressing true respect and compassion for others iii. Interpersonal Style: Communicating and interacting well with others to develop, maintain and strengthen healthy relationships; being assertive and able to demonstrate respect for others while still expressing oneself and one's true feelings iv. Competence: Having capacities such as intelligence, being flexible and resilient, pursuing educational growth, and possessing skills to survive v. Determination: Being determined and demonstrating the capacity for will power and self-control, including being goal oriented vi. Unity: Maintaining or possessing a sense of inner peace; having good self-knowledge and understanding; striving to be one's best vii. Health/Physical: Being in good physical health, including having a healthy diet, taking care of one's appearance and appreciating one's own sense of beauty

How did enslavement affect the Black family?

Enslavement had several pervasive, institutional, and long-term effects on the family. These included earlier ages of intercourse, childbearing, and establishment of a household. In African communities, natural spacing techniques, such as breastfeeding and polygamous unions, allowed women to space childbearing. Within the New World, there was an emphasis on increased economic production and, consequently, an emphasis on human reproduction. Therefore, enslaved African women began parenting at earlier ages and had greater numbers of children than did their foremothers in Africa. Permanent unions and marriages were not possible because slaves could be sold at any time. Marriages between Africans in the United States received no legitimacy from slave owners. Enslaved Africans were required to get permission from their owners before they could marry, even though their marriages were not legally recognized.

What is the Africentric approach to the acquisition of knowledge?

From an Africentric view, Myers posits that self-knowledge is the basis of all knowledge: "The Afrocentric epistemology starts out assuming the interrelatedness of all things and that whatever you believe is, is for you, given [sic] your conceptual system". Recognition of one's own perceptions, values, and feelings is necessary for knowledge acquisition. Knowledge is subjective and is based on each person's perspective. Within an Africentric framework, knowledge that is derived from individuals with whom one has positive interpersonal relationships has value over and beyond knowledge that is generated by experts or published in established media.

Galton's Theory and Scientific Colonialism

Galton's theory, intelligence is an heritable trait, was the driving force behind the Eugenics movement, Those who were deemed inferior (African Americans, other ethnic minorities, the disabled, and the poor) were encouraged to undergo sterilization and selective mating.

Gender Identity

Gender identity involves the individual's sense of being psychologically male or female.

Gender Roles

Gender role beliefs are the expectations and beliefs that people hold as to how males and females are supposed to feel, think, and act

Irvine wrote about how historically there have been four explanations for the achievements gaps between African Americans and Caucasians

Genetic flaw i. Proof: How do you explain AA geniuses and intelligent black people? Deprivation: History of slavery made them not able to do any better Socioeconomic Status: The poorer you are, the dumber you are Cultural: There are cultural differences that make the Eurocentric i. Only viable explanation curriculum incompatible with learning in AA children

Traditional African Religion: God is Good

God is identified with goodness. The goodness of God is seen in the satisfaction of human needs, including supplying rain, averting disasters, and healing diseases. God is compassionate, generous, and kind. God is fair and rewards those who are good and punishes those who are evil. Humans are expected to exercise free will for good rather than evil, and so the human being, not God, is held responsible for all acts of good or evil.

Explain these alternative theoretical perspectives on mental health among African Americans: Hayes' Radical Black Behaviorism

Hayes, building on behavioral perspectives, describes Radical Black Behaviorism, which proposes that the American context acts as a Skinnerian box within which many African Americans do not emit behaviors that elicit rewards from those who control resources. Consequently, many African Americans experience deprivation in the form of barriers and are denied access to food, education, and employment, or they receive minimal reinforcement. This is because those controlling positive consequences do not value and appreciate behaviors relevant to African American culture, and African Americans are not socialized or enculturated to engage in behaviors valued by Whites.

What consequences have resulted from the strain and struggle of the Black family?

Higher rates of childhood poverty, poor social skills, high school dropout rates, teen parents, juvenile delinquency, fewer resources, economic instability, decreased well-being among children.

How do current conceptualizations of race differ from historical conceptualizations?

Historical conceptualizations of race were one that focused on human biogenetic variation exclusively and the current other merged together both physical features and aspects of social and cultural behavior. Skin color, hair texture, nose width, and lip thickness have remained primary markers of racial identity in the United States

Models of self-concept

Historical: Historically, African Americans in the United States have been described as having a negative self-concept and a tendency to self-denigrate as a result of inferior status in this country.

What is the history behind categorizing individuals according to race?

Historically, racial differences have been used as an indication of biological differences. Banton locates the first use of the term race in early 1500s Europe. Between the 16th and the 18th centuries, race was used as a general categorizing term, similar to and interchangeable with such terms as type, kind, sort, and breed. Toward the end of the 17th century, race had begun to be used as a term that referred to populations in North America—European, Africans, and Native Americans (or Indians). In the early 18th century, the use of race as a term increased in the written record and became standardized and uniform

Multidimensional: Ideology

Ideology is the third dimension of the MMRI and describes four different sets of beliefs and attitudes: (a) nationalist, (b) oppressed minority, (c) assimilationist, and (d) humanist.

Oakland School Board

In December 1996, the Oakland, California, school board adopted the position that in order to achieve SAE proficiency, the unique language of African Americans must be recognized. This position generated a lot of controversy. Opponents of this position felt that it encouraged inferior education for Blacks. Some thought that by recognizing as legitimate a language that was not SAE, African Americans would not be able to compete in the real world where SAE is the norm. Opponents felt that using Ebonics would promote another educational handicap for African Americans. Supporters of the new policy argued that the recognition of Black English as a language would help develop language strengths in students by building on Black English in the classroom. For example, SAE could be reinforced if teachers were familiar with the language students used. Rather than always correcting students for using Black English, teachers could allow students to communicate using this language while teaching them SAE.

What is the primary system used to understand psychological maladaptation?

In the United States, the DSM-V is the primary classification system used by professionals to understand mental illness and psychological maladaptation. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition

Individual Racism (personal)

Individual-level racism is synonymous with racial prejudice. This type of racism assumes the superiority of one's own racial group and rationalizes the dominance and power generally of Whites over African Americans. This racism would be targeted at an individual, although a person holding race prejudice beliefs can also engage in institutional or cultural racism. An example of this type of racism might be a comment made by a teacher about the intellectual capability of an African American student.

Who was the first African American woman to earn a PhD in Psychology?

Inez Beverly Prosser was the first African American woman to earn a PhD in Psychology from the University of Cincinnati.

What is the sequence of psychological themes that have been placed on African Americans?

Inferiority: Blacks are inferior to Whites because of poor genetics Deficiency: Blacks are deficient because culturally deprived environments Multicultural: Strengths and weaknesses associated with all cultures Ethnic/Cultural: Black psychology reveals truths about Blacks

Institutional Racism

Institutional racism is revealed by policies and practices within organizations and institutions that contribute to discrimination for a group of people. In this context, one does not have to be an individual racist in order for racism to occur in institutions. Institutional racism can also be thought of as structural or systematic racism that continually leads to adverse outcomes for African Americans. Institutional racism is a primary reason for racial inequalities. An example of this type of racism might be the criteria used for placement tests that lead to African American youth being underrepresented in gifted and talented programs within a school system.

Nigrescence: Internalization-Commitment

Integration of personal sense of black identity into a way of being or long lasting commitment to black community and issues

Intelligence and Scientific Colonialism

Intelligence testing, notably the Simon-Binet Scale, was used to determine the intelligence of different ethnic groups. Intelligence testing determined that African Americans were inferior to Whites on conceptual and intellectual attributes, but strong in sensory and motor abilities. This finding perpetuated Black inferiority and the association of Black people with manual work.

Maat

Introduced in the Book of Ptah-hotep. Speaks to ethics; meaning, truth, justice, propriety, harmony, balance, reciprocity, order, and rightness in the divine, natural, and social realms

What was the name of the invited address that Martin Luther King Jr. delivered and what did he suggest to psychologists?

Invited Distinguished Address to the Society for Psychological Study of the American Psychological Association To suggest mechanisms to create a wholesome black unity and a sense of people hood while the process of integration proceeds

What are the advantages and disadvantages to identifying genetic similarities in racial groups?

It allows us to appreciate our differences, but our noted differences can cause division.

Who are the 7 African-centered psychologists?

Joseph White Asa Hillard Wade Nobles Na'im Akbar Kobi K. K. Kambon (aka Joseph Baldwin) Linda James Myers Cheryl Tawede Grills

What is the official academic journal of Black Psychology?

Journal of Black Psychology

Where did the first human civilization reside?

Kemet (Ancient Egypt)

Describe Kemet

Kemet was an extremely advanced civilization that was considered the "land of the black skinned people". The civilization was ruled by dynasties and was far more advanced than our civilization, with technology, language, and art.

Sep Tey

Kemetic story of creation. Includes God, good and evil, procreation, the material and the spiritual, resurrection, finite and infinite, and elements of the universe

What two court cases supported the legitimacy of Black English?

King v. Ann Arbor and Oakland School Board

King v. Ann Arbor

King v. Ann Arbor was filed on behalf of 15 Black children who attended school in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The children lived in a low-income community. The judge ruled that the Ann Arbor school district had to consider Black English in its educational process. It also acknowledged the responsibility of schools to teach Black children Standard American English (SAE). This case was significant because it recognized the legitimacy of Black English and laid the foundation for Black English to be recognized in the educational process.

Ma'at

Ma'at is a cardinal principle that governs the dynamic functioning of the universe and refers to balance and cosmic order. There are seven cardinal virtues of ma'at: truth, justice, compassion, harmony, balance, reciprocity, and order. The more one practices these virtues, the more developed one's self becomes.

Maafa

Maafa is the word used to describe the enslavement of Africans by Europeans. The maafa was designed to oppress, humiliate, and destroy African people. Critical to maafa is the denial of the humanity of Africans. It is seen today in oppressive and discriminatory actions against African Americans.

Traditional African Religion: Belief in the Practice of Magic and Medicine

Magic is the attempt to influence people and events by supernatural means. Magical objects, like charms, talismans, and amulets, are used as protection against evil forces, such as witchcraft and sorcery, and to achieve success. Some may use magic to harm others or to gain an advantage. Medicine is the art of restoring and preserving health. An African belief is that medicine is closely associated with religion. The Divine Healer (i.e., God) dispenses medicine through the divinities and to spirits who, in turn, provide the knowledge to priests, medicine men, and traditional healers.

What is mentacide?

Mentacide has been defined as the intentional destruction of an ethnic group's collective mind or the oppressive imposition of another culture as a means of dominating the oppressed group. Mentacide includes forms that affect peripheral aspects of the self (i.e., major depression, generalized anxiety, or eating disorders) or that are alienating in nature (i.e., that undermine an individual's psychological sense of his or her ethnicity).

How is mental health defined in traditional terms versus Africentric terms?

Mental health is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a state of well-being in which every person realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able to make a contribution in his or her community. Mental health is the achievement in the psychological and behavioral spheres of life of a functioning that (a) is in harmony with and (b) embraces the natural order. Rather than a focus emphasizing mental "illness" (from a health or medical model perspective), the focus, from an African-centered perspective, is on mental "order" and "disorder."

What was added to the Psychology graduate program requirement for African Americans and not so for White Americans?

Negotiation skills to get into certain high-education institutions

Describe the two types of literature on the Black family during the 1960s and 1970s.

One group of studies focused on the conditions and circumstances that prevented Blacks from social and economic upward mobility. Moynihan's (1965) commissioned paper, "The Negro Family: The Case for National Action," is illustrative of this approach. This paper portrayed Black families as pathological, with a structure that differed from the normative family structure within the United States. Normative family structure was based on middle-class European American family structure. According to Moynihan, in essence, the Negro community has been forced into a matriarchal structure, which, because it is so out of line with the rest of the American society, seriously retards the progress of the group as a whole and imposes a crushing burden on the Negro male and, in consequence, on a great many Negro women as well. aThe second type of literature that emerged during the 1960s and 1970s used a strength model to describe Black families. These writings used new ways of understanding the experiences of African American families. The patterns and styles that had come to be associated with African American families were seen as adaptive and functional for the survival and well-being of members of the family. This new work viewed flexible family structure, such as the extended family, as functional. Authors of this type of literature discussed the dynamic and positive interactional patterns and support systems within African American families

Dimension of the African Worldview: Verve and Rhythm

One prefers movement and stimulation and changes in stimuli in environment

Self-esteem

One's affective or emotional reaction toward and feeling about oneself that is also evaluative.

Dimension of the African Worldview: Orality

Oral Communication is important in conversation. Oral communication from sages and elders is valued.

Which more closely matches African American culture?

People of African descent are likely to have interdependent conceptualizations of the self, as are members of Latino, Asian, and Native American cultural groups. In interdependent cultures, the self is seen as connected to and linked within the surrounding social context, and the self is considered in relation to others.

How have these practices/programs helped mental health care for African Americans?: The Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs of the American Psychological Association (APA) The Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issued, Division 45 of APA National Institute for Mental Health's (NIMH) NIMH-COR APA Guidelines

Outcome evaluations of the women who completed the culturally adapted therapy and the women who completed traditional cognitive behavioral therapy reflected decreases in symptoms for both groups. The cultural group had higher depression scores at baseline and experienced a larger decrease in scores at posttest.

Model of Racial Identity: Parham

Parham modified the nigrescence theory to include a life span perspective on racial identity. His adaptation addresses how the stages of racial identity are manifested in three phases of life: (a) late adolescence/early adulthood, (b) midlife, and (c) late adulthood. Each of these phases has a central theme that relates to a particular stage of racial identity. Parham's adaptation of the model accounts for how one would experience nigrescence during the three developmental periods.

Dimension of the African Worldview: Balance and Harmony with Nature

Preference is to live in harmony with nature and appropriately use nature's resources

How are acculturation and racial socialization measured ?

Racial socialization has been studied by asking adolescents what messages they have received from parents and grandparents. Stevenson developed a 45-item Racial Socialization Scale that measures these processes. The scale is used with adolescents and has four components. The spiritual and religious coping component includes items about messages that recognize spirituality and religion as helpful to surviving life's experiences. A second component is extended family care. These items express attitudes and interactions that promote the role of the extended and immediate family in child-rearing and caretaking. A third component is teaching children African American history, culture, and pride. This component is called cultural pride reinforcement. The fourth component is racism awareness teaching. These items focus on messages and attitudes that promote cautious and preparatory views regarding the presence of racism in society. In addition to the adolescent scale, there is a recently developed parental racial socialization scale.

Racial Socialization

Racial socialization is a process involving messages and behaviors about race that parents or other members of a person's social context transmit to children and adolescents

What are the documented effects of racism? (ex., Jena 6, Incarceration, Health Disparities, Housing)

Racism has an especially powerful and deleterious impact on African Americans in the criminal justice system, on health outcomes, in housing, and on psychological and mental health outcomes.

How is racism measured?

Racism has been assessed using both direct and indirect strategies. Direct measures ask respondents about their attitudes and reactions toward a racial or ethnic group. Indirect measures assume that participants are not always motivated to be honest about racial bias and use other indicators for assessing race reactions.

What is the definition of racism?

Racism includes the beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation

What are the three proper uses of comparative research frameworks?

Research compulsion: Investigation of racial differences on variables that are straightforward (income, health status, and gender ratios) Construct compulsion: Investigations that acknowledge cultural differences in the construct used in the investigation: within cultural studies and cross-cultural studies Deconstructive compulsion: Investigations that deconstruct conclusions about Blacks that prevail in mainstream literature

What "culturally appropriate" psychological services are available for African Americans?

Resources have been developed to assist those providing culturally appropriate psychological services to African American clients. These would include books, such as The First Session With African Americans: A Step by Step Guide by Janet Sanchez-Hughley (2000), Black Women's Mental Health by Evans, Bell, and Burton (2017), Black Families in Therapy (Boyd-Franklin, 2013), and professional training videotapes on psychotherapy with African Americans, such as Working With African American Clients.NTU is spiritually based and uses the principles of Nguzo Saba (see Chapter 2 for principles) as guidelines for living in harmony. NTU has been used with several treatment and prevention services, including in-home family therapy, case management, crisis intervention, parenting skills, and other cultural programming including rites-of-passage programs.

What helps to increase positive self attributes?

Rites-of-passage programs have been used as a vehicle for promoting positive identity. Rites of passage have been used in both historical and contemporary times as a mechanism for encouraging youth to develop the attitudes and behaviors necessary for productive citizenship. Parents can support racial socialization by having discussions about the achievements of African Americans and engaging in activities that support these messages. Activities may involve visiting African American cultural exhibits, having dinner in an African American restaurant, celebrating Kwanzaa, and purchasing books by and about African American authors. Schools can contribute with the visibility of high-achieving students of color, cooperative learning environments, and multicultural curriculums that promote racial pride.

How did Sakhu become Psychology?

Sakhu -> Psyche -> Psychology

Multidimensional: Salience

Salience involves the extent to which individuals emphasize race as an important dimension of their self-concept at a specific point in time.

Salience

Salience involves the extent to which individuals emphasize race as an important dimension of their self-concept at a specific point in time.

Sankofa

Sankofa is an Akan Adrinkra symbol that means in order to go forward, one must look back. In contemporary African American culture, this means that one must look back at historical events to learn from them and to plan for the future. Sankofa also symbolizes one's return to African culture and identity for guidance.

Nigrescence: Internalization

Self-acceptance & pro-active black pride unfused in everyday life while appreciating other dimensions of diversity

Self-concept

Self-concept involves beliefs and knowledge about the self. Our self-concept organizes and manages information about how we see ourselves. The self-concept is a component of our self-schema.

What are the alternative guidelines for studying people of African descent, offered by Semaj?

Self-knowledge should be of primary importance. "Know thyself." There should be no artificial divisions via discipline; such divisions do not allow for the collective efforts that come about through diversity. There should be no limitations on issues studied and methodologies used to study them. Scholars should be free to study that which is important and not just that which is dictated by one's discipline. There should be no scientific colonization. Research should be conducted that will serve the interests of people rather than to advance a career or satisfy individual interests. There should be concern with interpretation and application of data. The scientist should make sure that his or her findings are appropriately interpreted and applied. The publication and dissemination of work should be done by those who share the vision of liberation. Researchers should practice what they preach. The lifestyle of the researcher should be consistent with his or her work.

When and where did the Association of Black Psychology Develop?

September of 1968 in San Francisco

Sexual Identity

Sexual identity is generally thought of as sexual orientation and one's beliefs and feelings about the individual or individuals to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted.

Social identity

Social identity is that part of an individual's self-concept that is derived from his or her membership in and adherence to the values associated with that culturally defined social group

What is the difference between religion and spirituality?

Spirituality is a connection to a higher power and the internalization and expression of key values, such as goodness in daily life. Spirituality was conceptualized as one's relationship with a higher power or with transcendent forces, including nature. Religion was seen as the mechanism for achieving spirituality.

Dimension of the African Worldview: Spirituality

Spirituality is interwoven in all aspects of life. There is no separation of spirituality and everyday activities.

What issues get in the way of accurately studying African Americans mental health as a whole?

Stigma surrounding mental health, lack of participation in studies, and lack of studies focusing on African Americans

What are the historical explanations about African Americans' cognition?

Studies found that African Americans were inferior to Whites in their performance of many cognitive tasks, including performance associated with general intelligence and perceptual fluency

Symbolic Racism

Symbolic racism is reflected in beliefs among Whites that racial discrimination is no longer a problem in this society and that African Americans have not obtained success because they simply have not worked hard enough for it. The term symbolic is relevant because it highlights the fact that these beliefs are symbolic of an abstract system of learned moral values and ideals.

What were the other two names for Kemet?

Tawwe and Tamari

What jobs were black psychologists limited to back in the day?

Teachers, military men, and work in government

When did APA establish the Committee of Equality of Opportunity to examine racial inequality?

The APA established the Committee of Equality of Opportunity to examine racial inequality in 1963.

When was the Association of Black Psychologist founded?

The Association of Black Psychologists was founded in 1968.

What is the role of the church for African Americans today?

The Church serves several purposes for its members: It is the place to receive spiritual renewal, religious education, family and community connections, and reinforcements and rewards for positive behaviors and service to the community.

What models have been offered for coping with racism? (ex., James Jones' TRIOS model)

The EMBRace (Engaging, Managing, and Bonding through Race) is a 5-week program for African American families. Given the pervasive and chronic nature of racism, these types of programs are needed in communities throughout the United States. Africultural coping has four primary components: (a) cognitive or emotional debriefing, (b) spiritual-centered coping, (c) collective coping, and (d) ritual-centered coping. Cognitive or emotional debriefing is an adaptive reaction by African Americans to manage perceived environmental stressors. It might involve having a discussion with a supervisor about a coworker who is contributing to racial stress. Spiritual-centered coping is a coping behavior based on a sense of connection with spiritual elements in the universe and with the Creator. It could involve connecting to one's higher power and praying as a way of dealing with racial stress. Getting together with other African Americans and discussing and planning an activity would be an example of collective coping. These coping behaviors rely on group-centered activities. Ritual-centered coping is the use of rituals to manage a stressful situation. It might involve rituals such as playing certain types of music and lighting candles to deal with stress. Comas-Díaz (2016) describes a race-informed approach clinicians can use to help survivors of racial trauma. This approach is intended to give voice to participants, help them to see themselves as a source of authority, and help them to develop crucial consciousness to transform themselves and their circumstances. Comas-Díaz describes four steps that can be taken. i. The first step is an assessment of the race-related stress and trauma. Survivors are asked to tell their story within a safe environment; this exercise contributes to agency and power. ii. The second step is one of desensitization, whereby the therapist helps the survivor to self-regulate her or his traumatic reactions after giving voice in the first step. Survivors are taught techniques such as safe-place imagery, healthy visualizations, and the practice of mind-body healings. iii. The third step is reprocessing, whereby clinicians support survivors in reprocessing negative thoughts and substituting these with positive thoughts. Here, the therapist helps the survivor find meaning and growth following traumatic events (e.g., adversity can teach one a life lesson). iv. The fourth and final step is one of psychological decolonization, where critical consciousness is raised by asking questions such as, "Who benefits from racism?" Social action (giving testimony, advocacy, and community involvement) is also advocated in this step. d. Franklin (1999) describes a type of coping mechanism used by African American males called the "invisibility syndrome." Drawing from the earlier writing of Ralph Ellison in The Invisible Man, Franklin notes that some African American males may try to become invisible to cope with the adverse consequences of being noticed. However, Franklin notes that being invisible is not without its own adverse consequences. Invisibility, in fact, negates one's sense of identity and being, which creates other psychosocial problems. Finally, some African Americans engage in unhealthy behaviors, such as increased drinking, smoking, and other drug use to cope with racism and discrimination

What is the Eurocentric approach to the acquisition of knowledge?

The Eurocentric view of knowledge assumes that external, or objective, understanding is the basis of all knowledge. From this perspective, knowledge is acquired by observing the external environment. Counting and measuring are ways of acquiring this type of knowledge. The process by which learning goals are met focuses on that which is measurable, repeatable, and reproducible.

What must researchers be aware of when conducting experiments with African American participants?

The Selection of Participants? i. Participants must represent the population of Blacks ii. Whites do not have to be included to make the investigation legitimate iii. The number of participants selected should be based on the proportion of African Americans in the community, rather than a mere minimal The Selection of Instruments? i. Instruments selected should be normed on Blacks ii. Watch for operational definitions of constructs. Research involving constructs must look at culture iii. Culturally appropriate instruments should be used The Selection of Design and Analyses? i. Within-group designs should be selected ii. Case studies, ethnographies, and other qualitative methods should be used iii. Quantitative methods should be accompanied by qualitive methods

Which type of literature on the Black family during the 1960s and 1970s remains today?

The Strength Model

What are the three schools of thought in African American psychology?

The Traditional School of Thought seeks a change in mainstream psychology to include Black people in research and improve the perspective of Black people while using Eurocentric theory and foundation. The Reform School of Thought seeks changes in public policy in favor of pro-Blackness and utilizes a mixture of Eurocentric and Africentric perspectives. The Radical School of Thought uses the African Worldview to develop psychology and only works to appeal to Black people, like the Reform School.

To what extent is discipline disproportionate for African American students?

The U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (2014) reports that Black students are 3 times more likely to be suspended or expelled from school than are White children. These disparities are reflected among preschool as well as older children, with African American children representing 18% of the student population but 48% of those experiencing more than one school suspension.

What is the difference between an analytical learning style and a relational learning style? Which more closely matches the style of African Americans?

The analytical learning style is similar to the elemental way of organizing information, and the relational learning style is akin to the holistic style for integrating information. The relational learning style more closely matches the style of African Americans.

What is Scientific Colonialism?

The control of knowledge and information designed to advance certain ideas and to prevent the spread of others

What is the assumption of the "deficiency" psychological theme that has been used to explain African Americans? Give an example.

The deficiency psychological theme assumes that African Americans are inferior because they were not conditioned to act within the customs of white people. An example of this is the idea that black people are savage for their type of dancing and dressing that is simply different than white people.

Why has the definition of psychology been simplified?

The definition of psychology has been simplified to just mind bc the invaders didn't understand that they weren't spiritual

What are the three Big Questions in African American Psychology?

The first Big Question in African American psychology is "Whether to negative Western models, theories, and methods because of the inherent biases involved". Since African Americans have been excluded from the research and explanations developed in Western psychology, many wonder if it should even be used for African Americans. The second Big Question in African American psychology is "If Black psychology is completely African based, will there be sufficient accounting for the American-ness of Blacks?" Since African Americans embody the dichotomy of being African and American, some wonder if using an African perspective will lead to the erasure of the American experience. The third Big Question in African American psychology is "Is there a balance between mainstream and African orientations?" Many argue about whether or not mainstream orientations should be used in African Psychology in a balanced manner.

What are the three approaches to psychological inquiry about African Americans that is used in the literature?

The first approach is constructionist, which is the oldest approach and is consistent with Ancient Kemetic thought. The second approach is deconstructionist and is an outright refutation of African themes in mainstream literature by European-centered psychologists. The third approach is reconstructionist, which combines mainstream theory with highlights of African culture.

What are the four camps of African American Psychologists?

The first camp of African American Psychologists includes the reactors who engage in reactive protest by protesting the misrepresentations and omission of Blacks in mainstream psychology. The second camp of African American psychologists includes capitulators who also engage in reactive protests and seek inclusion in mainstream discourse, but do not view Black psychology as separate and apart from the body and mainstream psychology. The third camp of African American psychologists involves those who are pro-Black, engage in proactive engagement, and acknowledge the African/American duality as a unique set of experiences with an Afrocentric emphasis. The fourth camp of African American psychologists involves those who are Africentric, engage in proactive engagement, and emphasize an independent African psychology grounded in African philosophy.

What are the three goals of African American Psychology?

The first goal of African American Psychology is to protect and defend African Americans from culturally biased theories, methods, and paradigms. As a specific group with such a unique experience, it is important to ensure that research about African Americans accounts for cultural and historic influences, as well as biases. The second goal of African American Psychology is to develop theories, methods, and paradigms that will give meaning to the African American experience. Since the current psychological explanations for human behavior do not account for African American culture nor explain their experiences, it is important to create research that does. The third goal of African American Psychology is to humanize Western Psychology by making it more pluralistic and inclusive of the multiple ways of human expression. African American psychology pushes the idea that there are different types of people who act different ways for different reasons which moves to broaden the scope of Western Psychology.

Multidimensional: Regard

The fourth dimension of identity, regard, involves both the individuals' feelings about group membership (private regard) and their sense of others' evaluations and feelings about their group (public regard).

Nigrescence: Immersion/Emersion

The immersion and emersion stage is characterized by a new way of thinking and a new identity that incorporates being Black. Immersion is the beginning phase and emersion the end phase of this stage. Individuals in this stage may have overvalued beliefs about the goodness of being Black

What should be noted about studying people of African descent appropriately?

The psychology of African Americans cannot be studied with the same methodology used to study European Americans. The use of the experimental method to study African Americans, noting that this method, with its emphasis on control and prediction, has been used to control oppressed people. The scientific method, in its attempt to isolate discrete cause-and-effect relationships between variables, may be inherently biased toward Eurocentric or non-Africentric explanations or perspectives of African behavior. Kambon asserts that non-Africentric (e.g., Eurocentric) theories of personality focus exclusively on the individual. Persons outside this unique individual are not considered as they are in African psychology.

Define Sakhu

The soul as the nature of being; origin of psychology A system of knowledge that is comprised of dimensions of the soul, mind, psyche, conscious, unconscious, and human transformation

How is the traditional American family described and what is it called?

The traditional American family the family as a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. Murdock defined a family as a male and female cohabiting adults who had a sexual relationship, one or more children, biological or adopted. Murdock described the nuclear family as the most basic family structure, which consisted of a married man and woman with their offspring. Murdock's definition captures what has been thought of within contemporary American culture and social science as a traditional family.

Mdw Ntr

The word of the divine

What is the proof (language and documents)?

The world's first writers were from the Nile and documented almost three thousand years of documented civilization. These documents reveal the beginnings of language, social organization, world religion, art, science, philosophy, teaching, technology, and architecture.

How does the diversity among African Americans complicate race categorizations?

There are some demographic differences between foreign-born Blacks and U.S.-born Blacks. An African American born and raised in the Midwest, a Trinidadian raised in Washington, D.C., and a Haitian raised in Miami are all Black but likely differ in terms of cultural beliefs, social behaviors, and health outcomes.

Traditional African Religion: Belief in a Supreme Being

There is a supreme being who is a God who created all things. Through one's experience in the world, one comes to know that God exists. Africans refer to God as Creator, the Great One, Omnipotent, Omnipresent, and the Great Spirit. God is everywhere, but God is also believed to be far away, beyond the reach of humans. There is nothing greater than God, and humans should humble themselves before God.

What are the 12 primary descriptors of the African worldview?

There is no mind/body duality. Emphasis is on the whole of human organisms: The human is all things at once; thinking, feeling ,expressing, learning, and living. Everything is interrelated. There are no isolated systems. Every human is endowed with a supreme life force: God is the creator and sustainer of all life. Therefore, God's spirit is alive in all life forms Emotionality is a necessary form of life: Humans were built with the capacity to express Collective survival: The emphasis is on the group, not the individual There is great respect for the spoken word. Oral histories are vital: The griot is the oral historian and available in every tribe. The speaker engages in Nommo, breathing life into words. Thus, the calling of one's name is powerful. The speaker and the listener, in sharing the same space, affirm each other's presence Time is past and present. It is not determined by numbers: Time is conceptualized as the passing of events such as the rising and setting of the sun, and the change of seasons. The clock does not determine when an individual moves from one event to the next rather, sufficient closure of the event determines the start of the next event Harmonious blending: There is a proclivity toward fellowships and communion among people Special appreciation for the elderly: The aged are revered the wisest individuals. Elderly status is just below God and ancestors Strong religious faith: Includes organized worship Self determination: Who we are is self-defined. Who we will become is self-determined Music and the Arts as forms of expression: These are links to emotionality; a natural flow The life cycle includes co caption, birth, naming ceremony, puberty, initiation rites, marriage, adulthood, old age, and immortality Death is a stage of life. It is not to be associated with fear. One does not die until the last person who knew the individuals' name died. Then the individual become a part of the ancestral spirits

Traditional African Religion: Communalism

Traditional African Religion is communal and supports the values of social solidarity, harmony, and cooperation. Traditional African Religion is not primarily useful for the individual but for the community to which the individual belongs. Community celebrations and rites, with public drumming, dancing, and singing, have religious meanings. They are important occasions for the collective affirmation communal values and strengths, bonding members of the community together.

Traditional African Religion: Provides a Moral Code

Traditional African Religion provides sanctions for the moral obligations and responsibilities of community members. The enforcement of these sanctions is often done by the traditional religious leader. Misfortunes that befall individuals or communities are often interpreted as punishment for bad behavior or failure to fulfill moral obligations to kinsfolk and the community. Good fortunes are seen as rewards for meeting the community's moral obligations.

Traditional African Religion: The Soul is Immortal

Traditional African religious views on death and immortality are complex. There is the common view that the soul is an immortal part of the human being that survives death, and in an afterlife, this soul will give an account of its physical life to God. Because the soul returns to God when the person dies, the soul is immortal. This immortal soul enters the world of the spirits, that which is beyond this world. This belief implies that a person is immortal.

Traditional African Religion: Little Concern with Afterlife

While there is belief in an afterlife, traditional African religions do not concern themselves with what kind of life will be led by the immortal soul. For example, there are no beliefs about heaven or hell, a better life, or resurrection. In contrast to an emphasis on a better life after death, as in many Christian religions, more focus is placed on the attainment of human fulfillment in this world. Religion is considered essential to attain the needs and happiness of human beings in this life. Prayers often request that God provide comforts and the things necessary for a happy, satisfying life. This belief emphasizes that religion must have a social value. Religious faith is perceived as useful and practical, rather than as a means for salvation.

Are early childhood education experiences good for African American children? Why or Why Not? Give examples.

Yes. Studies show that long-term benefits of participation in such a program included fewer special education placements, greater school attainment, lower adult arrest rates, and higher incomes

What are the features of Black English?

Zero Past Zero Copula Use of the Word Been With Stress to Convey the Remote Past Omission of the Final Consonant in Some Words Using a Pronoun to Repeat the Subject for Emphasis Turning a Word Into Its Opposite Showing Possession by Context and/or Juxtaposition Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement Use of the Verb Be to Express Habitual Action Multiple Negation

Why is the concept of race problematic? (ex., self-selection, multiracial individuals)

a. A first reason is because there may be inconsistency between official and legal designations and how individuals define themselves. b. Many individuals are biracial or multiracial and want to identify with all of the racial designations of all of the racial groups to which they belong. c. The concept of race is often treated as a valid construct and used as a general explanatory factor

What is African American Psychology?

a. African American Psychology is consideration for the unique behavior and functioning of African Americans from an African American perspective. It generates theories, research, concepts, methods, therapies, and intervention-prevention programs based on the distinctness of African Americans.

How does the care for the elderly differ in White and Black families?

a. African American elderly have less income and experience more poverty and inadequate health care than do White elderly b. The family is the primary source of social support and care for African American elderly c. African American home health care providers spend more time providing home health care than do Whites d. Home health care is most consistently provided by African American women than White women

How do parenting styles differ in White and Black families?

a. African American parents are more likely than White parents to use punitive methods such as physical punishment and assertion of authority b. African American parents are more likely than White parents to value and stress autonomy among their children c. African American parents are more likely than White parents to make decisions for their adolescent children

What are the statistics that show the history of education for African Americans?

a. African Americans have shown increases in educational attainment since the 1940s. b. Although only 31.4% of African Americans age 25 or older had a high school diploma or GED in 1970, by 2016, 91.1% of African Americans 25 to 29 had graduated high. c. Educational attainment at the high school level was generally comparable between African American men (91.7) and women (90.7). d. For African Americans age 25 or older, 2015 data indicate that 87.7% had completed high school or more, and 22.9% had attained a bachelor's degree or higher (U.S. Census, 2015). This compares to 93.3% of Whites having attained a high school diploma and 36.2% having attained a bachelor's degree or higher in 2015. e. Based on Current Population Survey (CPS) data, in 2015, 6.5% of African Americans between ages 16 and 24 were classified as status dropouts (i.e., those not enrolled in school and who have not earned a GED or other high school credential) in comparison to 4.6% of Whites (U.S. Census, 2016g). These figures represent declines since 1992, when 13.7% of African Americans and 7.7% of Whites were classified dropouts. f. Over time, more African American students have made an immediate transition to a 2- or 4-year college (e.g., 41.7% in 1975, 55.6% in 2015) (American College Testing Program, 2016). Of youth ages 16 to 24 who graduated from high school between January and October of 2016, 58.2% of African American students enrolled in college, compared with 69.7% of Whites, 92.4% of Asians, and 72% of Hispanics (BLS, 2017). g. For African American students who began their first full-time, 4-year college experience in 2010, 38% graduated within 6 years, compared with 62% of their White peers (Shapiro et al., 2017). In 2015, 14.1% of college students were African Americans (NCES, 2016a). h. Since the early 1990s, women have been enrolled and completed college at higher rates than males. Gender differences have been especially notable among African Americans, where Black females have higher levels of postsecondary educational attainment than African American males. While there has been a general positive trend in the enrollment of African American males in postsecondary degree-granting institutions (e.g., 17.5% in 1980, 34.1% in 2015), the enrollment for African American females has declined (e.g., 20.9% in 1980, 41.9% in 2009, 35.7% in 2015).

According to Boykin and Toms, what three experiences are African American socialized through?

a. African Americans must participate in mainstream American culture b. African American parents teach their children about being an ethnic minority and prepare them for an oppressive environment c. Black parents socialize their children within the Black culture experience

What is the timeline of the history of Psychology, beginning in Kemet?

a. African Psychology - Kemet (Ancient Egypt), 3200 B.C.E b. Eurocentric Psychology; Wilhelm Wundt's Psychology laboratory - Germany, 1879 c. First Black PhD in Psychology, Francis Cecil Sumner - Clark University in Massachusetts, 1920 d. Founding of Association of Black Psychologists - American Psychological Association Annual Meeting - San Francisco, 1968 e. Africentric Thrust - United States, early 1970s

Describe the religious history of the African American experience.

a. During the colonial period, the spirituality of Blacks appeared to be of limited interest to White settlers. In the mid to late 1700s and during the 1800s, slave owners most frequently used Christianity as a means of social control to keep enslaved Africans compliant and docile. Slave owners and clergy taught enslaved Africans that Christianity would save their souls and provide them with a good afterlife if they were obedient to their masters. This emphasis on afterlife was one difference seen in religious beliefs among Africans in Africa and enslaved Africans in America. In addition, Christian doctrine was shaped to support social and political rhetoric that provided a rationale for sustaining the "peculiar institution." However, Churches and spirituality also served as opportunities for enslaved Africans to communicate through hidden messages embedded in the lyrics of spirituals. Spirituals spoke of freedom and sometimes communicated maps or signals related to escape plans or directions relevant to the Underground Railroad. b. Although many enslaved Africans adopted Christian beliefs, those beliefs and religious practices were notably shaped by their native spirituality. Enslaved Africans began organizing their own worship services and met at prearranged times in secret places for singing, preaching, and praying. Jesus Christ became a figure of liberation for enslaved Africans as they identified with his persecution, were strengthened by his perseverance, and found hope in his resurrection. Enslaved Africans found hope and comfort in the presence of God, in meetings to support each other, and in music and dance. Within the Church, they felt respected and in control of their destiny. The Church remains today a place where African Americans can achieve respect and influence regardless of life circumstance. c. Along with messages of liberation and empowerment have been messages about the responsibility of the African American Church to provide social, economic, psychological, and educational support to its people. The African American Church has been described as the only institution within the African American community that is owned and controlled solely by African Americans. Consequently, no other institution in the United States has the level of loyalty and attention to and by African Americans as does the Church.

What events makeup a history of segregation for African Americans school experiences?

a. In challenging the legal principle of "separate but equal" established by the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, Thurgood Marshall, in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, used the doll research by Mamie and Kenneth Clark (1939, 1947). This research presented evidence of the negative effects of segregation on the development of Black children b. Southern public school systems were slow to desegregate, and the courts frequently ordered school redistricting or busing to remedy unequal access to educational opportunity. For example, in Virginia, a political movement called Massive Resistance (1956-1959) led tothe closing of public schools in opposition to desegregation. The Virginia General Assembly, in 1958, passed a series of laws allowing local decisions in student placement, making public education optional and cutting off state funding for schools that allowed Black and White students to attend the same schools. c. Although the effort was legally squelched in 1959, some schools in Virginia did not begin integration efforts until 1968. Whites in New Orleans boycotted integrated schools, and governors in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Alabama attempted to block the entrance of Black students to White colleges and universities as late as 1963. The flight of Whites to suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s led to the de facto segregation of most urban-suburban government jurisdictions. d. Later court decisions (e.g., Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 2001; Freeman v. Pitts, 1992; Missouri v. Jenkins, 1995; Oklahoma v. Dowell, 1991) released school systems from court supervision of their desegregation efforts.

How has high stakes testing disadvantaged African American students?

a. Lipman (2002) suggests that these " policy efforts promote and even exacerbate unequal educational access. b. In addition, Lipman describes how some school system workshops advised teachers about which students not to focus on. Teachers were advised to reduce their focus on both students who will clearly pass tests and students with little potential to pass so that the school could achieve its goals in test performance. In contrast, at higher-performing schools, teachers are described as focusing on developing richer curricula and promoting the value and love of learning. Orfield, Losen, Wald, and Swanson (2004) raise concerns that educational testing policies may exacerbate dropout problems among ethnic minority students (e.g., Haney et al., 2004), as school districts may have incentives to "push out" students who are perceived to bring down passing test score levels.

What effect do parental and teacher expectations have on school performance for African American students?

a. Maternal support was found to be predictive of the achievement of the African American students but not of the White students. Fathers' parenting behaviors were unrelated to academic achievement. b. Researchers found that student performance conformed to teacher expectations; that is, if a teacher thought a student was smart and interacted with the student as if she or he was smart, then the student performed well.

How have the following factors influence the educational experience of African American students?

a. Neighborhood i. Several cognitive and academic indicators (e.g., school achievement, graduation rates, college attendance) suggest that affluent neighbors and ethnically diverse neighborhoods benefit African American males ii. Positive perceptions of neighborhood cohesion were positively associated with school self-efficacy and self-reported grades among a sample of 84 urban African American adolescent females b. Special Education i. Data suggest that African Americans are more likely to be identified for specific learning disabilities (5.32% versus 3.42%), mental retardation (1.56% versus 0.60%), and emotional disturbance (1.27% versus 0.62%) than are their White peers ages 6 to 21 ii. Overidentification of African Americans for special education services occurs most frequently in the wealthiest school districts c. Selection in Gifted Programs i. African Americans are underrepresented in GT programs by 50%. The authors note that biased beliefs about the cognitive abilities of African Americans and the use of intelligence tests as the primary method of identifying youth for participation in GT programs places these youth at a disadvantage. d. Educational Alternatives i. "CIBI defines Afrikan-centered education as "the means by which Afrikan culture—including the knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills needed to maintain and perpetuate it throughout the nation-building process—is developed and advanced through practice. Its aim, therefore, is to build commitment and competency within present and future generations to support the struggle for liberation and nationhood ii. Data suggest that decreasing numbers of African American parents are choosing to homeschool their children. Data from the National Center on Education Statistics on homeschooling indicated that about 1.3% of African Americans were homeschooled in 2003

What happened to Ota Benga and how does this connect to "Scientific Colonialism"? What psychological theme is this an example of and why?

a. Ota Benga was imprisoned and placed on display in a cage at New York's Bronze Zoo. Benga committed suicide when he was released. Scientific colonialism justifies the treatment of Ota Benga because they deemed him closer to an animal than human. This is an example of inferiority, which deems black people depraved and animalistic, justifying the treatment of Ota Benga.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of African American attending HBCUs?

a. Participants reported the accessibility, support, encouragement and caring of faculty and administrators. Students also described the availability of peer support for motivation. b. HBCUs have less economic support from the government and alumni, which can result in a lack in resources.

What are some effective educational programs for African American students?

a. Quality Preschool Education b. Educational experiences supporting excellence and focusing on the specific educational needs of African American youth have shown promise in supporting positive educational outcomes for African Americans. c. Schools that promote strong connections between parents and the schools have also shown great promise in supporting the educational outcomes of African American students. d. Some school districts that have enacted the Comer School Development Program (SDP) model also show great promise in providing effective educational experiences for African American students, especially in low-resource communities (Comer, 2004). The SDP model focuses on supporting six developmental pathways: physical, psychological, language, social, ethical, and cognitive e. Restorative justice practices are evidence-based practices that have been used to reduce the percentage of racial and ethnic minority students who are expelled and suspended f. Considering the overrepresentation of African American students in special education settings, Irvine (2012) discussed a culturally responsive pedagogy and presented four key recommendations for training of special education teachers. These included (a) developing caring relationships with students while maintaining high expectations, (b) engaging and motivating students, (c) selecting and effectively using learning resources, and (d) promoting and learning from family and community engagement.

What evidenced-based practices reduce racism?

a. School-based interventions include using multicultural textbooks and materials, role-playing, and other kinds of simulated experiences. This research indicates that the use of multicultural textbooks, other teaching materials, and cooperative teaching strategies that enable students from different racial and ethnic groups to interact positively is effective in helping children to develop more positive racial attitudes. b. Contact Hypothesis: Increased contact is believed to lead to more positive racial attitudes and less prejudice and racism when four conditions are met: (a) Members of both groups have common goals. (b) There is intergroup cooperation. (c) There is equal status. (d) There is support from the larger social environment. c. Superordinate Group Memberships: Superordinate groups for African Americans, Whites, and other ethnic groups would be those in which all groups work together for a common goal. When superordinate group membership is salient, differences on other attributes (e.g., race, class) are less relevant (Stephan, 1999). Superordinate groups promote team activities and bonding and reduce stereotypes and potential conflicts. Examples of superordinate groups include sports teams, study groups, and social organizations. d. Societal approaches to decreasing racism have been studied in the field of sociology more so than psychology. These approaches focus on changing norms, laws, and policies that support racism. Societal ways of changing racism would involve changes at an institutional or societal level. For example, racism in health disparities could potentially be reduced if there were uniform health coverage for all, one of the intents of the Affordable Care Act.

What discriminatory societal factors have affected African American family life?

a. Slavery and the policies and laws of the Jim Crow era and continued discrimination b. Retirement age; differential consequences for Black and Whites because Black males have lower life expectancy c. Unemployment rate for African American men d. Adoption policies

What is "stereotype threat" and the "overprediction phenomenon"?

a. Stereotype threat refers to the pressure experienced by a member of a stereotyped group in a performance situation where he or she is at risk of confirming a negative or pejorative stereotype. For African Americans, academic performance situations may increase concerns about confirming or being judged based on beliefs regarding the intellectual abilities of their racial group. b. Overprediction phenomenon refers to impairments in performance caused by believing in stereotypes placed on them.

What are the five strengths of African American families that Hill describes?

a. Strong Achievement Orientation b. Strong work orientation c. Flexible family bonds d. Strong Kinship bonds e. Strong religious orientation

Explain the history of African Americans in higher education?

a. The 1978 Supreme Court decision in the Bakke case (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) supported the continuation of affirmative action in higher education, citing the educational benefits of diversity. In the 2003 cases of Grutter v. Bollinger et al. and Gratz v. Bollinger et al., regarding admissions policies at the University of Michigan, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that race can be used as a factor in admissions in college and professional degree programs. The issue was recently addressed in the Fisher case involving the University of Texas. Race cannot be used if it is based on explicit quotas or rigid procedures (e.g., adding a specific number of points to the admissions score of an individual from a particular ethnic or racial group). In 2016, the Supreme Court upheld that Texas's inclusion of race as a factor within their admissions policy passed the strict scrutiny test (i.e., proving that alternatives to diversifying the student body were not viable) and was constitutional.

What does research say about the effects of desegregation?

a. The Coleman report unexpectedly found limited racial differences in students' access to resources in suburban versus inner-city schools and reported limited school-level effects on student educational outcomes. The study suggested that family educational levels were important and reanalysis of the data and further research indicated that students of lower income benefit from an economically diverse student body b. In his book Savage Inequalities, Jonathan Kozol provides an analysis of urban and suburban public schools in six metropolitan areas. He describes dramatic differences in access to resources and infrastructure between urban schools and their suburban counterparts. Kozol poignantly notes the urban students' awareness of the gross inferiority of their schools and school resources. He describes states' local property tax funding strategies that disadvantage urban school systems. These urban school districts most often have higher proportions of nontaxable properties and higher numbers of students who may require costly special services. These services, when unavailable within the public school system, have to be paid for with public school funds. In some settings, upper-income individuals disproportionately access these services and resources such that public dollars are utilized to finance the special needs of middle- and upper-income children in private settings, further impoverishing public school districts.

What is the assumption of the "multicultural" theme in explaining cultural differences?

a. The functioning of each culture must be considered in the context of each particular culture

What methodological issues should be considered when studying African American families?

a. The impact of slavery on the African American family b. Socioeconomic class c. Recruitment of African American families

What is the role of culture in the educational experience of African American students?

a. The need for communalism: African American high school youth frequently do not have the types of social connections with teachers (e.g., contact in and out of classroom time) that may support their access to higher education. b. Black children prefer educational environments that are congruent with their cultural preferences for verve. Hale-Benson (1990) suggests that Black children prefer relational learning settings and experiences. c. One additional area in education where cultural factors have been particularly apparent revolves around the use of Black English. African American Vernacular English (AAVE) (also known as Black English or Ebonics) has been described as a rule-governed linguistic system with its own syntactic structure, lexicon, and phonology.

What are the Minimum Principles - a silent oath of Black psychology scholars?

a. The primacy of self-knowledge b. The absence of artificial divisions via discipline c. No restriction on issues and methodologies d. No scientific colonization e. The scientist should be concerned with the possible interpretation and application of the data f. The publication and distribution cannot be entrusted to any individual or institution g. Scholars must practice what they preach

Explain the thinking of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois concerning the role of education.

a. Washington felt that educational experiences should link practical applications with instruction in mathematics and the sciences. Washington's perspective emphasized the educational needs of Blacks in the "Black Belt" of the post-Civil War South, a context where wealth was largely based on agricultural production and land possession, as opposed to manufacturing. In this setting, the practices of mortgaging crops had left many Blacks in debt. Washington believed that "friction between the races will pass away in proportion as the black man, by reason of his skill, intelligence, and character, can produce something that the white man wants or respects in the commercial world Du Bois felt that education purely to support industrial and economic roles was not the single or ultimate goal of education for Blacks. Du Bois believed that for Blacks to truly progress, the community needed the "Talented Tenth"—that is, the top 10% of Blacks—to pursue professional and other higher education to provide the African American community with teachers, ministers, lawyers, and doctors.

Describe Ethnology

i. A subfield of anthropology that is concerned with race ii. Lead to the development of ethnical psychology

Define Ethnical Psychology

i. The study of the minds of other races using observation and experimentation

Wade Noble's Extended Model of Self-Concept

the basic core of the African personality is the Black self-concept which derives from the nature of the African worldview Components of the self-concept- awareness of one's historical past, future and physical and collective self