Paper 2 (Human Relationships): Evaluate two theories explaining Altruism in Humans

Theory 1: Kin Selection Theory (an evolutionary theory)

- Based on the idea that individuals are more likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non-relatives - By sacrificing yourself for relatives, you still contribute to the survival of your genes by helping close relatives.

Limitations of empathy-altruism theory

- It is difficult to generalise findings from experiments such as this one in real life. - It is a problem that it is not possible to determine whether altruism is the result of empathetic motivation or the motivation to escape one's own negative emotions. - It is clear that empathy does not always precede altruistic behaviour. People may help for other reasons

Theory 2: The empathy-altruism theory (Batson, 1981)

- The empathy-altruism theory posits that some helpful actions are truly altruistic because they are motivated by the genuine desire to increase another's welfare. Batson's understanding of altruism is that it is the helper's motives that determine whether a behaviour is altruistic or not. - According to Batson the perception of a situation and the emotion that follows determines whether an individual will help or not. Altruism can only happen if another person's perspective is taken. - Observing another person's situation may either produce empathetic concern (i.e. positive emotions like sympathy or compassion) or personal distress (i.e. negative emotions). "Empathy" evokes altruistic motivation to reduce another person's distress whereas personal distress evokes an egoistic motivation to reduce one's own distress. - According to Batson (1991) three factors facilitate perspective taking: 1. The observer has had similar experiences 2. The observer is attached to the victim 3. The person is instructed to imagine what it is like to be in the victim's position. -Perspective taking will produce the altruistic motive to reduce the other person's distress.

Theory 1: Kin Selection Theory (an evolutionary theory) - STRENGTHS

- The theory is supported by empirical studies, which generally shows preference for helping close blood relatives (e.g. in organ donations) - Mathematical computer simulations demonstrates that kin selection is one of the possible selection processes in evolution together with reciprocity

Strengths of empathy-altruism theory

- The theory is supported by many experimental studies - The theory can, to some extent, predict conditions under which altruistic behaviour will happen (e.g. the more people feel empathy the more likely they are to help other people and people who do not feel empathy will probably not help).

Simmons et al. (1977) - Kin and likelihood of kidney donations

- the study investigated whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donors - The results showed that 86% of parents said yes, but only 47% of the siblings who could be donors agreed to donate a kidney to their relative when asked. The theory predicts that both should agree so the difference in agreement to make this sacrifice cannot be explained in terms of kin alone. - Researchers asked potential recipients to rate their emotional closeness to all possible donors before the choice of a donor was made. Generally, the recipients felt very close to 63% of the potential donors but only 42% of the potential non-donors. It was found that when siblings were donors, the recipient and the donor were significantly closer in age and more likely to be the same sex than were non-donors.

Theory 1: Kin Selection Theory (an evolutionary theory) - LIMITATIONS

- the theory cannot explain why people help individuals who are not relatives (e.g. cooperation among non-relatives, spontaneous acts of bravery, or the adoption of children who are not relatives.) - Human kinship patterns are not necessarily based upon blood tie. Shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding also contribute to kinship according to anthropologists.

Batson et al. (1981) - Experimental testing of the empathy-altruistic theory (aim and procedure)

Aim: To investigate participants' motives to help when they had the opportunity to escape. Procedure: - Participants were students in an introductory psychology class at university. They were tested individually. - Before the participated they filled out a questionnaire about themselves. Each participant was led to believe that he or she was an observer to a test where another student (Elaine) was being tested to recall of digit numbers. - Participants read a short description of Elaine. Each description was manipulated so that the real participants could either identify with Elaine (high empathy) or not (low empathy) - Participants then watched Elaine over a close-circuit TV (in fact a pre-recorded video) After two trials Elaine received electric shocks. She clearly expressed they were painful. - Participants were asked if they would be willing to help Elaine by taking her place. - Half of them heard that they could either take her place or fill out a questionnaire and then leave (easy escape situation). The other half were told that they could either take her place or watch Elaine go through the remaining eight trials (difficult escape situation). - Then participants had to say what they wanted to do. When they had chosen, the experiment ended and they were debriefed.

Batson et al. (1981) - Experimental testing of the empathy-altruistic theory (Results and evaluation)

Results: - High empathy condition: Most participants agreed to help Elaine. It did not matter much whether it was easy or difficult to escape - Low empathy condition: Most participants withdrew in the easy escape condition. When it was difficult some preferred to offer help. Evaluation: The experiment involved clever manipulations with operationalised variables. This raises methodological considerations, such as the possibility of demand characteristics. The participants were all psychology students and we cannot rule out that they guessed the aim of the experiment (demand characteristics and sample bias.)

Sum of Kin Selection theory: - The focus is on genes that operate at a biological level without human consciousness. The theory is largely based on observation of animals and insects. Humans are much more complex - Altruism is seen as a behaviour that has a cost to the individual (self-sacrifice) - The theory is based on egoism (the genes are selfish and humans tend to favour kin because of genetic similarity) - The theory can explain observations of people who behave more altruistically towards kin, but cannot really explain why. It may not be for biological reasons. The theory cannot explain why people behave altruistically towards people who are not relatives. - It is very difficult to test evolutionary theories as such, but there is empirical support for kin altruism (kin selection), e.g. in research that involved organ donation or other situations that involve life or death.

Sum of Empathy-Altruism Theory: - The focus is on the human emotion empathy as the primary motivating factor in altruism. - The theory is based on altruism is seen as a behaviour that increases another person's welfare. - Altruism (humans can be truly altruistic). The theory does not rule out the possibility of an altruistic personality. - The theory can explain why people tend to behave altruistically in situations that evoke empathy but there is not a clear linear relationship. People may feel empathy and choose not to help. - It is relatively easy to test the theory under lab conditions but it is difficult to operationalise concepts like empathy.