PD BIO MID II - (Ch 5-7 & Assign #4) finalized

megakaryocte

"large nucleus cell" is a large bone marrow cell with a lobulated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes (platelets), which are necessary for normal blood clotting.

Platelets

- result from fragmentation of large cells, called megakaryocytes, in the red bone marrow -200 billion platelets are made per day -function in blood clotting -called thrombocytes -Blood proteins named thrombin and fibrinogen create clots by forming fibrin threads that catch RBCs -RBCs stick together to make a platelet plug. -They also release chemicals that promote blood clotting.

THREE ways carbon dioxide is transported in the body.

-68% as a bicarbonate ion in the plasma (this conversion takes place in RBCs) -25% bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells -7% as carbon dioxide in the plasma

What role does ATP play in muscle contraction and rigor mortis?

-ATP is needed to attach and detach the myosin heads from actin. -After death, muscle cells continue to produce ATP through fermentation and muscle cells can continue to contract. -When ATP runs out, some myosin heads are still attached and cannot detach, causing rigor mortis. -Rigor mortis and body temperature may be used to estimate time of death

5 Characteristics of white blood cells

-Derived from red bone marrow -Large blood cells that have a nucleus -Can be found in the tissues as well as the blood -Fight infection and are an important part of the immune system -Some live for only days while others live months or years

How to determine if blood types are compatible for a blood transfusion.

-First, consider the antigens found on the blood transfusion donor's RBCs -Second, consider the antibodies found in the recipient's blood -If the antibodies in the recipient's blood can recognize the antigens on the donor's RBCs, then the blood will agglutinate(clump) and cause rejection

What determines the A, B, AB, or O blood type

-Presence and/or absence of 2 blood antigens, A and B -Type of antibodies present -Antibodies are only present for those antigens lacking on the cells because these proteins recognize and bind the protein they are named after

Fast- twitch fibers

-Rely on CP and fermentation (anaerobic) -Adapted for strength -Light in color -Few mitochondria -Little or no myoglobin -Fewer blood vessels than slow-twitch

7 Characteristics of Slow- twitch fibers

-Rely on aerobic respiration -Longer term -Adapted for endurance -Dark in color -Many mitochondria -Myoglobin -Many blood vessels

blood doping

-any method of increasing the number of RBCs to increase athletic performance -allows more efficient delivery of oxygen and reduces fatigue -EPO is injected into a person months prior to an athletic event -thought to be able to cause death due to thickening of blood that leads to a heart attack

What happens when you donating blood?

-donate about a pint of blood -will replace the plasma in a few hours and the cells in a few weeks -tested for syphilis, HIV antibodies, and hepatitis; if any of them come back positive you will be notified -help save many lives

Red blood cells life cycle

-produced in the red bone marrow -Erythropoietin is secreted by kidney cells and moves to red marrow when oxygen levels are low -have a lifespan of about 120 days (stopped 12/5) -Old cells are destroyed by the liver and spleen

How does muscle contraction work?

1. Motor neurons stimulate muscle cells to contract by releasing acetylcholine o Acetylcholine excites (activates) the cells 2. Acetylcholine diffuses across the gap at the neuromuscular junction 3. The muscle fiber membrane is stimulated, and a muscle impulse travels deep into the fiber through the transverse tubules and reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. Arrival of an electrical impulse triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. These calcium ions diffuse from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm and bind to troponin. 5. Troponin and tropomyosin interact to expose binding sites on actin. 6. Actin and myosin filaments form linkages 7. Myosin cross-bridges pull actin filaments inward 8. The muscle fiber shortens as contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism

The Sarcomeres is made of 2 protein myofilaments

1. Primarily, a thin filament consists of 2 intertwining strands of the protein actin. These filaments slide over one another during muscle contraction. 2. A thick filament is composed of several hundred molecules of the protein myosin. Each myosin molecule is shaped like a golf club.

7 ways skeletal muscles are named

1. Size 2. Shape 3. Location 4. Direction of muscle fiber 5. Attachment 6. Number of attachments 7. Action

Where are the 4 fuel sources for muscle contraction?

1. Stored in the muscle (Glycogen & Fat). 2. Stored in the blood (Glucose & Fatty acids).

5 functions of skeletal muscles

1. Support the body by allowing us to stay upright 2. Allow for movement by attaching to the skeleton 3. Help maintain a constant body temperature 4. Assist in movement in the cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels 5. Protect internal organs and stabilize joints

5 major functions of the skeletal system

1. Support: rigid, strong bone is well suited for bearing weight and is the major supporting tissue of the body. 2. Protection: bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds. 3. Movement: skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons, which are strong bands of connective tissue. 4. Storage: some minerals in the blood are taken into bone and stored. 5. Blood cell production: many bones contain cavities filled with red bone marrow, which gives rise to blood cells and platelets.

What are the 3 factors that determine overall muscle force?

1. The number of muscle cells in each motor unit 2. The number of motor units active at any one time 3. The frequency of stimulation of individual motor units

Unique characteristics of muscle fibers

1. The sarcolemma is connective tissue holding the myofibrils together. 2. There is no endoplasmic reticulum, but a sarcoplasmic reticulum instead. 3. Sarcomeres are primarily composed of lipids. 4. T tubules are continuations of the plasma membrane.

3 functions of blood

1. Transportation: blood transports all substances needed anywhere by the body including oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and gets rid of waste products. 2. Regulation: Blood helps our bodies regulate body temperature, the volume of water in the body, and the pH of body fluids. 3. Defense: Blood contains defense cells that help protect against infections, diseases, and excessive blood loss through the clotting mechanism.

Appendicular skeleton contains

1. Upper limbs (Arms): clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, hands, attached to the trunk by the pectoral girdle. 2. Lower limbs (Legs): femur, tibia, fibula, feet, attached to the trunk by the pelvic girdle.

How does blood clotting occur?

1. Vascular spasm 2. Platelet plug formation 3. Blood clotting Damage to blood vessels causes the vessels to spasm and the nearby platelets to become sticky and adhere to each other, limiting blood loss. In addition, a series of chemical events causes the blood in the area to coagulate (form a gel).

What THREE mechanisms reduce loss of blood?

1. Vascular spasm 2. platelet plug formation 3. blood clotting

How does muscle relaxation occur?

1. When nerve activity ends a muscle cell relaxes, and acetylcholine decomposes. 2. The calcium is transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport, which requires the energy in the form of ATP. 3. As calcium content in the myofibrils decreases, the troponin-tropomyosin complex shits back to its original position, thereby blocking the binding of the myosin cross-bridges to actin. 4. The muscle fiber relaxes.

Name and describe the events occurring in the four zones of the epiphyseal plate.

1. Zone of resting: cartilage attaches to the epiphysis. 2. Zone of proliferation: new cartilage is produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate as the chondrocytes divide and form stacks of cells. 3. Zone of hypertrophy: Chondrocytes mature and enlarge. 4. Zone of calcification: matrix is calcified and chondrocytes die.

White blood cells ( aka Leukocytes) have TWO major categories, what are they ?

1. agranulocytes 2. granulocytes

The vertebral column is composed of 26 vertebrae, name both the type and the quantity.

1. cervical (7) 2. thoracic (12) 3. lumbar (5) 4. sacrum (1) 5. coccyx (1)

What are the 3 characteristics of all muscle types ?

1. contractility - the ability to contract 2. extensibility - ability to stretch 3. excitability - contract in response to chemical or electrical signals

Muscle cells, also called ___1____ , are surrounded by a plasma membrane, also called the ___2_____ , and rely upon endoplasmic reticulum, also called ___3_____ , to assist in the initiation of contraction of repeating cytoskeletal elements, also called _____4____ .

1. fibers 2. sarcolemma 3. sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. sarcomeres

Muscle cells, also called ____1___ , are surrounded by a plasma membrane, also called the ____2____ , and rely upon endoplasmic reticulum, also called ___3_____ , to assist in the initiation of contraction of repeating cytoskeletal elements, also called ___4____ .

1. fibers 2. sarcolemma 3. sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. sarcomeres

3 criteria of the Structure of red blood cells

1. lack a nucleus and have few organelles 2. biconcave shape increases surface area 3. Each RBC contains about 200 million hemoglobin molecules that each bind 3 molecules of O2.

name the TWO agranulocytes.

1. monocytes 2. lymphocytes

5 Terms to describe whole muscle contraction

1. motor unit 2. muscle twitch 3. summation 4. tetanus 5. muscle tone

Granulocytes include what THREE terms?

1. neutrophils - most abundant 2. eosinophils 3. basophils Granulocytes are all roughly spherical in shape. They are larger and much shorter lived (in most cases) than erythrocytes. They characteristically have lobed nuclei (rounded nuclear masses connected by thinner strands of nuclear material), and their membrane-bound cytoplasmic granules stain quite specifically with Wright's stain. Functionally, all granulocytes are phagocytes to a greater or lesser degree.

Which ribs (numbers) are the floating ribs?

11, 12

Which type of white blood cell gives rise to antibodies? 1. B lymphocyte 2. eosinophil 3. T lymphocyte 4. monocyte 5. neutrophil

1: B lymphocyte

Cardiac muscle differs from skeletal muscle in that it _________ . 1. all cardiac muscle is under involuntary control. 2. is capable only of shortening. 3. is excitable and can shorten. 4. is capable of relaxation. 5. contracts in response to an electrical or chemical signal.

1: all cardiac muscle is under involuntary control.

Which of these activities helps me when I want to pick up a lead brick instead of a pencil? Why or why not? 1. increasing neural activity within the brain (mind of matter) 2. increasing the number of neural impulses sent by a motor unit 3. increasing the number of motor units that innervate muscle fibers 4. increasing the rate of sarcomere shortening

2, 3, 4 because the below factors determine muscle force, i.e. the force required to pick up heavier or lighter objects. -The number of muscle cells in each motor unit -The number of motor units active at any one time -The frequency of stimulation of individual motor units

Which of these activities helps me when I want to pick up a lead brick instead of a pencil? Why or why not? 1. increasing neural activity within the brain (mind of matter) 2. increasing the number of neural impulses sent by a motor unit 3. increasing the number of motor units that innervate muscle fibers 4. increasing the rate of sarcomere shortening

2, 3, and 4 because the below factors determine muscle force, i.e. the force required to pick up heavier or lighter objects. -The number of muscle cells in each motor unit -The number of motor units active at any one time -The frequency of stimulation of individual motor units

Which of the following correctly matches bone cell type with its function? 1. osteocyte = precursor to mature bone cell 2. osteoblast = bone-building cell 3. chondroblast = mature bone cell 4. osteoblast = bone-resorbing cell

2. osteoblast = bone-building cell

Hemostasis is _______ . 1. a vascular spasm. 2. the arrest of bleeding. 3. the production of hemoglobin. 4. the production of red blood cells. 5. the breakdown of worn out blood cells.

2. the arrest of bleeding.

Blood functions to maintain homeostasis in the body by doing all of the following except ___________ . 1. regulating the pH of body fluids. 2. transporting neurotransmitters to neuromuscular junctions. 3. transporting nutrients derived from digestion to tissues in the body. 4. moving carbon dioxide away from cells engaged in metabolic activity. 5. Blood actually performs this function. Review section 7.1 in your textbook where it discusses the functions of blood. 6. preventing excessive blood loss by stimulating clotting.

2. transporting neurotransmitters to neuromuscular junctions.

Place these events associated with muscle contraction to best describe the sequence in which these events occur once the initiation of contraction is stimulated by a nerve impulse travelling to the neuromuscular junction? 1. T tubules transmit electrical impulses throughout the muscle fiber 2. Myosin contacts actin and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere 3. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle sarcolemma 4. Troponin-tropomysin complex shifts to expose myosin binding sites 5. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

3, 1, 5, 4, 2

These events are associated with muscle contraction: 1. T tubules transmit electrical impulses throughout the muscle fiber 2. Myosin contacts actin and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere 3. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle sarcolemma 4. Troponin-tropomysin complex shifts to expose myosin binding sites 5. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum Which of these lists best describes the sequence in which these events occur once the initiation of contraction is stimulated by a nerve impulse travelling to the neuromuscular junction? Order these events.

3, 1, 5, 4, 2

The most common cause of muscle fatigue is: 1. depletion of calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 2. inability of myosin filaments to detach from actin filaments. 3. insufficient ATP to meet the metabolic demands of muscle activity. 4. inability to generate action potentials in the nerve supplying the muscle fiber. 5. buildup of carbon dioxide in muscle fibers.

3. insufficient ATP to meet the metabolic demands of muscle activity.

About 55% of whole blood volume is __________, which is mostly made up of water. 1. hematocrit 2. hemoglobin 3. plasma 4. white blood cells 5. clotting proteins

3: Plasma

Which of these statements is true regarding bone? 1. The outer surface of bone is covered with loose connective tissue. 2. Dense, compact bone is located in the middle of long bones. 3. Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow. 4. The epiphysis of a long bone is filled with yellow bone marrow. 5. Bone is not considered to be a living tissue because it does not contain cells or blood vessels.

3: Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow.

Arrange the events that occur in the formation of a long bone in the proper sequence: 1.Chondroblasts die and the surrounding matrix breaks down. 2.Osteoblasts secrete osteoid. 3.Blood vessels transport osteoblasts into the area to be ossified. 4.Chondroblasts create a model of the long bone from cartilage. 5.Osteoblasts become osteocytes

4, 1, 3, 2, and 5.

Which of the flowing is not a human blood type? 1. A+ 2. B- 3. AB+ 4. ABO- 5. O-

4. ABO-

What functions does muscle tissue carry out? 1. protect internal organs and stabilize joints 2. move substances within the body 3. produce body movements 4. produce heat 5. muscle tissue does all of the above

5. muscle tissue does all of the above

Bones perform many useful functions in the human body. Which of the following is not one of them? 1. produce blood cells 2. store minerals 3. provide scaffolding that muscles attach to 4. protect internal organs 5. produce and release hormones

5. produce and release hormones

What is the pH of veins?

7.35 pH

What is the pH of the arteries?

7.45 pH

Which ribs (numbers) are the false ribs?

8-12

Water makes up what percentage of plasma?

90% water

Muscle twitch

A complete cycle of a single contraction and relaxation in a muscle cell lasting a fraction of a second.

Creatine Phosphate

A compound of creatine and phosphoric acid that is found especially in vertebrate muscle where it is an energy source for muscle contraction. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly. It produces enough energy for about 30 seconds of heavy activity.

Tendon

A cord of strong fibrous connective collagen tissue attaching a MUSCLE TO A BONE.

Muscular Dystrophy

A group of inherited genetic disorders in which muscles progressively degenerate and weaken due to the absence of a singular protein. It's absence causes an abnormal leak of calcium into muscle cells, which damages muscle cell proteins and kills muscle cells that interfere with the production of muscle proteins.

what is an antigen?

A non-self protein that stimulates an immune reaction.

congestive heart failure

A progressive condition in which the pumping efficiency of the heart becomes impaired. The result is often an inability to adequately pump the venous blood being returned to the heart, venous congestion, and body fluid imbalances.

Trophomyosin

A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in a muscular contraction

what is an antibody?

A protein produced by the body to oppose the antigen

Fibrinogen

A soluble protein present in blood plasma, from which fibrin is produced by the action of the enzyme thrombin

What is lacuna?

A space within the matrix

Cartilage

A specialized connective tissue that consists of collagen fibers and elastic in a gel-like fluid called ground substance. It is found where support under pressure is necessary and where some movement is necessary, and is categorized based on the type and arrangement of matrix fibers

Myosin

A thick type of protein filament with cross bridges in a sarcomere

Articular cartilage

A thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the rounded end of a long bone (the epiphysis) where bones form a joint. It reduces friction and absorbs shocks.

Actin

A thin type of protein filament in a sarcomere

Sesamoid bone

A type of irregular bone, shaped like a sesame seed

Bones continue to lengthen throughout childhood and adolescence because _________. A. A growth plate is present in each epiphysis B. The production of cartilage for a lengthening bone occurs primarily on the inside of the growth plate C. The activity of osteoblasts cannot be reduced until adulthood D. Ossification cannot occur until after puberty E. Primary ossification until death

A. A growth plate is present in each epiphysis

All of the following processes continue in the skeletal system throughout the life span except _______________ ? A. Bones continue to lengthen B. Stem cells continue to form new blood cells C. Bones continue to be remodelled D. Bones continue to store minerals (calcium and phosphate)

A. Bones continue to lengthen

Which of the following is the correct classification of vertebrae from the skull to the pelvis? A. Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal B. cervical, thoracic, lumbar, coccygeal, sacral C. Coccygeal, thoracic, lumbar, cervical, sacral D. Sacral, coccygeal, lumbar, thoracic, cervical E. Coccygeal, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, cervical

A. Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal

The presence of an Epiphyseal line indicates ___________ . A. Epiphyseal growth has ended B. Epiphyseal growth is beginning C. The bone is fractured at that location D. The presence of the Epiphyseal line does not indicate any particular event E. Growth in bone diameter is just beginning

A. Epiphyseal growth has ended

Which of the following bone categories is composed of two layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them ______________ . A. Flat bone B. sesamoid bone C. Irregular bone D. Long bone E. Compact bone

A. Flat bone

A typical long bone is characterized by _________. A. Having a cylindrical shaft. B. having a small nob C. Being wider than it is long D. Being fluid filled E. Being composed of the latticework of hard, trabeculae

A. Having a cylindrical shaft

The vertebrae are examples of _____ bones. A. Irregular B. short C. Flat D. Long E. Sesamoid

A. Irregular

Which of these ones is not associated with the foot? A. Metacarpals B. metatarsals C. Tarsals D. Calcaneus

A. Metacarpals

All of the following bones form part of the eye socket except the __________ . A. Occipital bone B. lacrimal bone C. Zygomatic bone D. Ethmoid bone

A. Occipital bone

Which of the following contains the richest population of the stem-cell precursors for red and white blood cells? A. Red bone marrow B. Yellow bone marrow C. Osteoid D. Hydroxyapatite

A. Red bone marrow

How are blood types determined?

ABO blood typing is based on A and B antigens.Type A has A antigens, Type B has B antigens, Type AB has both A and B antigens, and Type O has neither.

How does cardiac muscle differ from skeletal muscle?

ALL cardiac muscle is under INVOLUNTARY control.

Where do the elements in blood come from?

ALL elements in blood originate from BONE MARROW. Blood picks up nutrients from the digestive system The liver makes up the majority of the proteins in plasma Hormones come from endocrine glands.

Which compounds supply energy to a muscle for muscle contraction?

ATP: -creatine -glycolysis -aerobic cellular respiration -lactic acid fermentation

Myasthenia gravis

Aautoimmune disorder that attacks the ACh receptor and weakens muscles of the face, neck, and extremities. The body's immune system attacks and destroys acetylcholine receptors on the cell membrane of muscle cells. Common effects are drooping eyelids and double vision.

Myalgia

Achy muscles due to injury or infection.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate. A neucleotide composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups. It is an important carrier of energy for the cell because energy is released when one of the phosphate groups is removed.

What is the most common plasma protein ?

Albumin- is important for water balance, produced in the liver

3 major types of plasma proteins

Albumins, Globulins, Fibrinogens

Joint

Also called articulations, are the points of contact between bones—they form connections between bones

Clotting

Also called coagulation; A complex process by which blood components form a plug to stop bleeding. Caused by the rupture of platelets and the interaction of fibrin, fibrinogen, thrombin, prothrombin and calcium ions.

Hypertrophy

An enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in size of its cells.

Thrombin

An enzyme in blood plasma that causes the clotting of blood by converting fibrinogen into fibrogen.

What stimulates calcitonin secretion?

An increase in blood Ca2+ stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin.

Which of the following might be most helpful in determining whether an adolescent is no longer growing? A. Measuring the length of the femur and hummers B. Examining the growth plates near the ends of long bones C. Examining bone density D. Examining the fontanels in the skull

B. Examining the growth plates near the ends of long bones

Which kind of joint is essentially immovable? A. Hinge joint B. Fibrous joint C. Cartilaginous joint D. Ball and socket joint

B. Fibrous joint

Which of the following might result from a parathyroid tumor that causes over secretion of parathyroid hormone? A. Joint inflammation leading to osteoarthritis B. bone loss due to stimulation of osteoclasts C. Bone growth due to stimulation of osteoblasts D. Conversion of cartilage to bone

B. bone loss due to stimulation of osteoclasts

_______ separate neighbouring vertebrae and also function as shock absorbers. A. Intravertebral discs B. intervertebral discs C. Osteons D. Ribs E. Palatine bones

B. intervertebral discs

Synovial joints may include cartilage, ligaments, tendons and synovial fluid, which of these attach bones to other bones within the joint? A. Synovial membrane B. ligaments C. Tendons D. Cartilage

B. ligaments

The humerus is an example of a _____ bone A. Sesamoid B. long C. Short D. Flat E. Irregular

B. long

All of the following bones of the skull are stationary except the __________ . A. Frontal bone B. mandible C. Maxilla D. Zygomatic bone

B. mandible

What is a basic multicellar unit?

BMU is a temporary assembly of osteoclasts and steoblasts that travels through or across the surface of bone, removing old bone matrix and replacing it with new bone matrix.

Osteoblasts

Bone-building cells. The osteoblasts secrete a mixture of proteins (including collagen) that becomes the bone's structural framework. They also secrete an enzyme that facilitates mineral deposition within the protein matrix.

Osteoclasts

Bone-dissolving cells that remodel and repair bones. They are responsible for the resorption of bone tissue

Long bone

Bones longer than they are wide

Irregular bone

Bones that do not fit in any other category

4 components of the Skeletal system

Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments

The axial skeleton contains ______________ . 1. Skull 2. Arms and legs 3. Ribs and sternum 4. Vertebrae 5. Pelvic girdles A. 2,3,4,5 B. 1,2,3,5 C. 1,3,4 D. 2,5 E. 1,3,4,5

C. 1, 3, and 4.

Steps in repair of a bone fracture include 1. Bone deposition by osteoblasts 2. Bone and debris removal by osteoclasts 3. Hematoma and 4. Formation of a dobro serials callus. In what order do these steps occur? A. 1-2-3-4 B. 3-4-1-2 C. 3-4-2-1 D. 4-3-2-1

C. 3-4-2-1

The most important minerals stored in bones are _____________ . A. Calcium and iron B. sodium and phosphorus C. Calcium and phosphorus D. Calcium and potassium E. Sodium and potassium

C. Calcium and phosphorus

The movement of the thumb to trace a circle might be best described as _____________ . A. Abduction B. rotation C. Circumduction D. Pronation

C. Circumduction

Which of the following is am example of a cartilaginous joint? A. Knee joint B. skull sutures C. Pubic symphysis D. Hip joint

C. Public symphysis

Bones that develop within the tendons are called __________ bones. A. Tendon B. irregular C. Sesamoid D. Wormian E. Sutural

C. Sesamoid

There are ____ vertebrae in the neck region. A. Seven lumbar B. five thoracic C. Seven cervical D. Twelve thoracic

C. Seven cervical

A young man is brought to an emergency room; his diagnosis is a broken cheekbone which of the following bones have been affected ____________. A. Mandible B. sphenoid C. Zygomatic D. Frontal E. Temporal

C. Zygomatic

Botulism toxin inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions. What effect does this have on the muscle activity? A. muscles will contract continuously B. muscles will contract sporadically, without conscious control C. muscles will not contract because they will not receive nerve stimulation D. there will be no effect on muscle activity

C. muscles will not contract because they will not receive nerve stimulation

Bones perform many useful functions in the human body. Which of the following is not one of them? A. protect internal organs B. provide scaffolding that muscles attach to C. produce and release hormones D. store minerals E. produce blood cells

C. produce and release hormones

Bones perform many useful functions in the human body. Which of the following is not one of them? A. protect internal organs B. provide scaffolding that muscles attach to C. produce and release hormones D. store minerals E.. produce blood cells

C. produce and release hormones

Hydroxyapatite

Calcium Phosphate Crystals; Inorganic material

How is calcium moved into and out of bone?

Calcium ions move into bone as osteoblasts build new bone, and they move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone.

Sarcomas

Cancers that originate in muscle, or the connective tissue associated with muscle.

Red blood cell (erythrocyte)

Carries oxygen to the body, picks up nutrients from the digestive system and from recycling by the cells of the body, and bring carbon dioxide from tissues throughout body to the lungs. • RBCs have hemoglobin. • Hemoglobin has heme groups. • The heme groups have iron. • Iron binds to the oxygen in the lungs and lets it go in the tissues. • Iron also binds CO2 in the tissues & brings it back to the lungs.

Red Blood Cells

Carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and bring carbon dioxide from tissues throughout the body to the lungs

As what kind of tissue do most bones start out their development?

Cartilage

What kind of tissue do most bones start out as at the beginning of their development?

Cartilage

For the process of Endochondral ossification, describe the formation of the structures included in the process.

Cartilage model - produced by the chondroblasts, is surrounded by perichondrium, except where a joint will form connecting one bone to another bone. Bone Collar - is formed by osteoblasts that produce compact bone on the surface of the cartilage model. Calcified cartilage - where chondrocytes also release matrix vesicles, which initiate the formation of hydroxyapatite crystals in the cartilage matrix. Primary ossification center - the osteoblasts produce bone on the surface od the calcified cartilage, forming bone trabeculae, which cahnges the calcified cartilage of the diaphysis into spongy bone. Medullary Cavity - osteoclasts remove bone from the center of the diaphysis to form this structure. Secondary ossification center - are additional sites of ossification that appear in the epiphyses. Epiphyseal plate - exists during the time a person's bones are actively growing and are drived from the origial embryonic cartilage model. Epiphyseal line - was the epiphyseal plate and is spongy and compact bone that is fully developed. Articular cartilage - In mature bone, it is the only cartilage present and is located at the ends of the bone.

Chondroblasts

Cartilage-forming cells that form bone.

What function is each blood cell responsible for?

Cells -- function: 1. Plasma--medium through which all components are dissolved and transported 2. Red blood cells--carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and bring carbon dioxide from tissues throughout the body to the lungs. 3. White blood cells--defend the body against disease and injury. 4. Platelets--help form blood clots.

What are centers of ossification?

Centers of ossification are the locations in the membrane where ossification begin.

Fibromyalgia

Chronic achy muscles; not well understood.

Blood type

Classification of blood based on the presence of surface antigens on red blood cells, and the presence of antibodies to surface antigens other than one's own.

Lymphocytes

Classified into B cells, that give rise to plasma cells that produce antibodies, and T cells, that target and destroy specific threats like bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells.

agglutination

Clumping due to a reaction between antibodies and antigens

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease; motor neurons degenerate and die leading to loss of voluntary muscle movement.

Describe the structure of compact bone.

Compact bone is denser and has fewer spaces than spongy bone.

Troponin

Complex of three regulatory proteins that cause muscle contraction in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Associated with actin.

Name the components of bone matrix, and explain their contribution to bone flexibility and bones' ability to bear weight.

Components: Collagen and minerals Flexibility: Like reinforcing steel bars, the collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the matrix Weight-bearing: Like concrete, the mineral components give the matrix weight-bearing strength. If all the mineral is removed from a long bone, collagen ends up making the bone overly flexible. One the other hand, if the collagen was removed the left over mineral would make the bone very brittle.

Name 3 types of lamellae found in compact bone.

Concentric lamellae, circumferential lamellae, & interstitial lamellae.

What is the structure of sarcomeres?

Consist of 2 kinds of protein filaments: 1. Myosin: composed of thick filaments with cross bridges 2. Actin: forms the thin filaments

prothrombin activator

Converts prothrombin to thrombin to form a blood clot

What is the term for the posterior concavity?

Cordosis

Pelvic girdle

Coxal bone

What indirectly provides most of the energy for muscle contraction?

Creatine phosphate

Short bone

Cube shaped bones

These events are associated with muscle contraction: 1. T tubules transmit electrical impulses throughout the muscle fiber 2. Myosin contacts actin and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere 3. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle sarcolemma 4. Troponin-tropomysin complex shifts to expose myosin binding sites 5. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum Which of these lists best describes the sequence in which these events occur once the initiation of contraction is stimulated by a nerve impulse travelling to the neuromuscular junction? A) 3, 5, 1, 4, 2 B) 4, 2, 1, 3, 5 C) 3, 5, 1, 2, 4 D) 3, 1, 5, 4, 2 E) 1, 3, 5, 2, 4

D) 3, 1, 5, 4, 2

Which of the following would be likely to prevent or slow the bone loss of osteoporosis ________________ . A. Stimulate he activity of fibroblasts B. Stimulate the activity of osteoblasts C. Inhibit the activity of osteoclasts D. Both b. And c.

D. Both b. And c.

In the formation and development of bones within the fetus which of these cell types functions earliest? A. Osteocytes B. Osteoblasts C. Osteoclasts D. Chondroblasts

D. Chondroblasts

All of the following are bones of the axial skeleton except ______________ . A. Vertebrae B. ribs C. Skull D. clavicle

D. Clavicle

The sternum is an example of a ______ bone. A. Irregular B. sesamoid C. Long D. Flat E. Short

D. Flat

The hyoid bone is unique because ____________ . A. It largely consists of cartilage B. it is covered with mucosa C. It has no function D. It is the only bone of the body that does not directly articulate with any other bone E. It has an unusual shape

D. It is the only bone of the body that does not directly articulate with any other bone

Which bones are found both in hands and feet? A. Carpals B. metacarpals C. Tarsals D. Phalanges

D. Phalanges

Which of the following bones articulates with the metatarsal bones? A. Patella B. femur C. Fibula D. Phalanges E. Tibia

D. Phalanges

Which of these statements is true regarding bone? A. Bone is not considered to be a living tissue because it does not contain cells or blood vessels. B. The outer surface of bone is covered with loose connective tissue. C. Dense, compact bone is located in the middle of long bones. D. Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow. E. The epiphysis of a long bone is filled with yellow bone marrow.

D. Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow.

Which of these statements is true regarding bone? a. Bone is not considered to be a living tissue because it does not contain cells or blood vessels. b. The outer surface of bone is covered with loose connective tissue. c. Dense, compact bone is located in the middle of long bones. d. Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow. e. The epiphysis of a long bone is filled with yellow bone marrow.

D. Stem cells responsible for the production of blood cells are located in bone marrow.

Atrophy

Decrease in size or wasting away of a body part typically due to the degeneration of cells.

What blood defends:

Defends against invasion by pathogens.

Ligament

Dense fibrous connective tissue that binds the bones together, attaching bone to bone. They provide strength to certain joints and movement of the bones in relation to each other.

Where do red blood cells originate from?

Dividing stem cells in bone marrow

The shaft is a long bone called the _________ . A. Epiphyseal plate B. epiphysis C. Metaphysis D. Lamella E. Diaphysis

E. Diaphysis

The atlas is the ____________. A. First thoracic vertebrae B. last lumbar vertebrae C. Part of the sacrum D. Second cervical vertebrae E. First cervical vertebrae

E. First cervical vertebrae

Arrange the events that occur in the formation of a long bone in the proper sequence: 1. Chondroblasts die and the surrounding matrix breaks down. 2. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid. 3. Blood vessels transport osteoblasts into the area to be ossified. 4. Chondroblasts create a model of the long bone from cartilage. 5. Osteoblasts become osteocytes. A) 3, 2, 1, 5, 4 B) 3, 2, 5, 4, 1 C) 5, 2, 3, 1, 4 D) 4, 1, 5, 3, 2 E) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5

E: 4, 1, 3, 2, 5.

The olecranon process is the _________.

Elbow

Describe the formation of spongy and compact bone during intramembranous ossification.

Embryonice mesenchyme forms a collagen membrane containing osteochondral progenitor cells. Embryonic mesenchyme forms the periosteum, which contains osteoblasts. Osteochondral progenitor cells become osteoblasts at centers of ossification; internally, the osteoblasts form spongy bone; externally, the periosteal osteoblasts form compact bone.

Epiphysis

Ends of the bone made mostly of spongy bone.

RBC production is regulated by what hormone?

Erythropoietin, which stimulates the rate of production of RBCs. It is produced in the kidneys.

How does estrogen and testosterone affect bone growth? How do these effects account for the average height difference observed in men and women?

Estrogen and testosterone initially stimulate bone growth, which accounts for the burst of growth at puberty, when production of these hormones increases. However, both hormones also stimulate ossification of epiphyseal plates and thus the cessation of growth. Females usually stop growing earlier than males because estrogens cause quicker closure of the epiphyseal plate than testosterone does. Because the whole process is shorter, females usually do not reach the same height as males.

2 forms of Muscle fibers

Fast- twitch fibers, Slow- twitch fibers

Intervertebral disks

Fibrocartilage between vertebrae

3 Types of joints

Fibrous, Cartilaginous, and Synovial

Compare the structure of a long bone with flat, short, and irregular bones. Explain where compact and spongy bones are found in each type.

Flat bones contain an interior framework of spongy bone sandwiched between two layers of compact bone. Short and irregular bones have a composition similar to the epiphyses of long bones - compact bone surfaces surrounding a spongy bone center with small spaces that are usually filled with marrow.

Axial skeleton

Forms the midline of the body consisting of the skull, cranium, facial bones, mandible, vertebral column, sacrum, ribs, and sternum.

Synovial Joint

Freely movable joints such as the ball-and-socket hip and shoulder joints, and the hinge knee and elbow joints.

Sickle-cell anemia

Genetic disorder in which abnormal hemoglobin molecules in RBCs to become sickle-shaped, stick together, creating long rods of protein that disfigure the shape of the cell and make it rigid and prone to rupture.

How white blood cells are categorized

Granular leukocyte , Agranular leukocytes

Explain the process of growth at the articular cartilage.

Growth at the articular cartilage increases the size of bones that do not have an epiphysis, such as short bones. The process of growth in articular cartilage is similar to that occurring in the epiphyseal plate.

Bone growth is greatly affected by growth hormone and thyroid hormone. Explain these effects.

Growth hormone from the anterior pituitary increases general tissue growth, including overall bone growth, by stimulating interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth. The thyroid is required for normal growth of all tissues, including cartilage; therefore, a decrease in this hormone can result in a smaller individual.

What protein do RBC's depend on to transport oxygen and some of the carbon dioxide in blood?

Hemoglobin. Each molecule of hemoglobin contains four atoms of iron that can bind reversibly to oxygen.

Red bone marrow

Hemopoietic tissue that manufactures red blood cells, hemoglobin, white blood cells, and platelets. Located within the spongy bone.

Ilium

Hip bone

Which type of cartilage is more closely associated with bone?

Hyaline cartilage

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

3 types of cartilage

Hyaline, Fibrocartilage, and Elastic

What is the U-shaped bone in the upper neck called?

Hyoid bone

Cardiac muscle: structural Characteristics

INvoluntary, intercalated disks, branched, striated

Explain how illness or malnutrition can affect bone growth.

Illness and malnutrition during the time of bone growth can cause a person to be shorter than he or she would have been otherwise.

Rh factor

In addition to ABO type, all individuals are classified according to the presence or absence of a red blood cell surface antigen called the Rh factor. Rh factor antibodies can cause a serious immune reaction of the mother to her own fetus under certain circumstances.

Describe the formation of new bone by appositional growth.

In appositional growth, chondroblasts in the perichondrium add new cartilage to the outside edge of the existing cartilage. The chondroblasts lay down new matrix and add new chondrocytes to the outside of the tissue.

Explain how a basic multicellar unit directs remodeling in compact bone and in spongy bone.

In compact bone, osteoclasts of a BMU break down bone matrix, forming a tunnel. In spongy bone, the BMU removes bone matrix from the surface of a trabecula, forming a cavity, which the BMU then fills in with new bone matrix.

How is the organization of collagen fibers different in woven and lamellar bone?

In woven bone: collagen fibers are randomly oriented in many directions and in Lamellar bone: the collagen fibers lie parallel to one another, but at an angle to the collagen fibers in the adjacent lamellae. A mature bone

What are the effects of PTH on the formation of vitamin D, ca2+ uptake in the small intestine, and reabsorption of ca2+ from urine?

Increased PTH promotes the activation of vitamin D in the kidneys, and vitamin D increases the absorption of CA2+ from the small intestines. PTH also increases the reabsorption of Ca2+ from urine in the kidneys, which reduces the amount of Ca2+ lost in the urine.

Fiber

Individual muscle cell

How does calcitonin affect osteoclast activity?

Inhibits osteoclast activity

Ossification is the formation of bone in 2 distinct ways.:

Intramembranous ossification, and Endochondral ossification

What bones or parts of bones are formed from each type of ossification?

Intramembranous ossification: many skull bones, part of the mandible, and the diaphyses of the clavicles. Endochondral ossification: Bones of the skull base, part of the mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the remaining skeletal system.

Cardiac muscle differs from skeletal muscle in that it is?

Involuntary

Hemoglobin

Iron-containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body, and is the primary component of erythrocytes.

Blood

Is a FLUID connective tissue!

What happens to the I band during muscle contraction?

It shortens

What happens to the H band during muscle contraction?

It shortens and disappears

What happens to the A band during muscle contraction?

It stays the same

What is the perimysium layer of muscle connective tissue?

It surrounds each fassicle (divides muscles into compartments).

What is the endomysium layer of muscle connective tissue?

It surrounds the individual muscle fibers (contains the capillary network and nerve fibers).

Arthritis

Joint inflammation

Neuromuscular junction

Junction between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle

Sternum

Known as the breastbone

What is the structure of muscle cells (fibers)?

Multi-nucleated, enclosed by sarcolemma

Convulsions

Multiple spasms of skeletal muscles.

What source of energy is muscle contraction dependent upon?

Muscle contraction is dependent upon ATP. Muscle cells store only enough ATP for about 10 seconds worth of maximal activity Continuous contraction requires additional ATP synthesis

fascicles

Muscle fibers are arranged in these bundles

3 Types of Muscular diseases

Myalgia, Fibromyalgia, Muscular dystrophy

What is the special terminology for organelles within muscles?

Myofibrils

Are Rh antibodies normal in the blood of any individual?

No

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Occurs during strenuous exercise when the body cannot keep up with the increased demand for oxygen by skeletal muscles and pyruvic acid converts to lactic acid, which causes pH decreases, lack of response to stimulation, and causes fatigue, cramping, and burning.

coronary artery

One of the two arteries of the heart leading to capillaries that supply blood to cardiac muscle.

Hyoid bone

Only bone that does not articulate with another bone. Supports the tongue.

Chondrocyte

Only cells found in healthy cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilage matrix.

Myofibrils

Organelles (a cylindrical collection of myofilaments) inside muscles fibers that run from end to end and are attached to the cell's surface membrane. They are important in muscle contraction and contain sarcomeres.

The three ear bones are collectively called

Ossicles

What kinds of cells are derived from osteochondral progenitor cells?

Osteoblasts

Compare and contrast the activities of chondroblasts, osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes in the processes.

Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells, have an extensive endoplasmic reticulum and numerous ribosomes. Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts. Osteocytes become surrounded by bone matrix and are relatively inactive, but do have the capability to produce components needed to maintain the bone matrix if needed. Osteoclasts are responsible for the reabsorption or breakdown of bone. They are large cells with several nuclei.

Differentiate among the characteristics and functions of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells, have an extensive endoplasmic reticulum and numerous ribosomes. Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts. Osteocytes become surrounded by bone matrix and are relatively inactive, but do have the capability to produce components needed to maintain the bone matrix if needed. Osteoclasts are responsible for the reabsorption or breakdown of bone. They are large cells with several nuclei.

Which cells produce bone, and which cells resorb bone?

Osteoblasts produce bone. Osteoclasts resorb bone.

What happens in bone when blood calcium levels increase?

Osteoclast activity decreases.

What happens in bone when blood calcium levels decrease?

Osteoclast activity increases.

What is an osteon?

Osteon consists of a single central canal, its contents, and associated concentric lamellae and osteocytes.

What causes muscle fatigue?

Overuse of muscle without periods of rest. Calcium Channels become leaky, muscles can't fully contract or relax. Buildup of lactate within cells causes increased muscle acidity and inhibition of fatty acid breakdown, and the ability of cells to work effectively is diminished. The depletion of glucose, oxygen, Ca^2+, or other necessary molecules.

Myoglobin

Oxygen-binding, iron-containing protein found only in the muscle.

Describe how PTH controls the number of osteoclasts.

PTH stimulates osteoblasts to release enzymes that break down the layer of unmineralized organic bone matrix covering bone, thereby making the mineralized bone matrix available to osteoclasts.

What stimulates the secretion of the Parathyroid hormone?

Parathyroid gland is stimulated when blood calcium levels are too low, which increase the number of osteoclasts.

Name the hormone that is the major regulator of Ca2+ levels in the body.

Parathyroid hormone

Where are the periosteum and endosteum located and what types of cells are found in each?

Periosteum covers the outer surface of a bone and it contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells. Endosteum lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones and contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells.

What is the structure of blood plasma?

Plasma contains SIX things - mostly water (90%), and: - plasma proteins (albumins, globulins, and clotting factors), - salts, - nutrients, - hormones, and - waste products.

When do primary and secondary ossification centers appear during endochondral ossification?

Primary ossification centers appear during early fetal development, whereas secondary ossification centers appear in the proximal epiphysis of the femur, humerus, and tibia about 1 month before birth.

Endochondral ossification

Process during fetal development where bone tissue is created, cartilage is replaced by bone; used by most bones.

Intramembrous ossification

Process of bone formation between sheets of fibrous connective tissue; used in flat bones whereby rudimentary bone tissue is created. It is an essential process during the natural healing of bone fractures and the formation of bones of the head. Cartilage is not present during this type of ossification.

Tetanus

Prolonged contraction of a muscle caused by frequent stimulation that causes the muscle to remain in a state of maximum contraction. It is a bacterial disease marked by rigidity and spasms of the voluntary muscles.

Ribs: function, location, and types.

Protect the heart and lungs Flattened bone originating from the thoracic vertebrae 12 pairs, 3 types: 7 pairs true ribs 3 pairs false ribs 2 pairs floating ribs

Globulins

Proteins that also assist in transport.

Fibrinogens

Proteins that are important for the formation of blood clots.

What makes type O blood unique?

RBCs entirely lack A and B antigens

Erythropoiesis

Red blood cell production

What are red blood cells?

Red blood cells carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and bring carbon dioxide from tissues throughout the body to the lungs.

What is the structure of red blood cells?

Red blood cells contain hemoglobin. They lack a nucleus and organelles.

What are red and yellow bone marrows? Where are they located in a child and in an adult?

Red bone marrow is the site of blood cell formation and Yellow marrow is mostly adipose tissued. There is a good mixture of yellow and red bone marrow in various places throughout the body. For example, an a childs long bone, the medullary cavity contains red bone marrow. An adult long bone's medullary cavitiy contains yellow bone marrow, which replaced the red bone marrow.

Eosinophil

Red-stain readily. 2 important functions: 1) defend the body against large parasites like worms, and 2) release of chemicals that moderate the severity of allergic reactions.

Tone

Result from a small number of motor units being involuntarily activated. It results in sustained contraction of a small number of muscle fibers.

What can cause a severe immune reaction of the mother to her own fetus under certain circumstances?

Rh Factor

What type of muscle will not contract unless stimulated by neurons?

Some muscles (skeletal muscles) will not contract unless stimulated by neurons; other muscles (smooth & cardiac) will contract without nervous stimulation but their contraction can be influenced by the nervous system

5 Common muscle disorders

Spasms, Convulsions, Cramps, Strain, Sprain

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells that surrounds the myofibrils and stores the calcium needed for the initiation of muscle contraction

Describe the structure of spongy bone.

Spongy bone appears porous, has less bone matrix and more space than compact bone.

What cells give rise to osteochondral progenitor cells?

Stem cells

What types of cells give rise to osteoclasts?

Stem cells from red bone marrow

Skeletal Muscle name by ATTACHMENT NUMBER example

The BI-ceps brachii 2 attachments.

Oxygen deficit

The amount of oxygen required after exercise to oxidize the lactic acid formed by anaerobic metabolism during exercise

What causes the transfusion reaction?

The antibodies of a blood type cause the reaction.

H band

The band that dissappears.

Vertebral column

The body's main axis (the backbone or spine) made of vertebrae and intervertebral disks that supports the head, protects the spinal cord, and serves as the site of attachment for the four limbs and various muscles.

Formed Element

The cellular elements of blood; produced in red bone marrow. erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Cells and cell fragments (45% of blood) ; hematocrit=45%; includes erythrocytes(RBC), platelets (thrombocytes), Leukocytes(WBC)

Medullary cavity

The central cavity of bone shafts where red bone marrow or yellow bone marrow is stored.

What is the epimysium layer of muscle connective tissue?

The dense layer of collagen surrounding the entire muscle (separates muscles from other tissues and organs).

Plasma

The fluid component in blood that serves as the medium through which all other blood components are dissolved and transported.

What is bone growth stimulated by?

The growth hormone, which stimulates the lengthening activity of the growth plate. During puberty the sex hormones also stimulate the growth plate.

Bone

The hard elements of the skeleton that contribute to support, movement, and protection. They also produce the blood cells and store minerals.

Distinguish between the location and the composition of the internal callus and the external callus.

The internal callus forms between the ends of the broken bone, as well as in the marrow cavity if the fracture occurs in the diaphysis of a long bone. The external callus forms a collar around the opposing ends of the bone fragments.

Where do the formed elements in blood come from?

The lifespan of the formed elements is very brief. Although one type of leukocyte called memory cells can survive for years, most erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets normally live only a few hours to a few weeks. Thus, the body must form new blood cells and platelets quickly and continuously. The process by which this replacement occurs is called hemopoiesis. All formed elements arise from STEM CELLS OF THE RED BONE MARROW. Sites of Hemopoiesis Prior to birth, hemopoiesis occurs in a number of tissues, beginning with the yolk sac of the developing embryo, and continuing in the fetal liver, spleen, lymphatic tissue, and eventually the red bone marrow. Following birth, most hemopoiesis occurs in the red marrow, a connective tissue within the spaces of spongy (cancellous) bone tissue. In children, hemopoiesis can occur in the medullary cavity of long bones; in adults, the process is largely restricted to the cranial and pelvic bones, the vertebrae, the sternum, and the proximal epiphyses of the femur and humerus. Throughout adulthood, the liver and spleen maintain their ability to generate the formed elements. This process is referred to as extramedullary hemopoiesis (meaning hemopoiesis outside the medullary cavity of adult bones). When a disease such as bone cancer destroys the bone marrow, causing hemopoiesis to fail, extramedullary hemopoiesis may be initiated.

What produces muscle contraction?

The microscopic shortening of sarcomeres all at once is what produces contraction (shortening) of the muscle cell and the whole muscle.

Osmotic pressure

The minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Plasma proteins

The most abundant organic molecules.

Neutrophil

The most abundant type of white blood cell or granulocyte. "neutral-loving" . The first white blood cells to combat infection. Engulfs microbes by phagocytosis and tends to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days. Contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease; especially target bacteria.

What is the most common cause of muscle fatigue?

The most common cause of muscle fatigue is insufficient ATP to meet the metabolic demands of muscle activity. Although muscle fatigue can also be caused by psychological factors including discomfort or boredom of repetitive tasks.

Albumin

The most common group of proteins in blood plasma. They have osmotic (water balance between blood and interstitial fluid) and transport functions (bind to bilirubin, fatty acids, penicillin)

How can a person be protected from the affects of aging on their skeletal system?

The most effective preventive measure against the effects of aging on the skeletal system is the combination of increasing physical activity and taking dietary calcium and vitamin D supplements. Intensive exercise can even reverse loss of bone matrix.

Motor unit

The motor neuron, a nerve fiber, and all of the muscle fibers it stimulates and controls. Is the smallest fractional unit of muscle contraction and coordinates the contractions of a single muscle.

sarcolemma

The plasma membrane

Glycolysis

The process by which glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecules. Provides enough ATP for about 30-40 seconds of maximal muscle activity.

Growth plate

The reason why bones continue to grow. It is a narrow strip of cartilage that lengthens the bone as the two growth plates grow further and further apart. Chondroblast activity is concentrated outside of the plate, and osteoblast activity is concentrated on the inside of the plate.

What are the features that make muscle fibers unique compared to other cells?

The sarcolemma is connective tissue holding the myofibrils together. There is an endoplasmic reticulum, but it is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. T tubules are continuations of the plasma membrane.

Sarcomere

The smallest contractile unit of muscle myofibril, repeating units of actin and myosin found along a myofibril, that extend from one Z-line to the next.

Explain how the epiphyseal plate remains the same thickness while the bone increases in length.

The thickness of the epiphyseal plate does not increase because the rate of cartilage growth on the epiphyseal side of the plate is equal to the rate of cartilage replacement by bone on the diaphyseal side of the plate.

What activities do WBC's carry out?

Their activities include: participating in the response to tissue injury, producing antibodies, engulfing entire foreign cells, and releasing enzymes to attack foreign organisms too large to be engulfed in whole.

sliding filament theory

Theory of muscle contraction that states that contraction is caused by a sliding movement of the thin filaments along the thick filament, resulting in a shortening of the sarcomere.

Fontanels

These are soft spots are the large, membrane-covered spaces between the developing skull bones that have not yet been ossified.

Lymph

a colorless fluid containing white blood cells, that bathes the tissues and drains through the lymphatic system into the bloodstream

edema

a condition characterized by an excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body

Muscle tone

a continuous, partial contraction of alternate muscle fibers causing the muscle to look firm - maintain posture, walking around

Thrombocytopenia

a disorder in which the number of platelets is too low due to not enough being made in the bone marrow or the increased breakdown outside the marrow

Aponeurosis

a flat sheet like fascia that connects muscle to bone or muscle to muscle.

Antigen

a foreign substance, often a polysaccharide or a protein, that stimulates an immune response

Hemophilia

a genetic disorder that results in a deficiency of a clotting factor so that when a person damages a blood vessel they are unable to properly clot their blood both internally and externally causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury. The condition is typically caused by a hereditary lack of a coagulation factor, most often factor VIII.

Antibody

a protein made in response to an antigen in the body which binds specifically to that antigen

Prothrombin

a protein present in blood plasma that is converted into active thrombin during coagulation

cardiac cycle

a sequence of events encompassing one complete contraction and relaxation cycle of the atria and ventricles of the heart.

The following events are associated with muscle contraction. Which of the following best describes the oder in which these events occur, following the initiation of a contraction by a nerve impulse? 1. tubules transmit electrical impulses throughout muscle cell 2. myosin contacts actin and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere 3. acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle 4. troponin-tropomyosin complex shifts to expose myosin binding sites 5. calcium is release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum a) 3,1,5,4,2 b) 3,5,1,4,2 c) 3,5,1,2,4 d) 1,3,5,2,4 e) 4,2,1,3,5

a) 3, 1, 5, 4, and 2.

the mechanical force of the contraction is generated by ______________ . a. a sliding of thin filaments past thick ones b. shortening of the thin filaments c. the temporary disappearance of thin filaments d. shortening of the thick filaments e. the accordian-like folding of thin and thick filaments

a. a sliding of thin filaments past thick ones

The sliding filament mechanism describes the process during which_________. a. actin and myosin slide relative to each other b. sarcomeres slide relative to each other c. troponin and tropomyosin slide relative to each other d. muscle fibers slide past rach other

a. actin and myosin slide relative to each other

Which blood type can a person with blood type O receive? a. blood type O b. blood type B c. blood type A d. blood type A, B, AB, or O e. blood type AB

a. blood type O

Which property do BOTH red blood cells and platelets have in common? a. both lack a nucleus b. both transport oxygen c. they are found in approximately equal numbers in the circulating blood d. both are derived from erythroblasts

a. both lack a nucleus

Jason's spent four weeks in Rocky Mountains national park, studying plants that grow above 10,000 feet elevation. which of the following would likely change in his blood because of time spent at a high elevation? a. increased number of red blood cells b. increased number of white blood cells c. increased number of platelets d. increased amount of globulins in the plasma

a. increased number of red blood cells

The more movable end of a muscle is the _________. a. insertion b. proximal end c. belly d. distal end e. origin

a. insertion

All of the following are functions of the muscular system except _______. a. maintenance of the body calcium storage b. resisting movement c. maintenance of body temperature d. movement

a. maintenance of the body calcium storage

When oxygen availability drops, certain cells in the kidney respond by producing erythropoietin, which in turn stimulates an increase in red blood cells. This cellular response represents a. negative feedback b. positive feedback c. the clotting mechanism d. aerobic metabolism e. all or none response

a. negative feedback

Which white blood cells are present in the greatest number in the blood and are the body's first responders to infection? a. neutrophils b. lymphocytes c. platelets d. monocytes

a. neutrophils

About 55% of whole blood is _____, which is mostly made up of water a. plasma b. white blood cells c. hemoglobin d. clotting proteins

a. plasma

the matrix of blood is called _______. a. plasma b. lymphocytes c. formed elements d. buffy coat e. erythrocytes

a. plasma

A high hematocrit indicates _______________ . a. polycythemia b. inadequate red blood cell production c. excessive production of platelets d. anemia e. too many white blood cells in circulation

a. polycythemia

When the hormone erythropoietin is released in response to low oxygen levels, where is it transported to stimulate red blood cell production? a. red bone marrow b. throughout plasma c. liver d. kidney e. spleen

a. red bone marrow

the functional unit of skeletal muscle is the ______________ . a. sarcomere b. sarcolemma c. myofilament d. sarcoplasmic reticulum e. myofibril

a. sarcomere

the cytoplasm of a skeletal muscle fiber is called the _____________ . a. sarcoplasm b. sarcosome c. sarcoplasmic reticulum d. sarcolemma e. sarcomere

a. sarcoplasm

Non-striated, involuntary muscle is ____________ . a. smooth b. red skeletal c. white skeletal d. cardiac e. intermediate skeletal

a. smooth muscle

Which of the following blood components protects the individual from a variety of infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses? a. white blood cells b. platelets c. albumin d. red blood cells

a. white blood cells

sarcomere contraction

action potential along sarcolemma and T system => muscle fiber => massive release of Ca ions from SR => Ca binds to troponin => tropomyosin shift => expose myosin-binding sites on actin => free globular head myosin move and bind to exposed action => cross bridge allow action pull myosin => thin filaments to center of H zone => shorten sarcomere => ATPase activity in myosin give energy for power stroke => disso. of actin from myosin => myosin resets by binding to another molecule of ATP and free to bind another actin

serum

an amber-colored, protein-rich liquid that separates out when blood coagulates

Summation

an increase in muscle contraction until the maximal sustained contraction is reached

Fibrogen

an insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during the clotting of blood. It forms a fibrous mesh that impedes the flow of blood

Z disc

anchors the actin filaments and separates adjacent sarcomeres.

What disorders involve RBCs?

anemia, sickle-cell anemia

insertion muscle attachment

attachment of a muscle on a bone that moves

origin muscle attachment

attachment of a muscle on a stationary bone

The average functional lifespan of an RBC is ______ . a. 50-75 days b. 100-120 days c. 20-30 days d. one year e. the body's lifetime

b 100-120 days

The steps in the hemostasis process are: 1. Platelets become sticky and form a platelet plug 2. Prothrombin is converted to thrombin by prothrombin activator 3. Walls of damaged blood vessel undergo spasms 4. A clot forms from fibrin, platelest, and trapped red blood cells 5. Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin. Which of the following choices represents the correct order of these steps? a. 1-3-2-4-5 b. 3-1-2-5-4 c. 3-2-1-4-5 d. 3-5-4-1-2

b. 3-2-1-5-4

What is the first and most direct energy source for muscle contraction? a. glucose b. ATP c. creatine phosphate d. glycogen

b. ATP

Muscles which oppose each other and produce opposite movements are described as __________. a. synergetic b. antagonistic c. cooperative d. oppositional

b. antagonistic

Which of the following does not describe cardiac muscle tissue? a. involuntary b. attached to bones c. striations d. uninucleaete e. rhythmic contractions

b. attached to bones

Jaundice is caused by the presence of ____ in the blood plasma, which is a breakdown product of ___ . a. hemoglobin, red blood cells b. bilirubin, hemoglobin c. albumin, white blood cells d. prothrombin, platelets

b. bilirubin, hemoglobin

A deficiency of platelets would result in ____________ . a. fatigue and dizziness b. bleeding and bruising c. increased susceptibility to infections d. all of the above

b. bleeding and bruising

Which of these blood types carries no antigens? a. blood type A b. blood type O c. blood type B d. blood type AB e. blood types A, B and AB

b. blood type O

in response to action potentials arriving from the transverse tubules, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases ___________ . a. acetylcholine b. calcium ions d. sodium ions d. potassium ions e. all of the above

b. calcium ions

the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores ____________ . a. oxygen b. calcium ions c. ATP d. glycogen e. glucose

b. calcium ions

The type of leukocytes that would increase rapidly during allergy attacks and infections of parasitic worms are _______ . a. basophils b. eosinophils c. neutrophils d. monocytes e. lymphocytes

b. eosinophils

The hormone that regulates the rate of erythrocyte production is called ___________ . a. thrombopoietin b. erythropoietin c. leukopoietin d. renin e. vasopressin

b. erythropoietin

Which one of the following is not a criteria generally used in naming muscles? a. action of the muscle b. method of attachment of the muscle to bone c. shape of the muscle d. relative size of the muscle e. number of origins of the muscle

b. method of attachment of the muscle to bone

Which of the following would have motor units with the smallest number of muscle cells? a. thigh muscle b. muscles in fingers d. abdominal muscles d. muscles of the back

b. muscles in fingers

Unlike white blood cells, red blood cells loose their _____ and ____ as they mature a. flexibility, shape b. nucleus, organelles c. nucleolus, cytoplasm d. nucleus, ATP e. organelles, plasma membrane

b. nucleus, organelles

Excessive erythrocytes result in ____________ . a. sickle cell disease b. polycythemia c. leukocytosis d. leukopenia e. pernicious anemia

b. polycythemia

Removal of the heme group from hemoglobin would result in a. red blood cells not being able to reproduce b. red blood cells not being able to bind to oxygen c. white blood cells not being able to reproduce d. the inability of the spleen to remove worn out red blood cells from circulation e. an inability for blood to clot

b. red blood cells not being able to bind to oxygen

Which of the following is the site of calcium ion storage within muscles? a. T tubules b. sarcoplasmic reticulum c. actin filaments d. myosin filaments

b. sarcoplasmic reticulum

When a calcium ions binds in troponin, _____________. a. actin heads will bind to myosin b. tropomyosin moves out of the groove between the actin molecules c. active sites on the myosin are exposed d. muscle relaxation occurs e. all of the above

b. tropomyosin moves out of the groove between the actin molecules

A person with type A- blood will have __________ . a. type a plasma antibodies b. type a antigens on red blood cells c. Rh antigen on the red blood cells d. all of the above

b. type a antigens on red blood cells

Which of the following is a component of blood plasma? a. hemoglobin b. water c. bone d. mitochondria e. collagen

b. water

The all or non response means that _________ . a. when a muscle fiber contracts all of its ATP is converted to ADP b. when a muscle fiber contracts it contracts completely c. all of the muscle fibers within a muscle contract together d. all of the muscles in a region contract together e. none of the above

b. when a muscle fiber contracts if contracts completely

Leukemia

blood cancer, a malignant progressive disease in which the bone marrow and other blood-forming organs produce increased numbers of immature or abnormal leukocytes. These suppress the production of normal blood cells, leading to anemia and other symptoms.

Rotation

body part moves around its own axis

Abduction

body part moves away from midline

Circumduction

body part moves so that a cone shape is outlined

Adduction

body part moves toward midline

What are the 3 types of connective tissue in skeletal system?

bone, ligaments, and cartilage

Which of the following choices arranges the structures (1) muscle fiber (2) fascicle (3) myofibril (4) muscle , from largest to smallest? a. 1-2-3-4 b. 2-3-1-4 c. 4-2-1-3 d. 4-2-3-1

c. 4-2-1-3

The universal recipient has blood type _______? a. A b. B c. AB d. O e. ABO

c. AB

Which donor blood type would be most appropriate for transfusing an O- recipient? a. A- b. B- c. O- d. any of these blood types could be successfully used for this recipient

c. O-

Which type of granulocyte gives rise to antibodies? a. eosinophil b. neutrophil c. B lymphocyte d. monocyte e. T lymphocyte

c. The B lymphocyte

Which is the correct order of the ribs, from superior to inferior? A. Floating ribs, true ribs, false ribs B. true ribs, floating ribs, false ribs C. True ribs, false ribs, floating ribs D. Floating ribs, false ribs, true ribs E. False ribs, floating ribs, true ribs

c. True ribs, false ribs, floating ribs

Hemophilia results from ____________ . a. an insufficient number of red blood cells b. an insufficient number of platelets c. a lack of one or more plasma proteins involved in blood clotting d. an abnormal type of hemoglobin

c. a lack of one or more plasma proteins involved in blood clotting

Acetylcholine is __________________ . a. a source of energy for muscle contraction b. an oxygen-binding protein c. a neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle d. an ion pump on the postsynaptic membrane e. a component of thick myofilaments

c. a neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle

During skeletal muscle contraction, myosin across bridges attach to active sites of ________________ . a. thick filaments b. Z discs c. actin filaments d. myosin filaments e. the H zone

c. actin filaments

Histamine is released from this type of leukocyte to stimulate the inflammatory response a. lymphocyte b. monocyte c. basophil d. eosinophil e. neutrophil

c. basophil

A clot that breaks away from a vessel wall and circulates freely within the bloodstream is called a(n) ____________ . a. thrombus b. thromboplastin c. embolus d. clotting cascade e. fibrin

c. embolus

which one of the following formed elements is the most abundant? a. eosinophils b. lymphocytes c. erythrocytes d. basophils e. platelets

c. erythrocytes

The inflammatory response is initiated by the release of _____ from basophils. a. granulosen b. clotting factors c. hisamine d. erythropoietin e. hemoglobin

c. histamine

the epstein-barr virus can induce a contagious infection of the lymphocytes referred to as a. anemia b. toxemia c. mononucleosis d. septicemia e. leukemia

c. mononucleosis

interactions between actin and myosin filaments of the sarcomere are responsible for __________________ . a. the conduction of neural information to the muscle fiber b. muscle fatigue c. muscle contraction d. muscle relaxation e. the striped appearance of skeletal muscle

c. muscle contraction

Which of the following makes up the greatest volume of whole blood? a. platelets b. red blood cells c. plasma d. white blood cells

c. plasma

a scientist is interested in doing a research project on hemoglobin. From which of the following could he extract the hemoglobin for his study? a. white blood cells b. clotting proteins c. red blood cells d. platelets e. globulins

c. red blood cells

Which of the following happens during muscle contraction? a. actin filaments shorten b. myosin filaments shorten c. sarcomeres shorten d. both (a) and (b)

c. sarcomeres shorten

Which type of muscle cells can contract the fasts? a. smooth muscle cells b. cardiac muscle cells c. skeletal muscle cells d. all muscle cells can exhibit the same speed of contraction

c. skeletal muscle

When an electrical impulse traveling along a motor neuron arrives at a neuromuscular junction _________________ . a. myosin-actin cross bridges are destroyed b. a new electrical impulse is generated that returns the message to the original nerve c. there is an increase in the secretion of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction d. calcium is transported back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum e. sliding of actin and myosin filaments is inhibited

c. there is an increase in the secretion of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction

2 types of cartilage cells.

chondroblasts & chondocytes

The cartilage model

chondrocytes lay down hyaline cartilage in the shape of the future bones.

Describe the structure of hyaline cartilage.

consists of specialized cells called chrondroblasts that produce a matrix surrounding themselves

Structure of red blood cells

contain hemoglobin. They lack a nucleus and organelles.

Myofilaments

contractive filaments

Function of thrombin and fibrinogen

create clots by forming fibrin threads that catch RBCs

which of the following blood types can a person with blood type b safely receive in a blood transfusion? a. A b. B c. O d. B and O e. AB

d. B and O

In order for a muscle contraction to occur, cross-bridges must form between structures within a muscle cell. These cross-briidges form between ______________ . a. troponin and tropomyosin b. calcium and tropomyosin c. the plasma membrane and the sarcoplasmic reticulum d. actin and myosin e. acetylcholine and muscle cell recepters

d. actin and myosin

Which of the following influences the bonding of oxygen to hemoglobin? a. pH b. oxygen concentration c. temperature d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Which of the following can lead to anemia? a. insufficient iron in the diet b. insufficient Vit. B12 absorption from the digestive tract c. spending several weeks at a high altitude d. both a. and b.

d. both a. and b.

Which type of muscle cells can contract spontaneously? a. smooth muscle cells b. cardiac muscle cells c. skeletal muscle cells d. both a. and b.

d. both a. and b.

All of the following proteins are associated with blood. which of these is found SPECIFICALLY INSIDE red blood cells? a. prothrombin b. fibrinogen c. albumin d. hemoglobin

d. hemoglobin

Blood doping, practiced by many athletes involved in the Tour de France as well as other sports, involves the illegal use of drugs to a. increase circulation b. elevate rate of homeostasis c. increase red bone marrow production d. increase amount of oxygen carried in blood e. decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood

d. increase the amount of oxygen carried in blood

which of the following types of white blood cells is capable of phagocytosis? a. basophils b. B lymphocytes c. eosinophils d. neutrophils e. both eosinophils and B lymphocytes

d. neutrophils

Which one of the following groups consist of granulocytes? a. lymphocytes and monocytes b. eosinophils and monocytes c. neutrophils, lymphocytes, and eosinophils d. neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils e. basophils, and eosinophils

d. neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

Megakaryocytes pinch of anucleate fragments called _______________ . a. agranulocytes b. granulocytes c. neutrophils d. platelets e. erythrocytes

d. platelets

Dead and injured white blood cells are removed from circulation by the a. red bone marrow b. thymus c. tonsils d. spleen e. kidney

d. spleen

What do erythroblasts, myeloblasts, and lymphoblasts and megakaryoblasts have in common? a. they are immature cells that develop into white blood cells b. they are immature cells that develop into red blood cells c. they are found in circulating blood d. they are immature cells found in the bone marrow

d. they are immature cells found in the bone marrow

Prothrombin activator coverts prothrombin to ________________ . a. fibrinogen b. prothrombin activator c. serotonin d. thrombin e. fibrin activator

d. thrombin

Which of the following hormones regulates the production of platelets? a. insulin b. growth hormone c. erythropoietin d. thrombopoietin e. epinephrine

d. thrombopoietin

At rest, the tropomyosin molecule is held in place by ______________ . a. calcium ions b. myosin molecules c. actin molecules d. troponin molecules e. ATP molecules

d. troponin molecules

When a blood vessel gets damaged, contractions of smooth muscle, refered to as ____ help constrict the vessels to reduce blood flow. a. homeostasis b. hemostasis c. formed elements d. vascular spasms e. endocytosis

d. vascular spasms

Which of the following components of blood increase in number in response to the presence of an infectious agent? a. red blood cells b. albumins c. platelets d. white blood cells e. clotting factors

d. white blood cells

Flexion

decrease in joint angle

Calcitonin

decreases blood calcium

2 Locations of Fibrocartilage

disks between vertebrae and in the knee; stronger than hyaline cartilage

Myofibrils are made primarily of ____________ . a. tropomyosin b. epimyosin c. ATP and ADP d. troponin e. actin and myosin

e. actin and myosin

Cardiac muscle differs from skeletal muscle in that _________________ . a. it is capable of relaxation b. it gets longer rather than shorter when excited c. it contracts in response to an electrical or cheical signal d. it is excitable and can shorten e. all cardiac muscle is under involuntary control

e. all cardiac muscle is under involuntary control

Which of the following is (are) a function of skeletal muscle? a. produce movement b. maintain posture c. maintain body temperature d. A and B only e. all of the above

e. all of the above

For a skeletal muscle to contract, which of the following must occur? a. a nerve impulse is required to initiate contraction b. tropomyosin=tropon complex must shift out of the way c. calcium levels must increase in close proximity to contractile proteins d. once the stimulation by a nerve ceases, skeletal muscle can no longer contract e. all of the above are correct

e. all of the above are correct

Rigor mortis that occurs in skeletal muscles after a few hours after death is due to ___________ . a. lactic acid build up b. excessive ATP c. lack of oxygen d. excessive ATP and decreased permeability to calcium e. decreased ATP and increased permeability to calcium

e. decreased ATP and increased permeability to calcium

Which of the following muscles is named for its shape? a. pectoralis major b. erector spinae c. tibialis anterior d. biceps brachii e. deltoid

e. deltoid

The delicate connective tissue that surrounds the skeletal muscle fibers and ties adjacent muscle fibers together is the ___________ . a. sarcolemma b. periostuem c. perimysium d. epimysium e. endomysium

e. endomysium

Eosinophils are especially important in defending the human body from infection by ____________ . a. molds b. viruses c. any type of microorganism d. bacteria e. large parasites

e. large parasites

At the neuromuscular junction, the muscle fiber membrane is folded to form a ___________ . a. motor unit b. neurotransmitter c. motor neuron d. neuroreceptor e. motor end plate

e. motor end plate

neurotransmitters that cause skeletal muscle contraction are normally stored in the _____________ . a. actin b. motor units c. myofibrils d. motor end plates e. motor neuron endings

e. motor neuron endings

The axon terminals of a nerve cell and the sarcolemma of a skeletal muscle cell join at the __________ . a. action potential b. synaptic cleft c. motor unit d. myofibril e. neuromuscular junction

e. neuromuscular junction

T, or transverse tubules in skeletal muscle function to ________________ . a. transport calcium ions throughout the muscle cells b. allow actin and myosin filaments to slide over each other c. help to decrease the amount of ATP produced d. convert glucose to lactic acid, which helps muscles relax e. promote electrical impulse to travel deep into the cell and move quickly

e. promote electrical impulses to travel deep into the cell and move quickly

Which one of the following is composed of myosin protein? a. Z discs b. thin filaments c. light bands d. all myofilaments e. thick filaments

e. thick filaments

At rest, active sites on the actin are blocked by _____________ . a. calcium ions b. myosin molecules c. troponin molecules d. ATP molecules e. tropomyosin molecules

e. tropomyosin molecules

2 Locations of Elastic cartilage

ear flaps and epiglottis; more flexible than hyaline cartilage

What kind of impulses do motor neurons convey?

efferent impulses

5 Locations of Hyaline cartilage

ends of long bones, nose, ends of ribs, larynx and trachea

4 characteristics of skeletal muscle

excitable, contractible, extensible, elastic

An aponeurosis is a rope like piece of muscle fascia that forms indirect connections to muscles of the leg. TRUE or FALSE? TRUE or FALSE?

false

Skeletal muscle is considered involuntary because it is the only type of muscle usually subject to conscious control. TRUE or FALSE?

false

The epimysium covers individual muscle fibers. TRUE or FALSE?

false

Thick filaments are made of a protein called actin. TRUE or FALSE?

false

Fermentation as a source of ATP.

fast-acting, but results in lactate build up.

Creatine phosphate pathway as a source of ATP.

fastest way to acquire ATP but only sustains a cell for seconds; builds up when a muscle is resting.

Supination

hand faces anterior

Pronation

hand faces posterior

What anemia type is due to bleeding?

hemorrahagic anemia

New bone is laid down in regions under____________ and bone is resorbed under areas of________________.

high compressive stress; low compressive stress

more skeletal quizlet?

https://quizlet.com/73546341/chapter-6-flash-cards/ https://quizlet.com/12311084/ch-6-flash-cards/

Extension

increase in joint angle

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

increases blood calcium by accelerating bone recycling.

3 types of cardiac muscle structures

intercalated disks, branched, and striated

Structure of cardiac muscle

intercalated disks, branched, striated

Smooth tissue: characteristic and locations

involuntary muscle found in hollow organs and vessels

Function of smooth muscle

involuntary muscle that contracts to propel the child through the birth canal in the uterus, push food through the digestive tract, transport urine from the kidney to the bladder, and regulate blood flow to living cells in the body

Function of cardiac muscle

involuntary muscle that produces rhythmic contractions of the heart that pumps blood throughout the body

Osteoporosis

is a condition where bones are weakened due to a decreased bone mass.

White blood cells

leukocytes (WBCs)

Smooth muscle

looks layered and smooth, involuntary

Smooth muscle: structural characteristics

looks layered and smooth, involuntary

Structure of smooth muscle

looks layered and smooth, involuntary

4 Bones that make up the skull

made of cranium and facial bones: Mandible, Maxillae, Zygomatic bones, and Nasal bones.

3 things increased by Exercise

muscle strength, endurance, and flexibility

Smooth muscle: function

muscles that contract to propel the child through the birth canal in the uterus, push food through the digestive tract, transport urine from the kidney to the bladder, and regulate blood flow to living cells in the body

What two molecules are directly involved in muscle contraction and relaxation?

myosin and actin

Nerve impulses travel down a motor neuron to this?

neuromuscular junction

Cellular respiration (aerobic) as a source of ATP.

not an immediate source of ATP but the best long term source.

What 2 things do all three types of muscle have in common?

o All muscles are EXCITABLE: muscles contract in response to chemical or electrical signals from other organ systems o All muscles have ONE basic MECHANISM of ACTION: they contract (shorten) and they relax (return to original length).

Osteoporosis is a common condition that essentially results when homeostasis cannot be maintained between __________ and __________.

osteoblasts and osteoclasts

The primary ossification center

osteoblasts are brought interiorly by blood and lay down spongy bone.

The bone collar

osteoblasts secrete bone matrix and results in a collar made of compact bone.

Osteoporosis is a common condition that essentially results when homeostasis cannot be maintained in __________ and __________.

osteoblasts, osteoclasts

Things blood transports:

oxygen, nutrients, wastes, carbon dioxide, and hormones

what anemia type is due to B12 deficiency?

pernicious anemia

thrombocytes

platelets

Cardiac muscle: function

produces rhythmic contractions of the heart that pumps blood throughout the body

cranium characteristics and function

protects the brain. is composed of 8 bones. has some bones that contain the sinuses

Bone Remodeling

recycles as much as 18% of bone each year. allows bones to respond to stress. regulates the calcium in the blood through hormones

Acetylcholine (ACh)

released from the neuron and binds to the muscle fiber

2 Types of Bones that make up the Rib cage

ribs and sternum

Which type of muscle does not have a transverse tubule system or a well-developed sarcoplasmic reticulum?

smooth

Inversion

sole of foot turns inward

Eversion

sole of foot turns outward

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum function

stores Ca 2+

Yellow bone marrow

stores of fat cells.

Smooth muscles lack ______ and contain less _________.

striations; myosin

Things blood regulates:

temperature, water-salt balance, and body pH

Skeletal Muscle name by ATTACHMENT example

the brachioradialis is attached to the brachium and radius

A band

the dark band. its a segment of a sarcomere containing the myosin thick filaments

Skeletal Muscle name by SHAPE example

the deltoid is triangular (Greek letter delta is Δ)

Skeletal Muscle name by ACTION example

the extensor digitorum extends the digits.

Skeletal Muscle name by LOCATION example

the frontalis overlies the frontal bone

Skeletal Muscle name by SIZE example

the gluteus maximus is the largest buttock muscle

Sarcoplasm

the muscle cell's cytoplasm.

Skeletal Muscle name by FIBER DIRECTION example

the rectus abdominis is longitudinal (rectus means straight)

Hemolysis

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells

I band

the space by way the myosin thick filaments contain the z line and actin thin filaments

Blood transfusion

the transfer of blood from one individual into another individual

According to the sliding filaments mechanism, during a muscle contraction, myosin pulls actin filaments towards the centre of a sarcomere, causing the centre sarcomere to shorten. TRUE OR FALSE

true

One of the important functions of skeletal muscle is to generate heat. TRUE or FALSE?

true

The neurotransmitter used by the nervous system to activate skeletal muscle cells is acetylcholine. TRUE or FALSE?

true

Skeletal tissue: characteristics and locations

voluntary muscle that is attached to the skeleton; usually striped

Structure of skeletal muscle

voluntary, striated, multinucleated muscle that attach to the body's skeleton and give us strength and mobility.

Skeletal muscle structure

voluntary, striated, multinucleated muscles that attach to the body's skeleton and give us strength and mobility.

Thromboembolism

when a clot forms and breaks off from its site of origin and plugs another vessel

Rigor mortis

when the body becomes stiff during the time period from about four hours to several days after death. It is caused by the absence of ATP, which locks the muscles.

What is the average volume of blood in the male and female adult bodies?

women: 4-5L of blood, men: 5-6L of blood

what happens when you have hemolytic anemia?

your red blood cell survival is reduced

Where are lymphocytes found and what do they do?

They are found in the blood stream, tonsils, spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus. B cells - produce plasma cells that produce antibodies T cells - target and destroy bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells

Where are monocytes found and what do they do?

They are found in tissues, they come from the spleen , and they differentiate into macrophages. They are very active during chronic infections

what do eosinophils do?

They defend against large parasites by surrounding and secreting enzymes that destroy the intruder.

What is the structure of a WBC?

They have a nucleus.

What do neutrophils do?

They phagocytize intruders (bacteria and fungi).

what do basophils do?

They release histamine

Flat bone

Thin, flat and curved bone

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

This disease occurs only when the mother is Rh- and the baby is Rh+ and the mother's cells recognize the baby's blood as foreign and send an attack.

Sliding filament mechanism

This takes place as thick and thin filaments slide past each other, allowing sarcomeres to shorten and cause a muscle contraction

2 disorders that involve platelets

Thrombocytopenia and Thromboembolism

How do osteocytes within trabeculae obtain nutrients?

Through their canaliculi.

Periosteum

Tough layer of connective tissue that covers the outer surface of a bone and contains special bone-forming cells. AKA round bone.

What are trabeculae, and what is their function?

Trabeculae are interconnecting rods or plates in spongy bone, which bear weight and help bones resist bending and twisting.

Transverse (T) tubules

Tube-like extensions of the cell membrane that transmit the electrical impulse deep into the interior of the cell. They are an extension of the sarcolemma, and serve as rapid communication system that ensures that every myofibril in the muscle fiber contracts at virtually the same time. They carry the action potentials deep into the interior of the muscle to cause muscle contraction by maximizing the entry of calcium in the cell. They are continuations of the plasma membrane.

Sprain

Twisting of a joint involving muscles, ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves.

what blood type is the universal acceptor?

Type AB

what blood type is the universal donor?

Type O

Spongy bone

Type of bone tissue characterized by thin, hard interconnecting bony plates enclosing hollow spaces. Red bone marrow (blood cells) are produced in the spaces between the bony elements.

Compact bone

Type of dense bone tissue composed of osteons with a central canal containing blood vessels and contains living bone cells called osteocytes in chambers called luncae found on the outer surfaces and shafts of bones. Filled with yellow bone marrow.

Fibrous Joint

Usually immovable, such as the sutures between cranial bones.

How do vitamins D and C effect bone growth?

Vitamin D is necessary for the normal absorption of calcium from the intestines. Vitamin C is necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts.

Skeletal Muscle: Structural Characteristics

Voluntary, striated, multinucleated muscle that attach to the body's skeleton and give us strength and mobility.

The most common cause of muscle fatigue is insufficient ATP to meet the metabolic demands of muscle activity. Although muscle fatigue can also be caused by psychological factors including discomfort or boredom of repetitive tasks

What is the most common cause of muscle fatigue?

The microscopic shortening of sarcomeres all at once is what produces contraction (shortening) of the muscle cell and the whole muscle.

What produces muscle contraction?

Describe how new osteons are produced as a bone increases in width.

When a bone grows in width slowly, the surface of the bone becomes smooth as osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down even layers of bone to form circumferential lamellae. The circumferential lamellae break down during remodeling to form osteons.

How does breaking a bone result in hematoma formation?

When a bone is fractured, the blood vessels in the bone and surrounding periosteum are damage, and a hematoma forms. Hematoma is a localized mass of blood relaeased from blood vessels but confined within an organ or a space.

Ossification

When cartilage begins to dissolve and is replaced by bone.

What happens to th epiphyeal plate and the articular cartilage when bone growth ceases?

When the epiphyses reach their full size, the growht of cartilage and its replacement by bone cease. The articular cartilage, however persists throughout life and does not become ossified as the epiphyseal plate does.

Blood cells that defend the body against disease and injury.

White blood cells

Agranular leukocyte

White blood cells that are not visible when the cells are stained for viewing, they have no granules, and nonlobed nuclei. They include: monocytes and lymphocytes.

Granular leukocyte

White blood cells that are visible when the cells are stained for viewing. They contain noticeable granules, lobed nuclei. They include: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

What effect does aging have on the quality and quantity of bone matrix?

With aging, the amount of matrix also decreases because the rate of matrix formation by osteoblasts becomes slower than the rate of matrix breakdown by osteoclasts.

What are the cheek bones called?

Zygomatic

plasma make up

Made up of 91% water and 9% salts (ions) and organic molecules.

What is the lower jaw bone called?

Mandible

4 types of bones that make up the Facial bones

Mandible Maxillae Zygomatic bones Nasal bones

The sternum is made up of

Manubrium, body, and xyphoid

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain bone structure derived from osteoblasts.

What is the upper jaw bone called?

Maxilla

Muscle tension

Mechanical force generated when muscles contract

How does bone adjust to mechanical stress? Describe the roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in this process. What happens to bone that is not subject to mechanical stress?

Mechanical stress applied to bone increases osteoblast activity in bone tissue, and the removal of mechanical stress decreases osteoblast activity. Osteoclast activity continues at a nearly normal rate, but osteoblast activity decreases, resulting in less bone density. Pressure in bone causes an electrical change that increaes the activity of osteoblasts; therefore, applying weight to a broken bone can speed the healing process.

Bone Modeling and Remodeling

Modeling is when bone resorption and bone formation occur on separate surfaces (i.e. formation and resorption are not coupled). An example of this process is during long bone increases in length and diameter. Bone modeling occurs during birth to adulthood and is responsible for gain in skeletal mass and changes in skeletal form. Remodeling is the replacement of old tissue by new bone tissue. This mainly occurs in the adult skeleton to maintain bone mass. This process involves the coupling of bone formation and bone resorption and consists of five phases: 1. Activation: preosteoclasts are stimulated and differentiate under the influence of cytokines and growth factors into mature active osteoclasts 2. Resorption: osteoclasts digest mineral matrix (old bone) 3. Reversal: end of resorption 4. Formation: osteoblasts synthesize new bone matrix 5. Quiescence: osteoblasts become resting bone lining cells on the newly formed bone surface

Which ribs (numbers) are the true ribs?

1-7

What 2 characteristics do all three types of muscles have in common?

1. All muscles are excitable: muscles contract in response to chemical or electrical signals from other organ systems 2. All muscles have one basic mechanism of action: they contract (shorten) and they relax (return to original length).

5 Types of vertebrae (33 vertebrae)

1. Cervical (7) 2. Thoracic (12) 3. Lumbar (5) 4. Sacrum (5 fused) 5. Coccyx (4 fused into tailbone)

What is the process of bone growth?

1. Chondroblasts build a model of the future bone 2. Process of ossification 3. Osteoblasts form bone's structural framework 4. Osteoblasts become osteocytes

What 4 energy sources does the body use for muscle activity?

1. Creatine phosphate 2. Glycolysis 3. Aerobic cellular respiration 4. Lactic acid fermentation

What 4 sources of energy does the body use for muscle activity?

1. Creatine phosphate 2. Glycolysis 3. Aerobic cellular respiration 4. Lactic acid fermentation

What sources of energy does the body use for muscle activity?

1. Creatine phosphate 2. Glycolysis 3. Aerobic cellular respiration 4. Lactic acid fermentation

3 sources of ATP for muscle contraction

1. Creatine phosphate pathway 2. Fermentation 3. Cellular respiration (aerobic)

The Cranium bones

1. Frontal 2. temporal 3. sphenoid 4. parietal 5. occipital 6. ethmoid

What are the 4 steps of bone repair?

1. Hematoma formation 2. Callus formation 3. callus ossification 4. bone remodeling.

What components does bone tissue contain?

1. Living bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts 2. Supplied by nerves and blood and lymph vessels 3. Most mass consists of extracellular matrix 4. Bone is made up of collagen, water, and minerals

2 ways skeletal muscles work

Antagonistic and Synergistic Antagonistic: muscles that work in opposite pairs. Synergistic: muscles working in groups for a common action.

The type of blood is based on what _________ is present in RBC.

Antigen

Blood typing is based on _______ and ______.

Antigen; antibody

Differentiate between appositional and interstitial growth of cartilage.

Appositional growth is where new cartilage is added to the surface of the cartilage by chondroblasts from the inner layer of the perichondrium. Interstitial growth is where new cartilage is formed within the cartilage by chondrocytes that divide and produce additional matrix.

Upper limb

Arm and hand bones

Explain blood types: what we mean by "blood type," how we determine blood types, and their significance.

Based on two molecules, antigen and antibody. • Antigen (ANTIbody GENerator): Substance that provokes an immune response and reacts with the antibodies or cells that result from the immune response. In the case of blood typing, the antigen is located on the cell membrane. • Antibody: Protein that the body produces in response to an antigen; each antibody combines with a specific antigen. • The type of blood is based on what antigen is present on RBC. • Functionally, the type of antibodies present in plasma is important. Blood Type (%) Population Group O A B AB European-American 45 4 11 4 African-American 49 27 20 4 Korean 32 28 30 10 Japanese 31 38 21 10 Chinese 42 27 25 6 Native American 79 16 4 1 There are eight different common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens - substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body. Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching. There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens - A and B - on the surface of red blood cells: Group A - has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma) Group B - has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma) Group AB - has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma) Group O - has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma) The universal red cell donor has Type O negative blood type. The universal plasma donor has Type AB blood type. SIGNIFICANCE: Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction. If a unit of incompatible blood is transfused between a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic reaction with hemolysis (RBC destruction), renal failure and shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood. Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood banks and hospitals. For example, Duffy-negative blood occurs much more frequently in people of African origin, and the rarity of this blood type in the rest of the population can result in a shortage of Duffy-negative blood for these patients. Similarly for RhD negative people, there is a risk associated with travelling to parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare, particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to encourage Westerners to donate blood.

Why is blood clotting important for the maintenance of life?

Because it helps maintain homeostasis in the body by reducing the amount of blood lost.

Why is remodeling of the ossified callus necessary?

Bone remodeling fills the gap between bone fragments with an internal callus of woven bone is not the end of the repair process because woven beone is ot as structurally strong as the original lamellar bone. Repair is only complete when the woven bone of the internal callus and the dead bone adjacent to the fracture site have been replaced by compact bone.

What is the process of bone remodeling and repair?

Bone repair includes: o Formation of a hematoma (blood clot) o Formation of fibrocartilage callus that binds broken ends together o Eventual replacement of the callus with new bone

List the four basic shapes of bones, and give an example of each.

Long bone Ex: femur or thighbone Flat bone Ex: parietal bone from roof of skull Irregular bone Ex: vertebrae Short bone Ex: wrist bone.

Describe how blood clotting occurs and know why it is important for the maintenance of life.

Blood clotting normally occurs when there is damage to a blood vessel. Platelets immediately begin to adhere to the cut edges of the vessel and release chemicals to attract even more platelets. A platelet plug is formed, and the external bleeding stops. Next, small molecules, called clotting factors, cause strands of blood-borne materials, called fibrin, to stick together and seal the inside of the wound. Eventually, the cut blood vessel heals and the blood clot dissolves after a few days. Blood clotting is actually a very complicated process. There are two pathways-the intrinsic system and the extrinsic system and there are 12 steps in the pathway for a blood clot to form. 1. You get a cut (wound) and then you have RBC, platelets and clotting factors floating around. 2. Blood cells and fluid escape the wound. Exposed collagen fibers start the clotting process. 3. Exposed platelets start to adhere to the wound area and release chemicals that attract more platelets. 4. Platelet plug stops external bleeding. 5. Clotting factor increases and causes fibrin to attach and block/seal the wound like a bandaid would. 6. The wound heals and the clotting fibrin and platelets dissolve after it has been sealed. Hemostasis - Sequence of body responses that stops blood loss. Must be quick, localized, and carefully controlled. Three mechanisms reduce loss of blood: • Vascular spasm: • Blood vessel insult results immediately in vascular spasm. • Smooth muscle surrounding the vessel contracts. • Reaction to muscle cell damage? Reflex stimulated by pain receptors? • Platelet accumulation and release of vasoconstrictors maintain spasm. • Platelet plug formation: • Adhesion: platelets contact and stick to damaged parts of vessel. • Release reaction: alteration in shape with release of chemicals. • Aggregation: platelets stick to one another and eventually form plug. • Blood clotting: • Extremely complex pathway, involves at least 12 clotting factors and calcium. • Activation of prothrombinase is the common step. • Stimulates conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. • Stimulates conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.

What is the structure of blood?

Blood has TWO major components - 1) Plasma--it's liquid component (nutrients and regulators, wastes, and plasma) 2) Formed elements--cellular components like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

Basophils

Blue-stain. Rarest white blood cells that contain histamine, a chemical that initiates the inflammatory response.

Describe the processes of bone growth, bone remodeling, and bone repair.

Bone Growth & Maintenance • Bone, like skin, forms before birth but continually renews itself thereafter. • Old bone is continually being destroyed (resorption) and new bone tissue is formed in its place. • Bone Remodeling: Process by which new bone replaces old bone. • Also removes worn and injured bone, replacing it with new bone tissue. • Osteoclasts are responsible for the resorption of bone tissue. • Osteoblasts are responsible for the forming new bone tissue. • Too much mineral deposition results in bone spurs (thick bumps that can interfere with joint movement). • Excessive calcium loss or too little mineral deposition in new bone weakens the bones—they become overly flexible or easily breakable (osteoporosis). • Highly regulated through hormonal control. • During prepubertal growth, the growth hormone is the primary regulator. • Sex steroids (testosterone and estrogen) play a role during puberty. • Hormones close growth plates toward end of puberty. • During maintenance, the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are the primary regulators.

Bone Development and Growth

Bone development and growth Osteogenesis (bone tissue formation) occurs by two processes: Intramembranous ossification involves the replacement of connective tissue membrane sheets with bone tissue and results in the formation of flat bones (e.g. skull, clavicle, mandible). Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of a hyaline cartilage model with bone tissue (e.g. femur, tibia, humerus, radius). Long bones continue to grow in length and width throughout childhood and adolescence. Increase in length is due to continued endochondral bone formation at each end of the long bones. Increase in circumference of the bone shaft is achieved by formation of new bone on the outer surface of the cortical bone.

What process produces woven bone?

Bone remodeling

Why is it important for bone remodeling to occur?

Bone remodeling converts woven bone into lamellar bone and is involved in several important functions, including bone growth, changes in bone shape, adjustment of the bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion regulation in the body.

What is the term for anterior concavity?

Kyphosis

Anemia

Lack of oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood. A low hematocrit may signal anemia due to inadequate red blood cell production or too little hemoglobin that causes a "run-down" feeling.

Name the spaces that are occupied by osteocyte cell bodies and cell processes.

Lacunae are the spaces that are occupied osteocyte cell bodies and canaliculi are the spaces that are occupied by osteocyte cell processes.

New bone is laid down in regions under____________ and bone is resorbed under areas of________________

Laid down under high compressive stress; Reabsorbed under low compressive stress

How does motor unit number and size affect our ability to control muscle contraction and relaxation?

Larger motor units generate more force, but offer less control. Activation of more units produces a greater force. Increased stimulation produces a greater force.

Monocyte

Largest WBC that filter out of the bloodstream and take residence in body tissues. They transform into macrophages, migratesinto tissues, extend pseudopods, and engulf huge numbers of microbes and dead cellular debris in phagocytosis. Active during infections. Long life cycle.

Lower limb

Leg and foot bones

Where does the lengthwise growth of long bones occur in mature adults?

Lengthwise growth of long bones occurs at epiphyseal plates.Closure of these plates after adolescence eliminates the ability of these bones to increase in length. During maintenance the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are the regulators.

Pectoral girdle

Scapula and clavicle

What is the term for the lateral curvature of the spine?

Scoliosis

Erythropoietin is secreted from where, and what does it do?

Secreted from the kidneys and moves to red marrow when oxygen levels are low. Function -stimulates RBC production in the bone marrow.

Aerobic cellular respiration

Series of ATP-producing reactions that occur in mitochondria, require oxygen, and convert pyruvate into ATP, carbon dioxide, water, and heat. If muscle activity lasts more than 10 minutes this form of energy kicks in.

Diaphysis

Shaft of the bone made of compact bone and filled with yellow marrow.

Function of skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle causes bones to move, or prevents bones from moving.

Skeletal Muscle: Function

Skeletal muscle causes bones to move, or prevents bones from moving.

Skeletal muscle function

Skeletal muscle causes bones to move, or prevents bones from moving.

Describe the different tissues and cells types present in the skeletal system, their locations, and their functions

Skeletal system: 3 types of CONNECTIVE TISSUE - 1) Bones, hard elements of the skeleton which provides structure and stability. Made of 4 types of cells - a) OSTEOBLASTS, the bone cell responsible for forming new bone, is found in the growing portions of bone. b) OSTEOCYTES maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix, located in the lacuna. c) CHONDROBLASTS are cartilage forming cells that build a model of future bone, repair the matrix and assist with the diffusion of nutrients. They are found in the tibia and humerus. d) OSTEOCLASTS are responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, is found on bone surfaces. 2) Ligaments, dense fibrous connective tissue that binds bones to each other. Purpose - to prevent movement that might damage a joint. Found throughout the body. 3) Cartilage, specialized connective tissue in a gel-like fluid which serves as a cushion between joints.

Describe what happens in sarcomere contraction.

Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction During muscle contraction the thin actin filaments slide over the thick myosin filament. When Calcium is present the blocked active site of the actin clears. Step A: Myosin head attaches to actin. (High energy ADP + P configuration) Step B: Power stroke: myosin head pivots pulling the actin filament toward the center. Step C: The cross bridge detaches when a new ATP binds with the myosin. Step D: Cocking of the myosin head occurs when ATP à ADP + P. Another cross bridge can form. The end result is a shortening of the sarcomere. + The distance between the Z discs shortens + The H zone disappears + The dark A band increases because the actin & the myosin overlap more + The light I band shortens.

3 Types of muscle tissue

Smooth, cardiac, and skeletal

Describe what happens in muscle contraction and relaxation.

Step 1 A skeletal muscle is activated by a nerve impulse which travels down and axon and causes the release of acetylcholine. It cannot be activated on it's own. Step 2 Acetylecholine causes the impulse to spread across the surface of the sarcolemma. Step 3 The nerve impulse enters the T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, stimulating the release of calcium ions. Step 4 Calcium ions combine with Troponin, shifting troponin and exposing the myosin binding sites on the actin. Step 5 ATP breaks down ADP + P. The released energy activates the myosin cross bridges and results in the sliding of thin actin myofilament past the thick myosin myofilaments. Step 6 The sliding of the myofilaments draws the Z lines towards each other, the sarcomere shortens, the muscle fibers contract and therefore muscle contracts. This contraction can only happen because calcium is present. The absence of calcium prevents contraction. Step 7 ACh is inactivated by Acetylcholinesterase, inhibiting the nerve impulse conduction across the sarcolemma. Step 8 Nerve impulse is inhibited (ends), calcium ions are actively transported back (removed) into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, using the energy from the earlier ATP breakdown. When the nerve stimulation ends, contraction ends. Step 9 The low calcium concentration causes the myosin cross bridges to separate from the think actin myofilaments and the actin myofilaments return to their relaxed position. The absence of calcium prevents contraction. Step 10 Sarcomeres return to their resting lengths, muscle fibers relax and the muscle relaxes.

What is the function of perforating fibers?

Strengthen the attachment of the tendons or ligaments to the bone.

Strain

Stretching or tearing of a muscle.

Cramps

Strong, painful spasms often of the leg and foot.

Spasms

Sudden, involuntary muscle contractions that are usually painful.

5 Functions of the muscular system

Support the body (maintain posture) Produce body movements Move substances within the body Produce heat Protect internal organs and stabilize joints

What makes up the formed element component of blood?

THREE Formed Elements aķa Cellular Components: 1. Red blood cells: carry oxygen throughout the body 2. White blood cells: the body's freedom fighters 3. Platelets: help with blood clotting

What makes up the liquid component of blood?

THREE Liquid Components: 1. Plasma: made mostly of water, proteins, nutrients, and hormones 2. Nutrients and regulators: carried throughout the body in the blood stream 3. Wastes: carried to the lungs, digestive tract, and kidneys for disposal

Cartilaginous Joint

Tend to be slightly movable such as the intervertebral disks.

3 ways skeletal muscles are attached

Tendon, origin, or insertion

List the common groupings of muscles, their appearance and functions.

The 3 types of muscle tissue are cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. Cardiac muscle cells are located in the walls of the heart, appear striated, and are under involuntary control. Smooth muscle fibers are located in walls of hollow visceral organs, except the heart, appear spindle-shaped, and are also under involuntary control. Skeletal muscle fibers occur in muscles which are attached to the skeleton. They are striated in appearance and are under voluntary control.