People

Aaron

(awehr' uhn) Moses' brother; Israel's first high priest. He figures prominently in Exodus through Numbers and then is mentioned in Deuteronomy 9-10; Joshua 21:1; Judges 20:1; 1 Samuel 12:1; 1 Chronicles 6:1; 1 Chronicles 15:1; 1 Chronicles 23-24; 2 Chronicles 13:1; 2 Chronicles 26:1; 2 Chronicles 29:1; 2 Chronicles 31:1; 2 Chronicles 35:1; Ezra 7:1; Nehemiah 10:1; Nehemiah 12:1; Psalm 77:20; Psalm 99:6; Psalm 105:26; Psalm 106:16; Psalm 115:10 , Psalm 115:12; Psalm 135:19; Micah 6:4 . Aaron's parents Amram and Jochebed were from the tribe of Levi, Israel's tribe of priests. Miriam was his sister. See Exodus 6:16-26 . With his wife Elisheba, Aaron had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The first two perished when they offered sacrifices with fire that God had not commanded them to make (Leviticus 10:1-2; Leviticus 16:1-2 ). Two priestly lines developed from the remaining sons: (1) Ithamar through Eli to Abiathar and (2) Eleazar to Zadok (1 Samuel 14:3; 1 Samuel 22:20; 1 Kings 2:26-27; 1 Chronicles 6:50-53 ). Aaron experienced the joy of starting Israel's formal priesthood, being consecrated to the office (Exodus 28-29; Leviticus 8-9 ), wearing the first priestly garments, and initiating the sacrificial system (Leviticus 1-7 ). He also bore the burdens of his office as his sons were killed for their disobedience (Leviticus 10:1-2 ), and he could not mourn for them (Leviticus 10:6-7 ). He also bore the special rules of conduct, clothing, and ritual cleanness (Leviticus 27:1-22:33 ). He could not live up to such high standards perfectly. Thus he had to offer sacrifices for his own sins (Leviticus 16:11 ). Then in his cleansed, holy office, he offered sacrifices for others. In his imperfection, Aaron still served as a symbol or type of the perfect priest as seen in Psalm 110:4 , where the future king was described as eternal priest. Zechariah 6:11-15 also speaks of a priest—Joshua—in typical terms. Thus the imperfect Aaron established an office full of symbolic meaning for Israel. Aaron's life. With all his faults, Aaron was a man chosen by God. We do not know what Aaron did during Moses' forty-year exile from Egypt, but he maintained the faith, kept contact with Israel's leaders, and did not forget his brother (Exodus 4:27-31 ). Ready of speech, he served nobly as Moses' spokesman before Pharaoh. More than once he stretched out Moses' staff to bring God's plagues on the land (Exodus 7:9 ,Exodus 7:9,7:19 ). In the wilderness Aaron and Hur helped Moses hold up the staff, the symbol of God's power, so that Israel would prevail over Amalek (Exodus 17:12 ). At Sinai, Aaron and his two older sons, Nadab and Abihu, were called to go up the mountain with Moses and seventy elders (Exodus 24:9 ). There they worshiped and ate and drank in heavenly fellowship. As Moses and Joshua went farther up, Moses left Aaron and Hur in charge (Exodus 24:14 ). But as Moses delayed on the mountain, the people asked Aaron for action. They cried, "Make us gods" (Exodus 32:1 ). Their sin was polytheism (worship of many gods) as well as idolatry. Aaron all too easily obliged and made a calf and apparently led in its worship. How far into sin Aaron went we do not know. Was it giving in or active error? The text does not say, but Aaron was not specifically judged. The Levites, the tribe of Moses and Aaron, rallied to Moses and were blessed accordingly (Exodus 32:26-29 ). On another occasion Aaron appeared in a bad light. In Numbers 12:1 he and Miriam spoke against Moses' marriage to the Cushite (Ethiopian) woman. (Cush was an old name for upper Egypt—approximately modern Sudan.) We are not told if this was a wife in addition to Zipporah, or if Zipporah had died, or even if Zipporah—a Midianite—had Cushite connections. Anyway, Aaron and Miriam were jealous of their younger brother. Really, their murmuring was against God's selection. Second place did not satisfy them. Miriam was severely judged. Again, Aaron was not as harshly judged. Perhaps again he was not the instigator but the accomplice. He confessed his sin and pleaded for mercy for Miriam. When Korah, Dathan, and Abiram opposed Moses and Aaron, Aaron's intercession stopped the plague (Numbers 16:1 ). Aaron's leadership was vindicated by God in the miraculous blossoming of his staff (Numbers 17:1 ). When the people cried for water at Kadesh in the desert of Zin, Aaron joined in Moses' sin as they seized the power of the Lord for themselves (Numbers 20:7-13 ). In consequence, Aaron, like Moses, was not to enter the Promised Land. Nearby on the border of Edom after forty years of his priesthood, Moses took Aaron up mount Hor, transferred his garments to his son, Eleazar, and Aaron died there at the age of 123 years (Numbers 20:23-28 ). Israel mourned for their first high priest thirty days (Numbers 20:29 ), as they soon would mourn for Moses (Deuteronomy 34:8 ).

Ahab

(ay' hab) Personal name meaning, "father's brother." 1. The seventh king of Israel's Northern Kingdom, married a foreigner, Jezebel, and incited God's anger more than any of Israel's previous kings. Ahab, was the son and successor of Omri. His 22-year reign (874-853 B.C.), while enjoying some political and military success, was marred by spiritual compromise and failure (1 Kings 16:30 ). His wife, Jezebel, was the daughter of Ethbaal, priest-king of Tyre (1 Kings 16:31 ). She was a devotee to the Tyrian god Melqart and gave open endorsement to the worship of Baal in Israel by supporting 450 Baal prophets and 400 prophets of the goddess Asherah (1 Kings 18:19 ). Following Ahab's death, she continued to be a significant force in Israel for ten years as queen mother. Ahab's marriage to a Phoenician princess had both commercial and political benefits. Commercially, it brought desired goods to Samaria and opened the way for expanded sea trade. Politically, it removed any military threat from Phoenicia. During Ahab's days, Israel enjoyed peace with Judah, largely as a result of a marriage he arranged between princess Athaliah and Joram, the crown prince of Judah. The resulting alliance produced cooperative efforts in sea trade (1 Kings 22:48; 2 Chronicles 20:35-37 ) and a joint military campaign to recapture Ramoth-gilead, which had fallen under Aramean control (1 Kings 22:2-40 ). During his reign, effective control was maintained over Moab, producing revenue extracted by tribute, a tax the Moabite king paid to maintain his position (2 Kings 3:4 ). The oppression of Moab under Ahab and his father Omri finds expression in the famous Moabite Stone. In this inscription Mesha, king of Moab, observed that his land was under Israelite control for a period of 40 years. Mesha also claimed to have gained independence from Ahab's Israel. Ahab was successful in two major campaigns against the Syrian king, Ben-hadad, but was mortally wounded in the third. His participation in the great battle of Qarqar (853 B.C.), though not mentioned in the Bible, is recorded on an inscription of Shalmanezer III of Assyria. According to Shalmanezer, Ahab committed 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men to the battle. The days of Ahab in Samaria were days of growing wealth and spiritual apostasy. According to 1 Kings 22:39 , he built an "ivory house" for Jezebel, the remains of which were discovered in the Harvard excavations at the site. Rooms and furniture were decorated with ivory inlay which in many cases featured Egyptian deities. His surrender to the influences of idolatry is illustrated by the construction of a temple for Baal (1 Kings 16:32 ), the massacre of the Lord's prophets (1Kings 18:4,1 Kings 18:19 ), and seizure of an Israelite's property (1 Kings 21:1 ). Ahab appears to have been a worshiper of Yahweh, God of Israel, but probably along with other deities. He frequently consulted with Yahweh's prophets (1Kings 20:13-14,1Kings 20:22,1 Kings 20:28; 1Kings 22:8,1 Kings 22:16 ), used the divine name in naming his children (Ahaziah, Jehoram, and Athaliah) and did not interfere with the execution of the priests of Baal after the contest on Mt. Carmel (1 Kings 18:40 ). The influence of Jezebel in his life, however, overshadowed any significant influence the prophets of the Lord had in his life. He became a prime example of evil (Micah 6:16 ). The death of Jezebel was surrounded with the arrogance that so characterized her life. She painted her eyes and adorned herself just for the occasion of issuing verbal taunts at Jehu from the palace window. She was pushed out of that window and died and, as prophesied (1 Kings 21:23 ), was eaten by dogs (2 Kings 9:30-37 ).

Amos

(ay' mahss) Personal name meaning, "a load." 1. A prophet from Judah who ministered in Israel about 750 B.C. One might graphically describe the prophet Amos as a "burden bearer." He carried a heavy burden for his people. Or, from another perspective, his people were a burden he carried. As a prophet, Amos was a primary figure among the series of courageous men known as the "Minor Prophets." Neither they nor their inspired messages were minor, and they are called "minor" only because their books are far shorter than "Major Prophets" such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. So brief were their writings that all twelve were written on a single scroll. Hence, those writings were commonly known as the Book of the Twelve or the Minor Prophets. Amos was a layperson who disclaimed professional status as a prophet: "I am no prophet, nor a prophet's son, but I am a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees, and the Lord took me from following the flock, and the Lord said to me, Go, prophesy to my people Israel'" (Amos 7:14-15 RSV). Because of God's call, Amos assumed his prophetic responsibilities as a lonely voice prophesying from both the desert and the villages. He indicted both Judah and Israel, challenging the superficial qualities of religious institutions. For Amos, his call and his continuing ministry rested in God's initiative and in His sustaining power: "The lion has roared; who will not fear? The Lord God has spoken; who can but prophesy?" ( Amos 3:8 RSV). Amos lived in a time of relative peace on the international political scene. Both Egypt and Assyria were in a period of decline, although Assyria was beginning to expand its power. Syria had become ineffective, but the reduction of this buffer state between Israel and Assyria was to have serious repercussions in the generation following Amos. Internally, the political structures of both Israel and Judah were stable. Beginning his prophetic activity during the reign of Jeroboam II in the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Amos lived during an era that rivaled Solomon's generation in its stability and economic prosperity (2 Kings 14:23-27 ). Yet, it was precisely the social, moral, and religious problems attending that prosperity that became the focus for Amos' voice of judgment. In the Southern Kingdom of Judah, the noble king Uzziah reigned (Amos 1:1 ). Amos probably began his ministry with God's call in 765 B.C., "two years before the earthquake" (Amos 1:1 ). Morally, Israel and Judah were suffering under the corruption generated as a by-product of Canaanite and Tyrian Baalism, as well as infidelity to the Lord's covenant. Israelite society had experienced the inevitable decay which characterizes misdirected prosperity. It may appear strange that the corruption of Israelite society could be traced to its contemporary religious structures and to the material prosperity which Israelites so often interpreted as a sign of divine favor. Despite the contradictory nature of those circumstances, the debauched moral condition of the land was the product of both corrupt religion and perverted material prosperity. Rampant luxury and self-indulgence were clearly manifest (Amos 1:6; Amos 4:1; Amos 5:10; Amos 6:1; Amos 8:4 ). Exploitation of the poor occurred throughout the land (Amos 2:6; Amos 3:10; Amos 4:1; Amos 5:11; Amos 8:4-6 ). Justice was distorted. The dynamism of personal religious experience gave way to the superficiality of institutional religion as demonstrated in the conflict between Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (Amos 7:10 ). Amos' opposition to those moral and religious evils led him to emphasize the primary theme of the book: "let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everlasting stream" (Amos 5:24 RSV). One may divide the book of Amos into three sections. Chapters one and two are a basic section, divided into subsections which begin with a common literary introduction (Amos 1:3 ,Amos 1:3,1:6 ,Amos 1:6,1:9 ,Amos 1:9,1:11 ,Amos 1:11,1:13; Amos 2:1 ,Amos 2:1,2:4 ,Amos 2:4,2:6 ). The second section of the book consists of judgment oracles directed against Israel (Amos 3:1-6:14 ). The third section contains the visions of Amos (7-9), which may have been the earliest revelations through the prophet. The visions were central to his call experience. Aware of the awesome reality of human sin and divine judgment, these visions shaped his prophetic messages (Amos 7:1-3 ,Amos 7:1-3,7:4-6 ,Amos 7:4-6,7:7-9; Amos 8:1-3; Amos 9:1-4 ). The words of Amos address various issues, but the central theme stresses sin and judgment. Whether in addressing other nations, Israel, or Judah, the prophet condemned those who sin against a universal conscience (Amos 1:1-2:3 ), the revealed law (Amos 2:4-5 ), or God's redeeming love (Amos 2:6-16 ). Amos challenged people to live by covenant standards and condemned them for their failure to reflect the covenant in daily life. He was concerned about people who "do not know how to do right" (Amos 3:10 RSV). His word of judgment was severe for the "first ladies of Samaria" who encouraged the injustice and violence of their husbands "who oppress the poor, who crush the needy, who say to their husbands, Bring, that we may drink!'" ( Amos 4:1 RSV). Because of such injustice and the failure to bind authentic religious experience with a social conscience, Amos claimed that the nation was already dead. One could sing Israel's funeral lament: "Fallen, no more to rise, is the virgin Israel" ( Amos 5:1 RSV). For individuals who were superficially and confidently "at ease in Zion, and to those who feel secure on the mountain of Samaria" ( Amos 6:1 RSV), their only hope rested in the renewal of authentic religious experience leading to a life of justice and righteousness which overflow the land ( Amos 5:24 ). For those who rejected that way, only judgment remained: "prepare to meet your God, O Israel!" (Amos 4:12 ). 2 . An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:25 ). Outline I. The Sermons: God Confronts His People's Sin (Amos 1:1-6:14 ). A. God's Word is revealed in human words (Amos 1:1-2 ). B. God identifies and condemns all human sin (Amos 1:3-2:16 ). 1. Acts against common human decency are sinful (Amos 1:3-2:3 ). 2. The rejection of God's law by substituting one's own wisdom is sin (Amos 2:4-5 ). 3. Rejecting God's love is sin (Amos 2:6-16 ). C. God condemns empty religion (Amos 3:1-15 ). 1. The privilege of being loved by God brings responsibility (Amos 3:1-2 ). 2. God reveals His purposes to His people (Amos 3:3-8 ). 3. God uses historical agents in His judgment (Amos 3:9-12 ). 4. Centers of empty religion and ill-gotten prosperity will all fall (Amos 3:13-15 ). D. God's love confronts His disobedient people in judgment (Amos 4:1-13 ). 1. Insatiable desire leads to sin (Amos 4:1-3 ). 2. Empty and meaningless worship is sin (Amos 4:4-5 ). 3. Temporal judgment is intended to lead God's people to repentance (Amos 4:6-11 ). 4. God's rebellious people face an ultimate confrontation with Him (Amos 4:12-13 ). E. God calls His people to practice justice and righteousness (Amos 5:1-27 ). 1. God sees the end of His sinful people (Amos 5:1-3 ). 2. God's rebellious people are invited to seek Him (Amos 5:4-9 ,Amos 5:4-9,5:14-15 ). 3. God's inescapable judgment is on His people (Amos 5:10-13 ,Amos 5:10-13,5:16-20 ). 4. Practical righteousness is God's ultimate demand of His people (Amos 5:21-27 ). F. False security in national strength leads to ultimate downfall (Amos 6:1-14 ). II. The Visions: Seeing God Properly Reveals Both His Judgment and His Mercy (Amos 7:1-9:15 ). A. God extends mercy in response to serious intercession (Amos 7:1-6 ). B. Ultimate confrontation with God can never be escaped (Amos 7:7-9 ). C. A proper view of God brings everything else into perspective (Amos 7:10-17 ). 1. A false view of the nature of God's message leads to wrong decisions (Amos 7:10-13 ). 2. A person transformed by a vision of God sees people and things as they really are (Amos 7:14-17 ). D. The final consequences of sin offers judgment without hope (Amos 8:1-9:4 ). 1. An overripe, rotten religion is worthless (Amos 8:1-3 ). 2. The empty observance of meaningless ritual leaves our morality unaffected (Amos 8:4-6 ). 3. God's final judgment is a horrible sight (Amos 8:7-9:4 ). E. God's mercy can be seen beyond His judgment (Amos 9:5-15 ). 1. God is Sovereign over all the universe (Amos 9:5-6 ). 2. God's mercy still offers hope beyond temporal judgment (Amos 9:7-10 ). 3. God's ultimate purpose of good for His people will be fulfilled (Amos 9:11-15 ).

Ba'al

(bay' uhl) Lord of Canaanite religion and seen in the thunderstorms, Baal was worshiped as the god who provided fertility. He proved a great temptation for Israel. "Baal" occurs in the Old Testament as a noun meaning, "lord, owner, possessor, or husband," and as a proper noun referring to the supreme god of the Canaanites, and often to the name of a man. According to 1 Chronicles 5:5 , Baal was a descendant of Reuben, Jacob's firstborn son, and the father of Beerah. Baal was sent into exile by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria. The genealogical accounts of Saul's family listed in 1 Chronicles 9:35-36 indicates that the fourth son of Jehiel was named Baal. The noun comes from a verb that means to marry or rule over. The verb form occurs in the Hebrew text 29 times, whereas the noun occurs 166 times. The noun appears in a number of compound forms which are proper names for locations where Canaanite deities were worshiped, such as Baal-peor (Numbers 25:5; Deuteronomy 4:3; Psalm 106:28; Hosea 9:10 ), Baal-hermon (Judges 3:3; 1 Chronicles 5:23 ), and Baal-gad (Joshua 11:17; Joshua 12:7; Joshua 13:5 ). Baal Worship in Canaan Baal worship revolved around two themes that represented the conception of Baal his worshipers held. Baal was both the sun-god and storm-god. He was worshiped as sun-god when the people wished to express thanks and gratitude for light and warmth and fertility. Worship of Baal as storm-god took place to appease the destructive nature of Baal, demonstrated by drought and storms that devastated the vegetation of the worshipers. The efforts to appease Baal whenever adverse conditions prevailed culminated in the sacrifice of human beings, usually the firstborn of the one offering the sacrifice. The victims were burnt alive, a practice in the Old Testament termed "to pass through the fire" (2 Kings 16:3; 2 Kings 21:6 ). Baal worship was as diverse as the communities in which he was worshiped. Each locality had its own Baal, who was named after the city or place to which he belonged. Baal was considered the owner or possessor of the land on which his followers lived. Baal Worship in Israel The Northern Kingdom of Israel, under the leadership of Ahab of the household of Omri, was led to worship Baal as the state god (1 Kings 16:31 ). The prophets Elijah and Elisha delivered the condemnation of God concerning Baal worship and tried to rid the land of the idolatry (1 Kings 18:17-40; 2 Kings 1:9-16 ). The worship of Baal infiltrated the Southern Kingdom of Judah. The reform movement of Hezekiah was reversed when Manasseh became king (2 Kings 21:2-16 ), as he reinstated Baal worship, along with worship of Assyrian gods and other gods. The conflict between Baal worship and the worship of the Lord God is described in the Book of Hosea. The judgment of the people of God for their idolatry, and their restoration is disclosed in Hosea 2:1 . The Bible writers affirmed the supremacy of Yahweh and condemned the worship of any other gods beside Yahweh. See Canaan.

Bildad

(bihl' dad) Proper name meaning, "the Lord loved." One of the three friends of Job (Job 2:11 ). He is identified as a Shuhite, perhaps a member of a group of nomadic Arameans. His speeches reveal him as a defender of traditionalist theological views. He argues that a just God does not punish the innocent (Job 8:1 ). Job should admit he was suffering the just fate of the wicked (Job 18:1 ), and no person can be righteous before the awesome God (Job 25:1 ). See Job.

Boaz

(boh' az) Personal name perhaps meaning, "lively." 1. Hero of Book of Ruth, a wealthy relative of Naomi's husband. See Matthew 1:5; Luke 3:32 ).

Cyrus the Great

(ci' ruhss) The third king of Anshan, Cyrus (the Great) assumed the throne about 550 B.C. According to the best histories Cyrus was reared by a shepherd after his grandfather, Astyages, king of Media, ordered that he be killed. Apparently, Astyages had dreamed that Cyrus would one day succeed him as king before the reigning monarch's death. The officer charged with the execution instead carried the boy into the hills to the shepherds. As an adult, Cyrus organized the Persians into an army and revolted against his grandfather and father (Cambyses I). He defeated them and claimed their throne. One of his first acts as king of Medio-Persia was to launch an attack against Lydia, capital of Sardis and storehouse for the riches of its king, Croesus. Turning eastward, Cyrus continued his campaign until he had carved out a vast empire, stretching from the Aegean Sea to India. The Babylonian Empire next stood in his path, an obstacle which appeared to be insurmountable. Engaging the Babylonian army at Opis, Cyrus' troops routed them and moved on Babylon. The people in the capital welcomed Cyrus with open arms, seeing him as a liberator rather than a conqueror. All that remained was Egypt, which he left for his son, Cambyses II. Cyrus truly was the ruler of the world. Cyrus' military exploits have become legendary. However, he is best remembered for his policies of peace. His famous decree in 539 B.C. (2 Chronicles 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-4 ) set free the captives Babylon had taken during its harsh rule. Among these prisoners were the Jews taken from Jerusalem in 586 B.C. They were allowed to return to rebuild the Temple and city. Along with this freedom Cyrus restored the valuable treasures of the Temple taken during the Exile. Since the Jews had done well in Babylon financially, many of them did not want to return to the wastes of Judah. From these people Cyrus exacted a tax to help pay for the trip for those who did wish to rebuild Jerusalem. An astute politician, Cyrus made it a practice to publicly worship the gods of each kingdom he conquered. In so doing, he won the hearts of his subjects and kept down revolt. He is referred to as Yahweh's shepherd and anointed (Isaiah 44:28-45:6 ) because of his kindness to the Jews and worship of Yahweh. His last years are obscure. Cyrus was killed while fighting a frontier war with the nomadic Massagetae people. His tomb is in Pasargadae (modern Murghab).

Daniel

(dan' iehl) Personal name meaning, "God is judge" or "God's judge." 1. A son of David and Abigail, the Carmelitess (1 Chronicles 3:1 ), who is also called Chileab in 2 Samuel 3:3 . 2 . A priest of the Ithamar lineage (Ezra 8:2; Nehemiah 10:6 ) who returned with Ezra from the Babylonian captivity. 3. Daniel of Ezekiel 14:14 ,Ezekiel 14:14,14:20; Ezekiel 28:3 is spelled differently in Hebrew from all the other forms in the Old Testament. This Daniel was a storied figure of antiquity mentioned with Noah and Job. He was famous for wisdom and righteousness. Due to the similarity in the spelling of the name and the common attributes of wisdom and righteousness, some interpreters identify this Daniel with the Daniel of the canonical book of Daniel. Most interpreters, however, take note of the differences in the spelling and also the fact of antiquity. Some identify the "Daniel" of Ezekiel with "Danel" of ancient Ugaritic literature. 4. The most common usage of "Daniel" refers to the hero of the Book of Daniel. This young man of nobility was taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and elevated to high rank in the Babylonian and Persian kingdoms. The Babylonians sought to remove all vestiges of Daniel's nationality and religion. For this reason, they sought to change the name of Daniel to Belteshazzar. (Daniel 1:7; Daniel 2:26; Daniel 4:8-9 ,Daniel 4:8-9,4:18-19; Daniel 5:12; Daniel 10:1 ). Daniel was transported from Judah to Babylon in his early youth at the battle of Carchemish, 605 B.C. The text does not indicate his precise age. He was trained in the arts, letters, and wisdom in the Babylonian capital. Eventually, he rose to high rank among the Babylonian men of wisdom. He was active throughout the long reign of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.C.). No mention is made in Daniel of the times of Evil-Merodach (561-560 B.C.), Neriglissar (559-555 B.C.), or Labashi-Marduk (555 B.C.). However, much information is provided concerning Daniel's involvement during the reign of Nabonidus (555-539 B.C.). While Nabonidus was absent from his country for extended periods of time, he put his son Belshazzar in charge of the affairs of government. Daniel was in Babylon when the forces of Cyrus, the Persian, captured Babylon. Successively, Daniel was a high governmental official during the reigns of Cyrus (539-529 B.C.) and Cambyses (529-522 B.C.). He served also during his old age into the reign of Darius I, the son of Hystaspes (522-486 B.C.). Daniel would probably have celebrated his one hundredth birthday during the reign of Darius. He had outstanding physical attraction. He demonstrated at an early age propensities of knowledge, wisdom, and leadership. In addition to his wisdom, he was skilled in dream interpretation. Throughout his entire life he demonstrated an unshakable faith in his God. It took courage to resist the temptations and threats which confronted him repeatedly. He recognized that God was continuously judging him. He remained faithful.

David

(day' vihd) Personal name probably meaning, "favorite" or "beloved." The first king to unite Israel and Judah and the first to receive the promise of a royal messiah in his line. David was pictured as the ideal king of God's people. He ruled from about 1005 to 965 B.C. Selection as King When Saul failed to meet God's standards for kingship (1Samuel 15:23,1 Samuel 15:35; 1 Samuel 16:1 ), God sent Samuel to anoint a replacement from among the sons of Jesse, who lived in Bethlehem (1 Samuel 16:1 ). God showed Samuel He had chosen the youngest who still tended sheep for his father (1 Samuel 16:11-12 ). David's good looks were noteworthy. In Saul's Court David's musical talent, combined with his reputation as a fighter, led one of Saul's servants to recommend David as the person to play the harp for Saul when the evil spirit from God troubled him (1 Samuel 16:18 ). Saul grew to love David and made him armorbearer for the king (1 Samuel 16:21-22 ). At a later date the Philistines with the giant Goliath threatened Israel (1 Samuel 17:1 ). David returned home to tend his father's sheep (1 Samuel 17:15 ). Jesse sent David to the battlefield with food for his warrior brothers. At least one brother did not think too highly of him (1 Samuel 17:28 ). Saul tried to persuade David, the youth, from challenging Goliath; but David insisted God would bring victory, which He did. Saul's son Jonathan became David's closest friend (1 Samuel 18:1 ). David became a permanent part of Saul's court, not returning home (1 Samuel 18:2 ). Saul gave David a military commission, which he fulfilled beyond expectations, defeating the Philistines and winning the hearts of the people. This stirred Saul's jealousy (1 Samuel 18:8 ). Moved by the evil spirit from God, Saul tried to kill David with his spear; but God's presence protected David (1 Samuel 18:10-12 ). David eventually earned the right to marry Michal, Saul's daughter, without being killed by the Philistines as Saul had hoped (1 Samuel 18:17-27 ). With the help of Michal and Jonathan, David escaped from Saul and made contact with Samuel, the prophet (1 Samuel 19:18 ). Jonathan and David made a vow of eternal friendship, and Jonathan risked his own life to protect David (1 Samuel 20:1 ). Independent Warrior David gathered a band of impoverished and discontented people around him. He established relationships with Moab and other groups and gained favor with the people by defeating the Philistines (1 Samuel 22-23 ), but all Saul's efforts to capture him failed. God protected David, and David refused to injure Saul, instead promising not to cut off Saul's family (1 Samuel 24:21-22 ). Abigail of Maon intervened with David to prevent him from punishing her foolish husband Nabal. God brought Nabal's death, and David married Abigail. He also married Ahinoam of Jezreel, but Saul gave Michal, David's first wife, to another man (1 Samuel 25:1 ). After again refusing to kill Saul, the Lord's anointed, David attached himself to Achish, the Philistine king of Gath. Saul finally quit chasing him. Achish gave Ziklag to David, who established a headquarters there and began destroying Israel's southern neighbors (1 Samuel 27:1 ). Despite the wishes of Achish, the other Philistine leaders would not let David join them in battle against Saul (1 Samuel 29:1 ). Returning home, David found the Amalekites had destroyed Ziklag and captured his wives. David followed God's leading and defeated the celebrating Amalekites, recovering all the spoils of war. These he distributed among his followers and among the peoples of Judah (1 Samuel 30:1 ). King of Judah Hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, David avenged the murderer of Saul and sang a lament over the fallen (2 Samuel 1:1 ). He moved to Hebron, where the citizens of Judah crowned him king (2 Samuel 2:1 ). This led to war with Israel under Saul's son Ishbosheth. After much intrigue, Ishbosheth's commanders assassinated him. David did the same to them (2 Samuel 4:1 ). King of Israel The northern tribes then crowned David king at Hebron, uniting all Israel under him. He led the capture of Jerusalem and made it his capital. After defeating the Philistines, David sought to move the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem, succeeding on his second attempt (2 Samuel 6:1 ). He then began plans to build a temple but learned from Nathan, the prophet, that he would instead build a dynasty with eternal dimensions (2 Samuel 7:1 ). His son would build the Temple. David then organized his administration and subdued other nations who opposed him, finally gaining control of the land God had originally promised the forefathers. He also remembered his promise to Jonathan and cared for his lame son Mephibosheth (2 Samuel 9:1 ). A Sinner David was a giant among godly leaders, but he remained human as his sin with Bathsheba and Uriah showed. He spied Bathsheba bathing, desired her, and engineered the death of her faithful warrior husband, after committing adultery with her (2 Samuel 11:1 ). Nathan, the prophet, confronted David with his sin, and David confessed his wrongdoing. The newborn child of David and Bathsheba died. David acknowledged his helplessness in the situation, confessing faith that he would go to be with the child one day. Bathsheba conceived again, bearing Solomon (2 Samuel 12:1-25 ). Family Intrigue Able to rule the people but not his family, David saw intrigue, sexual sins, and murder rock his own household, resulting in his isolation from and eventual retreat before Absalom. Still, David grieved long and deep when his army killed Absalom (2 Samuel 18:19-33 ). David's kingdom was restored, but the hints of division between Judah and Israel remained (2 Samuel 19:40-43 ). David had to put down a northern revolt (2 Samuel 20:1 ). The last act the Books of Samuel report about David is his census of the people, bringing God's anger but also preparing a place for the Temple to be built (2 Samuel 24:1 ). The last chapters of 1Chronicles describe extensive preparations David made for the building and the worship services of the Temple. David's final days involved renewed intrigue among his family, as Adonijah sought to inherit his father's throne, but Nathan and Bathsheba worked to insure Solomon became the next king (1 Kings 1:1;b12:12 ). Prophetic Hope David thus passed from the historical scene but left a legacy never to be forgotten. He was the role model for Israelite kings (1 Kings 3:14; 1 Kings 9:14; 1Kings 11:4,1Kings 11:6,1Kings 11:33,1 Kings 11:38; 1 Kings 14:8; 1Kings 15:3,1 Kings 15:11; 2 Kings 14:3; 2 Kings 16:2; 2 Kings 22:2 ). David was the "man of God" (2 Chronicles 8:14 ), and God was "the God of David thy father" (2 Kings 20:5 ). God's covenant with David was the deciding factor as God wrestled with David's disobedient successors on the throne (2 Chronicles 21:7 ). Even as Israel rebuilt the Temple, they followed "the ordinance of David king of Israel (Ezra 3:10 ). God's prophets pointed to a future David who would restore Israel's fortunes. "Of the increase of his government and peace there shall be no end, upon the throne of David, and upon his kingdom, to order it, and to establish it with judgment and with justice from henceforth even forever" (Isaiah 9:7 ). Jeremiah summed up the surety of the hope in David: "If ye can break my covenant of the day, and my covenant of the night, and that there should not be day and night in their season; Then may also my covenant be broken with David my servant, that he should not have a son to reign upon his throne As the host of heaven cannot be numbered, neither the sand of the sea measured: so will I multiply the seed of David my servant" (Jeremiah 33:20-22 ). For further references, compare Jeremiah 33:15 , Jeremiah 33:17 , Jeremiah 33:25-26; Ezekiel 34:23-24; Ezekiel 37:24-25; Hosea 3:5; Amos 9:11; Zechariah 12:6-10 . In the New Testament The New Testament tells the story of Jesus as the story of the Son of God but also as the story of the Son of David from His birth (Matthew 1:1 ) until His final coming (Revelation 22:16 ). At least twelve times the Gospels refer to Him as "Son of David." David was cited as an example of similar behavior by Jesus (Matthew 12:3 ); and David called Him, "Lord" (Luke 20:42-44 ). David thus took his place in the roll call of faith (Hebrews 11:32 ). This was "David the son of Jesse, a man after mine own heart, which shall fulfill all my will" (Acts 13:22 ).

Elisha

(e li' sshuh) Personal name meaning, "my God is salvation." A ninth century B.C. Israelite prophet, son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah (1 Kings 19:16 ). His Name and Call Experience Elisha was plowing one day when "Elijah passed by him, and cast his mantle upon him." (1 Kings 19:19 ). This action symbolically manifested God's plan to bestow the prophetic powers of Elijah upon Elisha. The chosen one understood the call of God for, "he left the oxen, and ran after Elijah" (1 Kings 19:20 ). That Elisha felt the call of prophetic succession is again clear following Elijah's dramatic ascent into heaven. There Elisha "took up also the mantle of Elijah that fell from him" (2 Kings 2:13 ). The beginning of Elisha's ministry should be dated to the last years of King Ahab's rule (1 Kings 19:1 ) or approximately 850 B.C. The prophet then served faithfully during the reigns of Ahaziah (about 853 B.C.), Jehoram or Joram (852 B.C.), Jehu (c. 841 B.C.), Jehoahaz (c. 814 B.C.), and Jehoash or Joash (798 B.C.). 2 Kings 1-13 preserves the details of Elisha's ministry which ranged from about 850-800 B.C. His Miracles After Elijah insisted to his chosen successor that he, "Ask what I shall do for you, before I am taken from you," Elisha answered, "Let me inherit a double portion of spirit" (2 Kings 2:9 NIV). Taking up the mantle of the departed prophet, he parted the Jordan River. Following this miracle the prophetic order or "sons of the prophets" declared, "The spirit of Elijah is resting on Elisha" ( 2 Kings 2:15 ). Soon thereafter, Elisha made bad water wholesome (2 Kings 2:19-22 ). His reputation soon assumed so sacred an aura that harassment of the prophet merited severe punishment. For mocking the bald prophet, 42 boys were attacked by two she-bears (2 Kings 2:23-24 ). The prophet used his power to provide a widow with an abundance of valuable oil to save her children from slavery (2 Kings 4:1-7 ). He made a poisonous pottage edible (2 Kings 4:38-41 ), fed a hundred men by multiplying limited resources (2 Kings 4:42-44 ), and miraculously provided water for thirsting armies (2 Kings 3:13-22 ). Once he made an iron ax head float (2 Kings 6:5-7 ). Some of the miracles of Elisha are quite well known and loved. Who has not been moved by the story of the Shunammite woman and her son? This barren woman and her husband who had graciously opened their home to the prophet had in turn been given a son by the Lord. One day while the boy worked in the field with his father, he suffered an apparent heartstroke and died. The compassion and tenacious hope of the mother met its reward when she sought and found the man of God and pleaded for help. God's power through Elisha raised the boy from the dead (2 Kings 4:8-37 ). Yet another well-known story is the healing of Naaman the leper and the subsequent affliction of Gehazi the dishonest servant of Elisha (2 Kings 5:1-27 ). The miraculous powers of the prophet were prominently displayed still further in the war between Syria and Israel. The Syrian soldiers were blinded, then made to see. Then, at last, divine intervention totally foiled the Syrian siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:8-7:20 ). Elisha's power did not end at death. For when a dead man was thrown into Elisha's grave and touched his bones, "he revived, and stood up on his feet" (2 Kings 13:21 ). In carrying out the second and third commands of the "still small voice" to Elijah (1 Kings 19:11-16 ), Elisha enhanced his legacy beyond the realm of miracle worker. He played a major role in Hazael becoming king of Syria (2 Kings 8:7-15 ) and also in the anointing of Jehu as king of Israel (2 Kings 9:1-13 ). Powerful enough to perform miracles and appoint kings, yet sensitive enough to weep over the fate of Israel (2 Kings 8:11-12 ), Elisha, disciple and successor to Elijah, proved to be both prophet and statesman. Chosen by God and hand-picked by Elijah in the latter half of the ninth century B.C., Elisha directed the historical drama of Israel. See Miracles; Prophet-Prophecy; History of Israel; Baal Worship.

Ezekiel

(e zee' kih ehl) Personal name meaning, "God will strengthen." A sixth-century B.C. prophet during the Babylonian Exile, son of Buzi (Ezekiel 1:3 ), and priest as well as prophet. He was taken captive to Babylon in 597 B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar along with King Jehoiachin and 10,000 others, including political and military leaders and skilled craftsmen (2 Kings 24:14-16 ). He lived in his own house at Tel-Abib near the river Chebar, an irrigation canal that channeled the waters of the Euphrates River into the surrounding arid region. Ezekiel's call came in 593 B.C., the "thirtieth year" (Ezekiel 1:1 ), probably Ezekiel's age (though it has been interpreted as 30 years since the discovery of the law book in 622,30 years since Jehoiachin's imprisonment, or a system of Babylonian chronology). Scholars have long debated whether Ezekiel was in Babylon or Jerusalem during his ministry. The book bearing his name points unmistakably to a Babylonian locale (Ezekiel 1:1-3; Ezekiel 3:15; Ezekiel 8:1-3; Ezekiel 33:21 ). However, it has been argued that since most of the messages were addressed to the people of Jerusalem (Ezekiel 16:2; Ezekiel 21:2; Ezekiel 22:2 ), it would have been meaningless to deliver them to the exiles. Also, some believe his intimate knowledge of events in Jerusalem (for example, his description of worship practices in the Temple, Ezekiel 8:1-18; Pelatiah's death, Ezekiel 11:13 ) would require that he was in Jerusalem. To resolve the difficulties, some have suggested that he was in Babylon part of the time and in Jerusalem at other times. All objections to the Babylonian locale can be answered satisfactorily, however. Prophets frequently delivered messages for audiences not present (for example, the messages against foreign nations as in Ezekiel 25-32 ). Furthermore, the genuine visionary experience (through which Ezekiel claimed to receive his knowledge) cannot be dismissed arbitrarily. Of course, visitors from Jerusalem could have kept him informed about events at home and carried his messages back when they returned. Therefore, there is no need to reject Babylon as the location of Ezekiel's entire ministry. Ezekiel was married, but little else is known about his family life. His wife died suddenly during the siege of Jerusalem (Ezekiel 24:18 ). Ezekiel continued to preach until at least 571 B.C. (Ezekiel 29:17 ). His ministry can be divided into two phases: (1) 593-587, characterized by warnings of coming judgment on Judah and Jerusalem, and (2) 587-571, a period characterized by messages of encouragement and hope for the future. It is not known when Ezekiel died or the manner of his death. An ancient Jewish tradition says he was put to death by his own people because of his preaching. A tomb in Kifl, south of ancient Babylon, is claimed to be that of Ezekiel. His influence on later Judaism cannot be overemphasized. Some have insisted that he was "the father of Judaism" rather than Ezra. Much has been written about Ezekiel's personality. He has been labeled neurotic, paranoid, psychotic, or schizophrenic because of his unusual behavior (for example, lying on one side for 390 days and on the other for 40 days, Ezekiel 4:4-6; shaving off his hair, Ezekiel 5:1-4; and his many visions). A better explanation for his strange behavior is that anyone who conscientiously obeys God will be considered "strange" by some people. Nothing God asked Ezekiel to do seemed too difficult. Only once was he reluctant to obey a command that would have made him ceremonially unclean (Ezekiel 4:14 ). His objection reflected his priestly training.

Isaiah

(i zay' uh) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh saves." Prophet active in Judah about 740 to 701 B.C. The Historical Background Isaiah's ministry spanned the period from his call vision (about 740 B.C.) until the last years of Hezekiah (716-687) or the early years of Manasseh (687-642). The prophet lived during the reigns of the Judean kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, and perhaps the first years of Manasseh. He was contemporary with the last five kings of Israel: Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, and Hosea. The tragic fall of Samaria to the Assyrian King Sargon II in 722 B.C. occurred during his ministry. In northwest Mesopotamia, the energetic monarch Tiglath-pileser III (745-727) founded the mighty Assyrian Empire. A series of vigorous successors succeeded him: Shalmaneser V (726-722), Sargon II (721-705), Sennacherib (704-681), and Esarhaddon (680-669). With Asshurbanipal (668-627) the empire began to crumble and ultimately fell to the Babylonians in 612-609 under the command of Nabopolassar (625-585). During this same period Egypt experienced a resurgence of power in the 25th Dynasty (about 716-663) and occasioned international intrigue among the Palestinian states to overthrow Assyria. The petty states of Palestine—Syria, Philistia, Moab, Edom, Ammon, Arabia, Tyre, Israel, and Judah—were ultimately conquered or made tributary to Assyria. With strong feelings of nationalism these states fomented rebellion and duplicity, a world of intrigue born of political and economic frustrations. In this era Isaiah exercised his prophetic ministry, a large part of which was politically involved with Judah and to a lesser extent Israel. He advocated policies of state in line with the religious creed of authentic prophetism. Personal Life of Isaiah Isaiah, the son of Amoz, was born in Judah, no doubt in Jerusalem, about 760 B.C. He enjoyed a significant position in the contemporary society and had a close relationship with the reigning monarchs. His education is clearly evident in his superb writing that has gained him an eminence in Hebrew literature hardly surpassed by any other. He had a thorough grasp of political history and dared to voice unpopular minority views regarding the state and the economy. His knowledge of the religious heritage of Israel and his unique theological contributions inspire awe. He was alive to what was transpiring in the court, in the marketplace, in high society with its shallowness, and in the political frustrations of the nation. Isaiah was called to be a prophet of Yahweh in striking visions which he experienced in the Temple about 740 B.C., the year that the aged Judean king Uzziah died (Isaiah 6:1 ). The elements in that vision forecast the major themes of his preaching, particularly the transcendent nature of Yahweh, which may serve as a modern translation of Hebraic "holiness." God warned him that his ministry would meet with disappointment and meager results but also assured him that forgiveness would ever attend the penitent (Isaiah 6:5-7; Isaiah 1:19-20 ) and that the ultimate promises of God would be realized (Isaiah 6:13 ). The prophet was married and was the father of two sons whose names symbolized Isaiah's public preaching: Mahershalalhashbaz (the spoil speeds; the prey hastes), a conviction that Assyria would invade Syria and Israel about 734 B.C., and Sherajashub (a remnant shall return), a name that publicized his belief in the survival and conversion of a faithful remnant in Israel (Isaiah 1:9; Isaiah 7:3; Isaiah 8:1 ,Isaiah 8:1,8:4; Isaiah 10:20-23 ).

Ishmael

(ihssh' may el) Personal name meaning "God hears." Son of Abraham by the Egyptian concubine Hagar (Genesis 16:11 ). He became the progenitor of the Ishmaelite peoples. The description in Genesis 16:12 points to an unruly and misanthropic disposition. Ishmael and his mother were expelled from the camp of Abraham at the insistence of Sarah following the birth of Sarah's son Isaac. The boy was near death in the wilderness when the angel of God directed Hagar to a well. Genesis 21:20 explains that God was with Ishmael, and that he became an archer. See Abraham; Patriarchs.

Jacob/Israel

(jay' cuhb) Personal name built on the Hebrew noun for "heel" meaning, "he grasps the heel" or "he cheats, supplants" (Genesis 25:26; Genesis 27:36 ). Original ancestor of the nation of Israel and father of the twelve ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel (Genesis 25:1 —Exodus 25:1—1:5 ). He was the son of Isaac and Rebekah, younger twin brother of Esau, and husband of Leah and Rachel (Genesis 25:21-26; Genesis 29:21-30 ). God changed his name to Israel (Genesis 32:28; Genesis 49:2 ). Texts from Ugarit and Assyria have persons named Jacob, but these are not Israelites. Their name is often connected with one of their gods, becoming Jacob-el or Jacob-baal. In such a form, it probably means "may El protect." The Old Testament knows only one Jacob. No one else received the patriarch's name. Between the Testaments other Jews received the name Jacob; the one New Testament example is the father of Joseph and thus the earthly grandfather of Jesus (Matthew 1:16 ). Jacob stands as a strong witness that the God who made all the people of the earth also worked in Israel's history, calling the patriarchs to a destiny He would fulfill even when they least deserved it. Jacob in Genesis Jacob's story occupies half the Book of Genesis. Living up to his name, Jacob bargained for Esau's birthright. See Birthright . Parental partiality fostered continuing hostility between Esau, the hunter beloved of his father, and Jacob, the quiet, settled, integrated person favored by his mother. The tensions between brothers seemed to threaten the fulfillment of the divine promise. Esau's thoughtlessness lost him his birthright and allowed Jacob to have material superiority. Nevertheless, Isaac intended to bestow the blessing of the firstborn upon Esau. The oracle Rebekah received (Genesis 25:23 ) probably encouraged her to counter Isaac's will and to gain the blessing for her favorite son by fraud. The blessing apparently conveyed the status of head of family apart from the status of heir. To his crass lies and deception, Jacob even approached blasphemy, using God's name to bolster his cause, "Because the Lord your God granted me success" (Genesis 27:20 NRSV). The father's blindness deepened the pathos. The blind father pronounced the blessing he could never recall. Jacob became the bearer of God's promises and the inheritor of Canaan. Esau, too, received a blessing, but a lesser one. He must serve Jacob and live in the less fertile land of Edom, but his day would come ( Genesis 27:40 ). The split between brothers became permanent. Rebekah had to arrange for Jacob to flee to her home in Paddan-aram to escape Esau's wrath (Genesis 27:46-28:1 ). At age 40, Jacob fled his home to begin his life as an individual. Suddenly, a lonely night in Bethel, interrupted by a vision from God, brought reality home. Life had to include wrestling with God and assuming responsibility as the heir of God's promises to Abraham (Genesis 28:10-22 ). Jacob made an oath, binding himself to God. Here is the center of Jacob's story; all else must be read in light of the Bethel experience. In Aram with his mother's family, the deceiver Jacob met deception. Laban tricked him into marrying poor Leah, the elder daughter, before he got his beloved Rachel, the younger. Fourteen years he labored for his wives (Genesis 29:1-30 ). Six more years of labor let Jacob return the deception and gain wealth at the expense of his father-in-law, who continued his deception, changing Jacob's wages ten times (Genesis 31:7 ,Genesis 31:7,31:41 ) Amid the family infighting, both men prospered financially, and Jacob's family grew. Eventually he had twelve children from four women (Genesis 29:31-30:24 ). Intense bargaining ensued when Jacob told Laban he wanted to follow God's call and return to the land of his birth. Supported by his wives, who claimed their father had cheated them of their dowry (Genesis 31:15 ), Jacob departed while Laban and his sons were away in the hills shearing sheep. Starting two days later, Laban and his sons could not overtake Jacob until they reached Gilead, 400 miles from Haran. Laban complained that he had not had an opportunity to bid farewell to his daughters with the accustomed feast. More importantly, he wanted to recover his stolen gods (Genesis 31:30 ,Genesis 31:30,31:32 ). These gods were small metal or terra-cotta figures of deities. See Terraphim. Without the images, his family lost the magical protection which he thought the gods provided from demons and disasters. Since no fault could be found in Jacob's conduct in Haran, all Laban could do was to suggest a covenant of friendship. Laban proposed the terms as (1) never ill-treating his daughters, (2) never marrying any other women, and (3) establishing the site of the covenant as a boundary neither would cross with evil intent. Jacob was now head of his own household. He was ready to climb to a higher plane of spiritual experience. As Jacob approached the Promised Land, a band of angels met him at Mahanaim (Genesis 32:1-2 ). They probably symbolized God's protection and encouragement as he headed southward to meet Esau for the first time in twenty years. Esau's seemingly hostile advance prompted a call for clear evidence of God's guarding. Shrewdly, Jacob sent an enormous gift to his brother and divided his retinue into two groups. Each group was large enough to defend itself or to escape if the other was attacked. To his scheme Jacob added prayer. He realized that it was ultimately God with whom he must deal. When all had crossed the Jabbok River, Jacob met One who wrestled with him until daybreak (Genesis 32:1 ). The two struggled without one gaining advantage, until the Opponent dislocated Jacob's hip. Jacob refused to release his Antagonist. Clinging to Him, he demanded a blessing. This would not be given until Jacob said his name. By telling it, Jacob acknowledged his defeat and admitted his character. The Opponent emphasized His superiority by renaming the patriarch. He became Israel, the one on whose behalf God strives. He named the place Peniel (face of God), because he had seen God face to face and his life had been spared (Genesis 32:30 ). Jacob's fear of meeting Esau proved groundless. Seemingly, Esau was content to forget the wrongs of the past and to share his life. As two contrary natures are unlikely to live long in harmony, Jacob chose the better course turning westward to the Promised Land. Esau headed to Seir to become the father of the Edomites. The twins did not meet again until their father's death (Genesis 35:27-29 ). From Succoth, Jacob traveled to Shechem, where he built an altar to God. The son of the city ruler raped Jacob's daughter, Dinah. Jacob's sons demanded that the Shechemites be circumcised before any intermarriages were permitted. The leading citizens followed the king in the request. They hoped to absorb the Hebrews' wealth and property into their own. While the men of Shechem were recovering from surgery and unable to defend themselves, Simeon and Levi killed them to avenge their sister. Jacob condemned their actions, but had to leave Shechem. From Shechem, he returned to Bethel. Once again he received the patriarchal promises. Losses and grief characterized this period. The death of his mother's nurse (Genesis 35:8; Genesis 24:59 ) was followed by the death of his beloved wife Rachel while giving birth to Benjamin at Ephrath (Genesis 35:19; Genesis 48:7 ). About the same time Reuben forfeited the honor of being the eldest son by sexual misconduct (Genesis 35:22 ). Finally, the death of Jacob's father, who had been robbed of companionship with both sons, brought Jacob and Esau together again at the family burial site in Hebron. Although Genesis 37-50 revolve around Joseph, Jacob is still the central figure. The self-willed older sons come and go at his bidding. Descent to Egypt When severe famine gripped Canaan, Jacob and his sons set out for Egypt. At Beer-sheba Jacob received further assurance of God's favor (Genesis 46:1-4 ). Jacob dwelt in the land of Goshen until his death. Jacob bestowed the blessing not only upon his favorite son Joseph, but also upon Joseph's two oldest sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. He was finally laid to rest at Hebron in the cave Abraham had purchased (Genesis 50:12-14 ). Four New Testament passages recall events in his life. The woman at the well in Sychar declared to Jesus that Jacob provided the well (John 4:12 ). Stephen mentioned the famine and Jacob's journey to Egypt in the course of his defense before the Sanhedrin (Acts 7:8-16 ). Paul presented Jacob as an example of the sovereign choice of God and of the predestination of the elect (Romans 9:10-13 ). The writer of Hebrews held up Jacob as one of the examples of active faith (Hebrews 11:9 ,Hebrews 11:9,11:20-22 ). Jacob's Character Throughout the narrative a persistent faith in the God of the fathers shines through. Jacob's life was a story of conflict. He always seemed to be running from someone or something—from Esau, from Laban, or from famine in Canaan. His life, like that of all Israelites, was a checkered history of rebellion and flight. Jacob is no ideal. Jacob's better nature struggled with his sinful self. What raised Jacob above himself was his reverent, indestructible longing for the salvation of his God. Jacob's Religion As the religion of Israel and thus the roots of Christianity claim to derive from the patriarchs, it is necessary to attempt to understand Jacob's spiritual life. See God of the Fathers . Jacob's religion was consistent with the beliefs and practices of his fathers. He received instruction from Isaac concerning the history of Abraham, covenant, and the great promises. Jacob encountered God at Bethel at the moment of greatest need in his life. He was fleeing from home to distant unknown relatives. A secondhand religion would not do. Jacob's dream was his firsthand encounter with God. The threefold promise of land, descendants, and a blessing to all nations were personalized for him. Jacob saw in the vision the majesty and glory of God. At Bethel Jacob worshiped God and vowed to take Yahweh as his God. At Peniel, Jacob wrestled face-to-face with God. He saw how weak he was before God. It taught him the value of continued prayer from one who is helpless. Jacob emerged from Peniel willing to let his life fall into God's control. He was wounded but victorious. God gave him a crippled body but a strengthened faith. It was a new Jacob—Israel—who hobbled off to meet Esau. He had learned obedience through suffering. Theological Significance God did not chose Jacob because of what he was but because of what he could become. His life is a long history of discipline, chastisement, and purification by affliction. Not one of his misdeeds went unpunished. He sowed deception and reaped the same, first from Laban and then from his own sons. Jacob's story is a story of conflict. The note of conflict is even heard before his birth (Genesis 25:22-23 ). However, in the midst of the all-too-human quarrels over family and fortune, God was at work protecting and prospering His blessed. With the other patriarchs God acted directly, but with Jacob God seemed to be withdrawn at times. Yet, God was no less at work. He worked through unsavory situations and unworthy persons. Even in Jacob's web of conflict and tragedy, God's hand guided, though half-hidden

Jeremiah

(jehr ih mi' uh) Personal name meaning, "may Yahweh lift up," "throw," or "found." 1. The head of a clan of the tribe of Manasseh in East Jordan (1 Chronicles 5:24 ). 2 . Three soldiers of David's army at Ziklag (1Chronicles 12:4,1Chronicles 12:10,1 Chronicles 12:13 ). 3 . The father-in-law of King Josiah of Judah (640-609 B.C.) and grandfather of the Kings Jehoahaz [609 B.C.] (2 Kings 23:31 ) and Zedekiah (597-586 B.C.) (2 Kings 24:18; Jeremiah 52:1 ). 4 . A representative of the sect of the Rechabites (Jeremiah 35:3 ). 5 . Three priests or heads of priestly families in the times of Zerubbabel about 537 B.C. (Nehemiah 12:1 ,Nehemiah 12:1,12:12 ) and Nehemiah about 455 B.C. (Nehemiah 10:2; Nehemiah 12:34 ). Other persons by the name of Jeremiah are referred to in Hebrew inscriptions from Lachish and Arad about 700 B.C. and in a number of ancient Jewish seals. The Bible has a short form of the name seventeen times and a long form 121 times. Both forms are applied to the prophet. Inscriptions use the longer form. Jeremiah, the prophet The Bible tells us more about personal experiences of Jeremiah than of any other prophet. We read that his father's name was Hilkiah, a priest from Anathoth (Jeremiah 1:1 ). He was called to be a prophet in the thirteenth year of King Josiah (627/6 B.C.) (Jeremiah 1:2 ). He was active under the Kings Jehoahaz-Shallum (609 B.C.) (Jeremiah 22:11 ), Jehoiakim (609-587 B.C.) (Jeremiah 1:3; Jeremiah 22:18; Jeremiah 26:1; Jeremiah 35:1; Jeremiah 36:1 , Jeremiah 36:9 ), Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah (597 B.C.) (Jeremiah 22:24; Jeremiah 24:1; Jeremiah 27:20; Jeremiah 28:3; Jeremiah 29:2; Jeremiah 37:1 ), and Zedekiah (597-586 B.C.) (Jeremiah 1:3; Jeremiah 21:1; Jeremiah 27:1-12; Jeremiah 28:1; Jeremiah 32:1; Jeremiah 34:2; Jeremiah 37-38; Jeremiah 39:4; Jeremiah 52:7 ). When Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 B.C., Jeremiah moved to Mizpah, the capital of Gedaliah, the newly appointed Jewish governor of the Babylonian province of Judah (Jeremiah 40:5 ). When Gedaliah was assassinated (Jeremiah 41:1 ), Jeremiah was deported to Egypt against his will by Jewish officers who had survived the catastrophes (Jeremiah 42:1-43:7 ). In Egypt he continued to preach oracles against the Egyptians (Jeremiah 43:8-13 ) and against his compatriots (Jeremiah 44:1-30 ). Jeremiah is depicted as living in constant friction with the authorities of his people, religious (priests Jeremiah 20:1-6; prophets Jeremiah 28:1; or both Jeremiah 26:1 ), political (kings Jeremiah 21-22; Jeremiah 36-38 ), or all of them together (Jeremiah 1:18-19; Jeremiah 2:26; Jeremiah 8:1 ), including Jewish leaders after the Babylonian invasion (Jeremiah 42:1-43:13 ). Still his preaching emphasized a high respect for prophets whose warning words could have saved the people if they had listened (Jeremiah 7:25; Jeremiah 26:4; Jeremiah 29:17-19; Jeremiah 35:13 ). He trusted in the promise of ideal future kings (Jeremiah 23:5; Jeremiah 33:14-17 ). He recommended national surrender to the rule of the Babylonian Empire and called Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon's emperor and Judah's most hated enemy, the "servant of the Lord" (Jeremiah 25:9; Jeremiah 27:6 ). He even incited his compatriots to desert to the enemy (Jeremiah 21:8 ). He was accused of treason and convicted (Jeremiah 37:11; Jeremiah 38:1-6 ), and yet the most aggressive oracles against Babylon are attributed to him (50-51). Enemies challenged his prophetic honesty and the inspiration of his message (Jeremiah 43:1-3; Jeremiah 28:1; Jeremiah 29:24 ), and yet kings and nobles sought his advice (Jeremiah 21:1; Jeremiah 37:3; Jeremiah 38:14; Jeremiah 42:1 ). He constantly proclaimed God's judgment upon Judah and Jerusalem, and yet he was also a prophet of hope, proclaiming oracles of salvation, conditioned (Jeremiah 3:22-4:2 ) or unconditioned (30-31; Jeremiah 32:36; Jeremiah 33:6; Jeremiah 34:4 ). God forbade him to intercede for his people (Jeremiah 7:16; Jeremiah 11:14; Jeremiah 14:11; compare Jeremiah 15:1 ); yet he interceded (Jeremiah 14:7-9 ,Jeremiah 14:7-9,14:19-22 ). God ordered him to live without marriage and family (Jeremiah 16:2 ). He had to stay away from the company of merrymakers (Jeremiah 15:17 ) and from houses of feasting (Jeremiah 16:8 ). He complained to and argued with God (Jeremiah 12:1-17 ), complaining about the misery of his office (Jeremiah 20:7-18 ). At the same time he sang hymns of praise to his God (Jeremiah 20:13 ). Jeremiah's call came in the thirteenth year of King Josiah, about 627/6 B.C. (Jeremiah 1:2; Jeremiah 25:3; compare Jeremiah 36:2 ). Josiah remains however, the only Jewish king contemporary with Jeremiah to and about whom no word is spoken in the whole book. No concrete reference appears to any of the dramatic changes of national liberation and religious reformation within the last eighteen years of Josiah's reign (2 Kings 22:1-23:30 ). The words of the call narrative: "Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, I appointed you as a prophet to the nations" (Jeremiah 1:5 NIV), may suggest that the date of Jeremiah's call and birth is one and the same. In this case his prophetic activity must have begun many years later, but again with uncertain date.

Moses

(moh' ssihss) A personal name meaning, "drawn out of the water." The Old Testament depicts Moses as the leader of the Israelites in their Exodus from Egyptian slavery and oppression, their journey through the wilderness with its threats in the form of hunger, thirst, and unpredictable enemies, and finally in their audience with God at Mount Sinai/Horeb where the distinctive covenant bonding Israel and God in a special treaty became a reality. Nothing is known about Moses from sources outside the Old Testament. To be sure, the name Moses doubtlessly appears in Egyptian dress in compound names such as Tuthmoses III, but none of these references gives information about the Moses of Israel. The Old Testament describes Moses as a heroic leader of the people and as a man of God who brought the people into their special relationship with God. The story about Moses in the Old Testament, found in the extensive narratives from Exodus 1:1 through Deuteronomy 34:1 , can be described as a heroic saga. It is more than simply a biography of Moses, an historical document that records the events of his life. It is a special kind of ancient art form. To understand its content, the reader must appreciate its special brand of truth as beauty in the story itself. The artistic narrative begins in Exodus 1:1 , not with data about Moses, but with an account of events in Egypt that affected Moses' people. Since the Israelites had grown to be a large people, the Egyptian Pharaoh feared their power. To control them, he launched an official policy of oppression against them. When the oppression failed to curb the population growth of the Israelites, the Pharoah announced a new policy for limiting that growth. "Every boy that is born to the Hebrews you shall throw into the Nile, but you shall let every girl live" (Exodus 1:22 , NRSV). The very next line announces the birth of Moses. Moses' life began under the Pharoah's judgment of death. The mother, however, acted to protect the baby Moses from the Pharaoh's death decree. When the baby could no longer be hidden, the mother constructed an ark, a basket of bulrushes made waterproof with bitumen and pitch. She placed the child in the basket and the basket in the river. A sister stood watch over the basket to know what might happen. She witnessed an apparently terrible twist of fate, however, when the Pharaoh's own daughter came to the river. She found the ark, opened it, and recognized the child as a Hebrew. Rather than killing the child as her father had commanded, however, the woman showed compassion on the child, made the proper preparations, and, with the help of the baby's sister, established a procedure for adopting the baby as her own child. As a part of that process, the princess committed the child to a wet nurse suggested by the girl watching the ark. Of course, the wet nurse was the child's own mother. After the baby had been weaned, the mother delivered the child to the princess. As a part of the adoption procedure, the princess named the child Moses. The young hero grew to maturity in the palace of the king who had sought to kill him. The mature Moses became concerned about the oppression of his people. The storyteller emphasized the identity between the oppressed people and Moses. "He went out to his people. . ., and he saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his kinsfolk " (Exodus 2:11 NRSV, author's italics). Moses responded to the particular act of oppression against his people by killing the Egyptian. In the wake of his violent act against the Egyptian taskmaster, Moses fled from Egypt and from his own people to the land of Midian. Again he intervened in the face of oppression, inviting danger and risk. Sitting at a well, the typical meeting place for the culture (see also Genesis 29:2 ), Moses witnessed the violent aggression of male shepherds against female shepherds who had already drawn water for their sheep. Moses saved the oppressed shepherds, whose father, the priest of Midian, invited him to live and work under the protection of the Midianite's hospitality. Eventually one of the Midianite's daughters became—Moses' wife. In the idyllic peace of the Midianite's hospitality, Moses took care of Jethro's sheep, fathered a child, and lived at a distance from his own people. The event at the burning bush while Moses worked as a shepherd introduced him to the critical character of his heroic work. The burning bush caught Moses' attention. There Moses met the God of the fathers who offered Moses a distinctive name as the essential key for Moses' authority—"I am who I am." This strange formulation played on God's promise to Moses to be present with him in his special commission. God sent Moses back to the Pharaoh to secure the release of his people from their oppression. The divine speech of commission has a double character. (1) As the heroic leader of Israel, he would initiate events that would lead to Israel's Exodus from Egypt. (2) As the man of God, he would represent God in delivering the people from their Egyptian slavery. With the authority of that double commission, Moses returned to the Pharaoh to negotiate the freedom of his people. The negotiation narratives depict Moses, the hero, in one scene of failure after the other. Moses posed his demands to the Pharaoh, announced a sign that undergirded the demand, secured some concession from the Pharaoh on the basis of the negotiations, but failed to win the release of the people. The final scene is hardly a new stage in the negotiations. To the contrary, God killed the firstborn of every Egyptian family, passing over the Israelite families. In the agony of this death scene, the Egyptians drove the Israelites out of Egypt (Exodus 12:30-36 ). Behind this dominant scene of violence and death lies a different interpretation of the Exodus event. The Pharaoh closed negotiations with Moses by refusing permission for the Israelites to leave in accordance with—Moses' proposition (Exodus 10:28 ). In the wake of this failure, Moses returned to the people with a plan for escaping Egypt without the knowledge of the Pharaoh. The people borrowed silver, gold, and clothing from the Egyptians in preparation for the event. When they escaped, they took the silver, gold, and clothing with them. They despoiled the Egyptians, a sign of victory over the Egyptians. Thus in leaving Egypt, Israel robbed the most powerful nation of their time of its firstborn sons and of it wealth. Moses led the people into the wilderness, where the pursuing Egyptians trapped the Israelites at the Red Sea. God who had promised divine presence for the people defeated the enemy at the Sea. The God proved His presence with His people. He met their needs for food and water in the hostile wilderness. Even the fiery serpents and the Amalekites failed to thwart the wilderness journey of the Israelites under Moses' leadership. Exodus 17:8-13 shows Moses to be faithful in the execution of his leadership responsibilities. Numbers 12:1-16 shows Moses to be meek, a leader of integrity who fulfilled the duties of his office despite opposition from members of his own family. The center of the Moses traditions emerges with clarity in the events at Mount Sinai/Horeb. The law at Sinai/Horeb constitutes God's gift for Israel. The law showed Israel how to respond to God's saving act in the Exodus. The law at Sinai/Horeb showed each new generation how to follow Moses' teaching in a new setting in the life of the people. The laws carried the name of Moses as an affirmation of their authority. The law of Moses became a model for Israelite society. Indeed, Israel's historians told the entire story of Israel under the influence of the Moses model and suggested that the Davidic kings should have constructed their leadership for Israel under the influence of the Moses model (Joshua—Kings). Only the good king Josiah and, to a lesser extent, Hezekiah matched that model. The death of Moses is marked by tragic loneliness, yet graced with God's presence. Because of Moses' sin (Numbers 20:1 ), God denied Moses the privilege of entering the Promised Land. Deuteronomy 34:1 reports the death scene. Central to the report is the presence of God with Moses at the time of his death. Moses left his people to climb another mountain. Atop that mountain, away from the people whom he served so long, Moses died. God attended this servant at his death. Indeed, God buried him. Only God knows where the burial place is. The Moses saga serves as a model for subsequent leaders in Israel. Jeroboam I created a new kingdom, distinct from the Davidic kingdom centered in Jerusalem. The sign of his kingship included the golden calves of Aaron. Josiah modeled a reformation in Jerusalem on the basis of the Mosaic model. As the new Moses, he almost succeeded in uniting the people of the south with the people of the north. Perhaps the most important Old testament figure that must be interpreted as a new Moses is the servant of the Isaiah 40-66 , the model for understanding Jesus in the New Testament.

Naomi

(nay oh' mih) Personal name meaning, "my pleasantness." Wife of Elimelech and mother-in-law to Orpah and Ruth (Ruth 1:2 ,Ruth 1:2,1:4 ). Naomi suffered the deaths of her husband and two sons while in Moab. Her matchmaking between Ruth and Boaz was successful, and she became a forebear of David, Israel's greatest king (Ruth 4:21-22 ). See Ruth .

Nehemiah

(nee huh mi' uh) Personal name meaning, "Yah comforts or encourages" and name of Old Testament book featuring work of Nehemiah. Nehemiah, the son of Hachaliah, is the main character in the book which bears his name. Two other Nehemiahs appear in the OT: one in the group who returned with Sheshbazzar (Ezra 2:2; Nehemiah 7:7 ), and the other was the son of Azbuk, "the ruler of the half part of Bethzur" (Nehemiah 3:16 ), a helper with rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. Nehemiah and Ezra were one book in the ancient Hebrew and Greek OT, and probably were not divided until after the Interbiblical—Period (see Ezra for more details). Jewish tradition says Ezra or Nehemiah was the author. Because of the close connection between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, one person might have written or compiled all three books. Those who follow this argument refer to the author as the Chronicler. The literary style of Nehemiah is similar to that in Ezra. There are many lists (Nehemiah 3:1; Nehemiah 10:1-27; Nehemiah 11:1; Nehemiah 12:1-26 ). The author/compiler wove Ezra's and Nehemiah's stories together, Ezra being featured in Nehemiah 8:1 . The book has four major sections: the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls (Nehemiah 1-7 ), the Great Revival (Nehemiah 8-10 ), population and census information (Nehemiah 11-12 ), and the reforms of Nehemiah (Nehemiah 13:1 ). Nehemiah made two visits from King Artaxerxes to Jerusalem (Nehemiah 2:1-6; Nehemiah 13:6-7 ). His first, 445 B.C., was to repair the walls; they were in a state of disrepair almost a century after the first arrival from Exile in 538 B.C. The second was a problem-solving trip in the thiry-second year of Artaxerxes (Nehemiah 13:6 ), 432 B.C. Nehemiah was a contemporary of Ezra and Malachi, and also Socrates in Greece (470-339 B.C.), and only a few decades later than Gautama Buddha in India (560-480 B.C.) and Confucius in China (551-479 B.C.). Nehemiah held the distinguished position of cupbearer to the king (Nehemiah 1:11 ). This was an office of trust; tasting the king's wine and food, the cupbearer stood between the king and death. That Nehemiah, a Jew and a captive, served this Gentile king in such a strategic capacity was an unusual credit and honor to this man of strong character. Nehemiah's Memoirs include first person accounts (Nehemiah 1:1-7:5; Nehemiah 12:27-47; Nehemiah 13:4-31 ), and the other material uses the third person pronoun (Nehemiah 8-10 ). Thus his story is both autobiographical and biographical. Visitors to Susa informed him of the delapidation of Jerusalem's walls. He was so upset that he cried and mourned for days" (Nehemiah 1:4 ). He prayed a confession (Nehemiah 1:5-11 ). His grief became apparent to Artaxerxes who permitted him to go to Jerusalem. Nehemiah's first act there was to inspect the walls at night (Nehemiah 2:15 ). He then called an assembly and convinced the people of the need for a building program. He was an excellent leader who demonstrated engineering knowledge and brilliant organizing ability (Nehemiah 3:1 ). The work began.

Samuel

(ssa' myoo ehl) Personal name in the Ancient Near East meaning, "Sumu is God" but understood in Israel as "The name is God," "God is exalted," or "son of God." The last judge, first king-maker, priest, and prophet who linked the period of the judges with the monarchy (about 1066-1000 B.C.). Born in answer to barren Hannah's tearful prayer (1 Samuel 1:10 ), Samuel was dedicated to the Lord before his birth (1 Samuel 1:11 ) as a "loan" for all his life (1 Samuel 1:28; 1 Samuel 2:20 ). Eli raised Samuel at the Shiloh sanctuary (1 Samuel 2:11 ). As a child, Samuel grew "both in stature and in favor with the Lord and with men" (1 Samuel 2:26 NAS; compare Luke 2:52 ). Samuel met God and received his first prophetic mission as a young lad (1Samuel 3:1,1 Samuel 3:11-14 ). God's initial word to Samuel concerned God's rejection of Eli's family from service as priests as punishment for the sins of Eli's sons. Samuel was responsible for a revival of the Shiloh sanctuary (1 Samuel 3:21 ). Psalm 99:6-7 relates that God spoke with Samuel from out of the pillar of cloud as God had previously with Moses and Aaron. God "was with him and let none of his words fall to the ground" ( 1 Samuel 3:19; also 1 Samuel 9:6 ). Jeremiah regarded Samuel and Moses as the two great intercessors of Israel (Jeremiah 15:1 ). Following the death of Eli and his sons, Israel experienced twenty years (1 Samuel 7:2 ) of national sin and Philistine oppression. Samuel reemerged in the role of judge, calling Israel to repentance and delivering them from foreign domination. Samuel also exercised the judicial role of judge, administering justice at Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah, and Ramah (1 Samuel 7:15-17 ). Samuel served as the prototype for future prophets in tension with the kings of Israel and Judah. The sins of Samuel's sons and the Philistine threat led the elders of Israel to appeal to Samuel for a king "like all the nations" (1Samuel 8:3,1Samuel 8:5,1 Samuel 8:20 ). Samuel rightly understood this call for a king as rejection of God's rule (1 Samuel 8:7; 1 Samuel 10:19 ). Samuel warned Israel of the dangers of a monarchy—forced labor, seizure of property, taxation (1 Samuel 8:10-18 )—before anointing Saul as Israel's first king (1 Samuel 10:1 ). Samuel's recording of the rights and duties of kingship (1 Samuel 10:25 ) set the stage for later prophets to call their monarchs to task for disobedience to God's commands and for overstepping God's limits for kingship in Israel. Samuel foreshadowed Elijah in his call for rain during the wheat harvest, the usual dry season, as vindication of his word of judgment concerning Israel's demand for a king (1 Samuel 12:17-18 ). Samuel's relations with Saul highlight the conditional nature of kingship in Israel. Israel's king was designated by God and served at God's pleasure. Saul's presumption in offering burnt sacrifice before battle with the Philistines (1 Samuel 13:8-15 ) and his disregard of God's command to leave no survivors among the Amalekites or their flocks (1 Samuel 15:1 ) occasioned Samuel's declaration of God's rejection of Saul's kingship. Obeying God's call to anoint another king amounted to treason in Saul's eyes, and Samuel had concerns for his life. Samuel was, however, obedient in anointing David as king over Israel (1 Samuel 16:13 ). Later when Saul sought David's life, David took refuge with Samuel and his band of prophets at Ramah (1 Samuel 19:18-24 ). Finally, Samuel's death brought national mourning (1 Samuel 25:1; 1 Samuel 28:3 ). It also left Saul without access to God's word. In desperation he acknowledged Samuel's power and influence by seeking to commune with Samuel's spirit (1 Samuel 28:1 ). Thus in life and death Samuel cast a long shadow over Israel's history of worship, rule, prophecy, and justice.

Solomon

(ssahl' oh mahn) Personal name whose meaning is variously interpreted as "his peace," "(God) is peace," "Salem (a god)," "intact," or "his replacement." Tenth son of David and the second son of Bathsheba, Solomon became the third king of Israel and reigned forty years about 1000 B.C. Old Testament Solomon was born to David and Bathsheba after the death of their first son (2 Samuel 12:24 ). Although not the oldest living son of David, he was crowned king after his mother and Nathan the prophet intervened with David and secured David's decision to have Solomon succeed him (1 Kings 1-2 ). Solomon is remembered most for his wisdom, his building program, and his wealth generated through trade and administrative reorganization. Solomon was remembered as having three thousand proverbs and a thousand and five songs in his repertoire (1 Kings 4:32 ). Thus, it is not surprising that Proverbs and Song of Solomon in the Bible are attributed to Solomon. (Proverbs 1:1; Song of Song of Solomon 1:1 ) as are several apocryphal and pseudepigraphal books. See 1 Kings 3:16 ) and by the visit of the queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:1 ). While Solomon's Temple was the most famous of his building projects (1 Kings 5-8 ), it was by no means the only one. Solomon fortified a number of cities that helped provide protection to Jerusalem, built "store-cities" for stockpiling the materials required in his kingdom, and established military bases for contingents of charioteers (1 Kings 9:15-19 ). The Temple complex in Jerusalem was composed of several buildings including Solomon's palace, the "house of the forest of Lebanon," the "hall or porch of pillars," the "hall or porch of the throne," and a palace for one of his wives, the daughter of the pharaoh of Egypt (1 Kings 7:1 ). See Archaeology; Gezer; Hazor; Megiddo; Temple. Solomon divided the country into administrative districts that did not correspond to the old tribal boundaries (1 Kings 4:7-19 ) and had the districts provide provisions for the central government. This system, combined with control of vital north/south trade routes between the Red Sea and what was later known as Asia Minor, made it possible for Solomon to accumulate vast wealth. This wealth was supplemented both from trading in horses and chariots and from trade carried on by a fleet of ships (1 Kings 9:26-28; 1 Kings 10:26-29 ). See Eloth; Ezion-geber . The Bible clearly notes that Solomon had faults as well as elements of greatness. The "seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concubines" came from many of the kingdoms with which Solomon had treaties (1 Kings 11:1 ). He apparently allowed his wives to worship their native gods and even had altars to these gods constructed in Jerusalem (1 Kings 11:7-8 ). This kind of compromise indicated to the historian a weakness in Solomon not found in David. Rebellions led by the king of Edom, Rezon of Damascus, and Jeroboam, one of Solomon's own officers, indicates that Solomon's long reign was not without its turmoil. New Testament Solomon was an ancestor of Jesus (Matthew 1:6-7 ) and is mentioned in Jesus' teaching about anxiety (Matthew 6:29; Luke 12:27 ). Jesus noted that the queen of Sheba came a long way to see Solomon and that "something greater than Solomon is here" (Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:31 ). Jesus walked in "Solomon's porch," a part of the Temple area (John 10:23; compare Acts 3:11; Acts 5:12 ). Stephen noted that though David sought to find a place for God, it was Solomon who "built a house for him" (Acts 7:47 ).

Shalmaneser III

(sshal muhn ee' ssuhr) Personal name meaning, "Shalmanu (the god) is the highest ranking one." 1. An Assyrian king who ruled 1274-1245 B.C. The records of his military exploits set a precedent which succeeding kings followed. 2. Shalmaneser III ruled Assyria 858-824 B.C. He fought a group of small kingdoms, including Israel, in the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. Despite claiming victory, Shalmaneser proceeded no farther.

Abram/Abraham

(uhb ra haym) Personal name meaning, "father of a multitude." The first Hebrew patriarch, he became known as the prime example of faith. He was the son of Terah, a descendant of Noah's son, Shem. (Genesis 11:27 ). His childhood was spent in Ur of the Chaldees, a prominent Sumerian city. He was known at the beginning as Abram ("father is exalted"), but this was changed subsequently to Abraham ("father of a multitude") (Genesis 17:5 ). Terah, his father, moved to Haran with the family (Genesis 11:31 ) and after some years died there. God called Abram to migrate to Canaan, assuring him that he would father a vast nation. At different times he lived in Shechem, Bethel, Hebron, and Beer-sheba. His wife Sarai's beauty attracted the pharaoh when they moved to Egypt during a famine (Genesis 12:10 ), but God intervened to save her. The trouble arose partly because Abram had claimed her as his sister rather than his wife, and in fact she was his half-sister (Genesis 20:12 ). After returning to Palestine, Abram received further covenantal assurances from God (Genesis 15:1 ). He decided he could produce offspring by taking Sarai's handmaid Hagar as a concubine. Though the union produced a son, Ishmael, he was not destined to become Abram's promised heir. Even after another covenantal assurance (Genesis 17:1-21 ) in which the rite of circumcision was made a covenantal sign, Abram and Sarai still questioned God's promise of an heir. Then Sarai, whose name had been changed to Sarah ("princess"), had her long-promised son, Isaac ("laughter"), when Abraham was 100 years old. Ishmael's presence caused trouble in the family, and he was expelled with his mother Hagar to the wilderness of Paran. Abraham's faith and obedience were tested by God in Moriah when he was commanded to sacrifice Isaac. God provided an alternative sacrifice, however, saving the boy's life. As a reward for Abraham's faithfulness, God renewed the covenant promises of great blessing and the growth of a mighty nation to father and son. Subsequently, Sarah died and was buried in the cave of Machpelah (Genesis 23:19 ), after which Abraham sought a bride for Isaac. A woman named Rebekah was obtained from Abraham's relatives in Mesopotamia, and Isaac married her gladly (Genesis 24:67 ). In old age Abraham remarried and had further children, finally dying aged 175 years. Abraham recognized God as the almighty Lord of all and the Author of a covenant by which the Hebrews would become a mighty nation. God Himself was known subsequently as the God of Abraham (Exodus 3:6 ). Through him God had revealed His plan for human salvation (Exodus 2:24 ). The promises to Abraham became assurance for future generations (Exodus 32:13; Exodus 33:1 ). Abraham became known as "God's friend forever" (2 Chronicles 20:7 ). John showed that descent from Abraham did not guarantee salvation (Matthew 3:9 ). See Romans 9:1 . Indeed, foreigners would join him in the kingdom (Matthew 8:11 ). Compare Luke 16:23-30 . Lost sons of Abraham, Jesus invited to salvation (Luke 19:9 ). True children of Abraham do the works of Abraham (John 8:39 ). For Paul Abraham was the great example of faith (Romans 4:1; Galatians 3:1 ). In Hebrews Abraham provided the model for tithing (Hebrews 7:1 ) and played a prominent role in the roll call of faith (Hebrews 11:1 ). James used Abraham to show that justification by faith is proved in works (James 3:21-24 ).

Uzziah

(uhz zi uh) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh is might." 1. Descendant of Levi (1 Chronicles 6:24 ). 2 . Father of one of David's treasurers (1 Chronicles 27:25 ). 3. Also known as Azariah (2Kings 15:1,2Kings 15:6-8,2Kings 15:17,2Kings 15:23,2 Kings 15:27 ); son and successor of King Amaziah of Judah. "All the people of Judah" declared Uzziah king when he was sixteen (2 Kings 14:21; 2 Chronicles 26:1 ). Some conjecture that the Judeans, rather than have King Joash of Israel install a puppet king, put Uzziah forward as king following Amaziah's defeat and subsequent imprisonment by Joash (2 Chronicles 25:21-24 ). According to this reconstruction, Uzziah began his reign about 792 B.C. and continued as joint regent after his father's release upon the death of Joash (2 Chronicles 25:25 ). Uzziah's reign was a time a great material prosperity for Judah. Uzziah mounted a successful campaign against the Philistines, destroying the walls of some of their chief cities, Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod. To secure the caravan route along the Mediterranean coast (Via Maris), Uzziah built cities, perhaps military outposts, in the vicinity of Ashdod and at other sites on the Philistine plain (2 Chronicles 26:6 ). To secure the eastern caravan route (the King's Highway), Uzziah rebuilt Elat (Eloth), the strategic port on the gulf of Aqaba (2 Chronicles 26:2 ) and campaigned against the Arabs of Gurbaal (possibly Gur east of Beersheba), the Meunites (a branch of Edomites), and the Ammonites (2 Chronicles 26:7-8 ). Uzziah refortified the walls of Jerusalem with towers (2 Chronicles 26:9; compare 2 Chronicles 25:23 ). His construction of numerous cisterns and military outposts in the wilderness (the Arad Negeb) made widespread settlement possible. Archaeological evidence confirms that construction in the Negeb flourished during Uzziah's reign. Uzziah was a lover of the soil who promoted agriculture (2 Chronicles 26:10 ). Unlike his predecessors who relied on the troops to supply their own arms, Uzziah armed his troops with the most advanced weapons (2 Chronicles 26:11-15 ). Uzziah is not so much remembered as the leader who brought Judah to a golden age rivaling David's and Solomon's empires, but as the "leper king." The brief account of Uzziah's reign in 2 Kings 15:1-7 portrays the king as one who did what "was right in the sight of the Lord" ( 2 Kings 15:3 ). No explanation for the king's affliction is given in Kings other than "the Lord struck the king" (2 Kings 15:5 NRSV). The Chronicler traced Uzziah's leprosy to his prideful attempt to ursurp the priestly prerogative of offering incense in the Temple ( 2 Chronicles 26:16-20; compare Numbers 16:1-40; 1 Samuel 13:8-15 ). Thereafter, his son Jotham reigned in his stead, though Uzziah likely remained the power behind the throne (1 Samuel 26:21 ). As a leper, Uzziah was denied burial in the royal tombs at Jerusalem. Rather, he was buried in a field (1 Samuel 26:23 ). 4. Postexilic priest with a foreign wife (Ezra 10:21 ). 5 . Descendant of Judah and father of a postexilic resident of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 11:4 ).

Saul

Personal name meaning, "asked for." First king of Israel and the Hebrew name of Paul, the apostle. See Paul . Old Testament The Hebrew name Sha' ul is used of four persons in the Old Testament. It is usually rendered Shaul for a king of Edom ( Genesis 36:37-38 ), the last son of Simeon (Genesis 46:10 ), and a Levite of the Kohathites (1 Chronicles 6:24 ). Saul, however, primarily refers to the first king of a united Israel, a tall and handsome son of Kish from the tribe of Benjamin (1Samuel 9:1-2,1 Samuel 9:21 ). Chosen by God (1 Samuel 9:15-17 ) and secretly anointed by Samuel (1 Samuel 10:1 ), Saul was later selected publicly by lot (1 Samuel 10:17-24 ). Despite some people's skepticism (1 Samuel 10:27 ), he proved himself an able leader by delivering the city of Jabesh-gilead and was acclaimed king at Gilgal (1 Samuel 11:1-15 ). The numbers in 1 Samuel 13:1 are incomplete in the Hebrew text, but Saul's reign is generally dated about 1020-1000 B.C. He made his capital at "Gibeah of Saul" ("Saul's hill," 1 Samuel 11:4 ), probably tell el-Ful, three miles north of Jerusalem where excavations have uncovered contemporary foundations of a modest fortresslike palace. From Gibeah, Saul drove the Philistines from the hill country (1 Samuel 13:19-14:23 ) and fought other enemies of Israel (1 Samuel 14:47-48 ). A tragic figure, Saul's heart was initially changed; he had even prophesied (1 Samuel 10:9-13 ). See Prophets. His presumptuous offering (1 Samuel 13:8-14 ), however, and violation of a holy war ban led to his break with Samuel and rejection by God (1 Samuel 15:7-23 ). The spirit of the Lord left Saul and was replaced by an evil spirit which tormented him. David is introduced as a musician who soothed him by playing the lyre (1 Samuel 16:14-23 ). After the Goliath episode, Saul became jealous and fearful of David (1Samuel 18:7,1 Samuel 18:12 ), eventually making several spontaneous and indirect attempts on David's life (1Samuel 18:10-11,1 Samuel 18:25; 1Samuel 19:1,1 Samuel 19:9-11 ). Saul's fits of rage, his obsession with David, and the slaughter of the priests at Nob (1 Samuel 22:17-19 ), make it appear as though he suffered from some sort of psychotic state. His final wretched condition is betrayed by his consultation of the witch at En-dor (1 Samuel 28:7-8 ). The following day, Saul and three sons were killed at the hands of the Philistines on Mount Gilboa (1 Samuel 31:1 ). Saul's body was beheaded and hung on the walls of Beth-shan, from whence it was rescued and buried by the grateful inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead (1 Samuel 31:8-13 ). The enigma of Saul was sensed by David who refused to lift his hand against "the Lord's anointed" (1Samuel 26:9-11,1 Samuel 26:23 ) and at his death provided a fitting elegy (2 Samuel 1:17-27 ). New Testament Though the king Saul is mentioned in passing, most occurrences of the name in the New Testament refer to the Hebrew name of the apostle Paul.

Hezekiah

Son and successor of Ahaz as king of Judah (716/15-687/86 B.C.) Hezekiah began his reign when he was twenty-five years old. At this time in history, the nation of Assyria had risen to power. Hezekiah's reign can best be understood against the background of Assyria's military activities during the years Hezekiah served as king of Judah. When Ahaz succeeded Jotham as king of Judah, he began pro-Assyrian policies by making Judah a vassal to Assyria. Ahaz's political involvements with Assyria brought idolatry and paganism into the Temple (2 Kings 16:7-20 ). Hezekiah began his reign by bringing religious reform to Judah. Hezekiah was not willing to court the favor of the Assyrian kings. The Temple in Jerusalem was reopened. The idols were removed from the Temple. Temple vessels that had been desecrated during Ahaz's reign were sanctified for use in the Temple. The sacrifices were initiated with singing and the sounds of musical instruments. The tribes in the Northern Kingdom (Israel) had been subjected to Assyrian dominance. Hezekiah invited the Israelites to join in the celebration of the Passover in Jerusalem. Places of idol worship were destroyed. Hezekiah even destroyed the bronze serpent Moses had erected in the wilderness (Numbers 21:4-9 ) so the people would not view the bronze serpent as an object of worship. Hezekiah organized the priests and Levites for the conducting of religious services. The tithe was reinstituted. Plans were made to observe the religious feasts called for in the Law. In 711 B.C., just a few years after Hezekiah had become king, Sargon II of Assyria captured Ashdod. Hezekiah anticipated the time when he would have to confront Assyrian armies. Hezekiah fortified the city of Jerusalem and organized an army. Knowing that a source of water was crucial, Hezekiah constructed a tunnel through solid rock from the spring of Gihon to the Siloam pool. The city wall was extended to enclose this important source of water. Isaiah warned Hezekiah not to become involved with Assyria (Isaiah 20:1-6 ). The critical time for Hezekiah came in 705 B.C. when Sennacherib became king of Assyria. From Hezekiah, Sennacherib obtained a heavy tribute of silver and gold. In 701 B.C., Hezekiah became seriously ill (Isaiah 38:1-21 ). Isaiah warned the king to prepare for his approaching death, but Hezekiah prayed that God would intervene. God answered by promising Hezekiah fifteen more years of life and deliverance of Jerusalem from Assyria (Isaiah 38:4-6 ). In the meantime, Sennacherib had besieged Lachish. Aware that Hezekiah had trusted God for deliverance, Sennacherib sent messengers to the Jerusalem wall to urge the people to surrender. Sennacherib boasted of having conquered 46 walled cities and having taken 200,000 captives. Sennacherib's messengers taunted that God would not come to Judah's defense. Hezekiah, dressed in sackcloth and ashes, went to the Temple to pray. He also called for Isaiah, the prophet. Isaiah announced that Sennacherib would "hear a rumour" and return to his own land where he would die by the sword (2 Kings 19:7 ). Hezekiah's faith and physical recovery brought him recognition from the surrounding nations (2 Chronicles 32:33 ). The Babylonian leader, Merodachbaladan, even congratulated Hezekiah on his recovery. Hezekiah hosted this Babylonian leader at a reception, but Isaiah met this event with a warning that succeeding generations would be subjected to Babylonian captivity (Isaiah 39:1-8 ). Sennacherib destroyed the city of Babylon in 689 B.C. He then marched toward Egypt. Hoping to ward off any interference from Judah, Sennacherib sent letters to Hezekiah ordering him to surrender (Isaiah 37:9-38 ). Hezekiah took the letters to the Temple and prayed for God's help. From Isaiah came the message that Sennacherib would not prevail. In fact, Sennacherib's army was destroyed in a miraculous way (2 Kings 19:35-37 ). In 681 B.C., Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons as had been predicted by Isaiah in 701 B.C. Hezekiah died in 687/86 B.C. Manasseh, his son, succeeded him, although Manasseh had become co-regent with Hezekiah about 696 B.C. The Gospel of Matthew lists Hezekiah in the genealogy of Jesus (Matthew 1:9-10 ).

Bathsheba

(bath sshee' buh) The daughter of Eliam and the wife of Uriah the Hittite (2 Samuel 11:3 ). She was a beautiful woman with whom David the king had an adulterous relationship (2 Samuel 11:4 ). When David learned that she had become pregnant as a result of the intrigue, he embarked on a course of duplicity that led finally to the violent death of Uriah. David then took Bathsheba as his wife. She became the mother of Solomon and played an important role in ensuring he became king (1 Kings 1:11-2:19 ). See David .

Baruch

(bay' ryooch) The son of Neriah who served as Jeremiah's scribe and friend. He helped Jeremiah purchase a field from the prophet's cousin Hanameel and used the purchase as a symbol of hope (Jeremiah 32:12 ). Baruch, whose name means "blessed," served Jeremiah as an amanuensis or scribe. He appears, moreover, to have had a close personal association with the prophet and to have exercised a significant influence in the ministry of Jeremiah. He wrote down Jeremiah's preaching and read it to the king's counselors who took it to the king. Jehoiakim burned it, but Jeremiah dictated it again (Jeremiah 36:1 ). Jeremiah was even accused of being a mere instrument of Baruch's enmity (Jeremiah 43:3 ). The prophet counseled Baruch to place his confidence wholly in the Lord and not to seek great things for himself (Jeremiah 45:1 ). A wide range of later literature was attributed to Baruch in Jewish tradition. See Jeremiah .

Belshazzar

(behl sshaz' zuhr; Bel'ss prince) The Babylonian king whose drunken feast was interrupted by the mysterious appearance of the fingers of a human hand that wrote a cryptic message on the palace wall (Daniel 5:1 ). When the Babylonian seers were unable to interpret the writing, Daniel the Hebrew was called. He interpreted the message for the king, explaining that it meant the kingdom would be taken from Belshazzar and given to the Medes and Persians (Daniel 5:28 ). According to Daniel 5:30 , Belshazzar was slain on the very night of this incident. Apart from the account in the Book of Daniel, little is known about Belshazzar. He was the son of Nabonidus, and reigned as co-regent with his father (553-539 B.C.). Nabonidus travelled to Arabia and left Belshazzar in control according to a Babylonian inscription. From the standpoint of Babylonian history, Belshazzar was not a particularly important personage except that he participated in the decisions and events leading to the fall of the Babylonian empire.

Caleb

(cay' lihb) CALEBITE Personal and clan name meaning, "dog." Caleb the son of Jephunneh, was one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to reconnoiter the territory of Canaan (Numbers 13:6 ). He was one of only two who brought back a positive report (Numbers 13:30 ). Because of his steadfast loyalty to the Lord, God rewarded him by letting him survive the years of wilderness wandering and giving him the region of Hebron as his portion in the Promised Land. At the age of eighty-five Caleb conquered Hebron (Joshua 14:1 ). The ethnological identity of the Calebites is uncertain. In Numbers 13:6 , Caleb is identified with the tribe of Judah. However, according to Numbers 32:12 , his father Jephunneh was a Kenezite. The Kenezites apparently were of Edomite origin (Genesis 36:9-11 ). Perhaps Caleb represented a Kenezite clan that had joined the Israelites and become incorporated into the tribe of Judah.

Cain

(cayin) Personal name meaning, "acquisition ." The firstborn son of Adam and Eve (Genesis 4:1 ). Although the meaning of the name is disputed, Eve's rationale for giving it suggests a relationship with a Hebrew root that means "to acquire." Cain was a farmer, and his brother Abel was a shepherd. When the two men each brought an offering to the Lord, Abel's was accepted; but Cain's was not. Subsequently, Cain murdered Abel his brother. In punishment, God took from him the ability to till the ground productively and made him to be a wandering vagabond. God marked him off to protect him from anyone seeking to avenge Abel's murder.

Dagon

(day' gihn) Name of god meaning, "little fish," or "dear." Dagon is a god associated with the Philistines. However, his origins were in Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. By 2000 B.C. a major temple was erected for him in the maritime city of Ugarit. Ugaritic commerce carried his cult into Canaan when Canaan was still a part of the Egyptian empire. When the Philistines conquered the coastal region of Canaan, they adopted Dagon as their chief deity. According to a popular etymology of Dagon, the name came from the Hebrew word for fish, and so it was postulated that he was a sea god. However, archaeological evidence does not support this view. The name probably was derived originally from the word for grain, or possibly from a word for clouds. Thus Dagon was a grain god or a storm god, much like Baal. According to Ugaritic documents from the fourteenth century B.C., Dagon was the father of Baal. Little else is known about his mythology or cult. After the Philistines subdued Samson, they credited the victory to Dagon (Judges 16:23 ). However, when Samson collapsed Dagon's temple upon himself and the Philistines, he proved the superiority of Israel's God. Likewise the overthrow of the idol of Dagon before the ark of the covenant demonstrated God's predominance (1 Samuel 5:1-7 ). Nevertheless the Philistines, later, displayed the head of Saul as a trophy in the temple of Dagon (1 Chronicles 10:10 ). See Philistines.

Darius I

(duh ri' uhss) King of Persia (522-486 B.C.) Successor to Cambyses II in the Persian Empire, Darius spent his early years as king putting down revolts in Media, Persia, and Egypt. After solidifying his power in the Middle East, he set out to reconquer the Scythians and Greeks who had rebelled under his predecessor. He was successful in this venture until the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. From that time the kingdom began a gradual regression until finally conquered by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. Darius brought a new sense of unity to his empire. He enlarged on the policies of Cyrus the Great in making restoration to those disenfranchised by the Assyrian and Babylonian dominations. The Jews received additional financial aid for finishing the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 6:8-9 ). Unlike Cyrus, Darius organized a tightly-knit centralized state and vested himself with absolute power. Twenty satrapies (provinces) were established. Each had a system of checks and balances, with each official watching the actions of his colleagues. A common code of laws was established in the empire, administered by royal judges. A system of weights and measures were standardized throughout the kingdom to help stimulate the economy and make transactions easier. Several major roads were built, making travel quicker and safer. What may have been the first gold currency was issued by Darius. Aramaic was decreed as the official language of the empire. The people were infused with a new sense of pride as the king made these many improvements. Unfortunately, Darius' successors were unable to maintain his policies after his death.

Elihu

(e li' hyoo) Personal name meaning, "he is God." 1. The son of Barachel the Buzite who addressed Job after the latter's first three friends had ended their speeches (Job 32:2 ). Elihu's words fill Job 32-37 . Interpreters differ with regard to the significance of Elihu's speeches. His words seem to be somewhat more insightful than those of the other three friends, yet they still prove finally unsatisfactory as an explanation of Job's suffering. See Job 32-37 . 2. Samuel's great grandfather (1 Samuel 1:1 ). 3 . A member of tribe of Manasseh who defected to David (1 Chronicles 12:20 ). 4 . Mighty military hero under David (1 Chronicles 26:7 ). 5 . David's brother in charge of the tribe of Judah (1 Chronicles 27:18 ).

Esau

(ee' ssayyoo) Personal name whose meaning is not known. Son of Isaac and Rebecca; elder twin brother of Jacob (Genesis 25:24-26; Genesis 27:1 ,Genesis 27:1,27:32 ,Genesis 27:32,27:42; 1 Chronicles 1:34 ); father of the Edomite nation (Genesis 26:1; Deuteronomy 2:4-29; Malachi 1:2-3 ). At birth his body was hairy and red "and they called his name Esau" (Genesis 25:25 ,Genesis 25:25,25:30; Genesis 27:11 ,Genesis 27:11,27:21-23 ). The second born twin, Jacob, father of the nation Israel, held Esau's heel at birth (Genesis 25:22-26 ); thus depicting the struggle between the descendants of the two which ended when David lead Israel in the conquest of Edom (2 Samuel 8:12-14; 1 Chronicles 18:13; compare Numbers 24:18 ). From the first Jacob sought to gain advantage over Esau (Hosea 12:3 ). Esau, the extrovert, was a favorite of his father and as a hunter provided him with his favorite meats. Jacob was the favorite of his mother Rebecca. As a famished returning hunter, Esau, lacking self-control, sold his birthright to Jacob for food (Genesis 25:30-34 ). Birthright involved the right as head of the family (Genesis 27:29 ) and a double share of the inheritance (Deuteronomy 21:15-17 ). This stripped Esau of the headship of the people through which Messiah would come. Thus, the lineage became Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Having lost his birthright, he was still eligible to receive from Isaac the blessing of the eldest son. Rebecca devised a deception whereby Jacob received this blessing (Genesis 27:1-30 ). Esau blamed Jacob for all his problems failing to realize that the character flaw revealed in his selling of his birthright followed him all of his life. Esau received a blessing, but neither he nor his descendants were to occupy the fertile land of Palestine (Genesis 27:39 ). At age 40 he married two Hittite wives (Genesis 26:34-35 ). Years later the two brothers were reconciled when Jacob returned from Mesopotamia. Esau had lived in the land of Seir. As Jacob neared Palestine, he made plans for confronting his wronged brother and allaying his anger. Esau, with an army of 400, surprised Jacob, his guilty brother, and received him without bitterness (Genesis 33:4-16 ). The two reconciled brothers met again for the final time at the death of their father (Genesis 35:29 ). Though their hostility was personally resolved, their descendants continue to this day to struggle against one another.

Eve

(eeve) Personal name meaning, "life." The first woman created and thus original ancestor of all people (Genesis 3:20; compare Genesis 4:1-2 ,Genesis 4:1-2,4:25 ). She also faced the serpent's temptation first (Genesis 3:1; 2 Corinthians 11:3; 1 Timothy 2:13-14 ). Her fall illustrates the ease with which all persons fall into sin (2 Corinthians 11:3 ). See Adam and Eve .

Esther

(ehss' thuhr) Persian personal name meaning, "Ishtar." Heroine of biblical Book of Esther whose Jewish name was Hadassah. Esther is the story of a Jewish orphan girl raised by her uncle, Mordecai, in Persia. She became queen when Queen Vashti refused to appear at a banquet hosted by her husband, King Ahasuerus. Esther did not reveal that she was Jewish. Mordecai heard about a plot against the king's life which he reported through Esther. Haman was made prime minister and began to plot against Mordecai and the Jews because they would not pay homage to him. The king issued a decree that all who would not bow down would be killed. Esther learned of the plot and sent for Mordecai. He challenged her with the idea, "Who knoweth whether those art come to the kingdom for such a time as this?" (Esther 4:14 ). She asked Mordecai and the Jews to fast with her while she decided. She entered the king's presence unsummoned which could have meant her death. The king granted her request. Haman was tricked into honoring Mordecai, his enemy. At a banquet, Esther revealed Haman's plot to destroy her and her people, the Jews. Haman was hanged on the gallows prepared for Mordecai. Mordecai was promoted, and Esther got the king to revoke Haman's decree to destroy the Jews. The Jews killed and destroyed their enemies. The book closes with the institution of the festival of Purim.

Ezra

(ehz' ruh) The name Ezra means "Yahweh helps." Several had the name: a family head in Judah (1 Chronicles 4:17 ), a priest in the return with Zerubbabel (Nehemiah 12:1 ,Nehemiah 12:1,12:13 ), and a prince at the dedication of Jerusalem's walls built by Nehemiah (Nehemiah 12:32-33 ). The most famous is the chief character in the Book of Ezra. The Book of Ezra is intimately connected with Chronicles and Nehemiah. The connection is so obvious that possibly one person wrote and compiled all three. This unknown person is referred to as the Chronicler. Ezra and Nehemiah were actually one book in the ancient Hebrew and Greek Old Testament. Each book contains materials found in the other (e.g., the list in Ezra 2:1 is also in Nehemiah 7:1 ). Each book completes the other; Ezra's story is continued in Nehemiah (Nehemiah 8-10 ). Both are necessary to the history of Israel. A whole century would be unknown (538-432 B.C.), historically, apart from Ezra and Nehemiah. They are the next chapter of the history recorded in Chronicles. Ezra lived during the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:1 ), king of Persia, but which one? Artaxerxes I (Longimanus), 465-425 B.C., or Artaxerxes II (Mnemon) 404-359 B.C.? If it is Longimanus, then "the seventh year of Artaxerxes the king" (Ezra 7:7 ) was 458 B.C.; but if Mnemon, it was 398 B.C. Scripture possibly intimates that Nehemiah preceded Ezra to Jerusalem. For example, Ezra prayed as though walls were already in place in Jerusalem (Ezra 9:9 ), yet they were built by Nehemiah. Also Nehemiah's reforms (Nehemiah 13:1 ) seem to have preceded Ezra's teaching the law and his reforms. There are real problems either way, but it seems logical to stay with the biblical order and date Ezra's journey to Jerusalem in 458 B.C. Ezra was a priest and a scribe. He descended from Aaron through Phinehas and later Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5; 1 Chronicles 6:4-14 ). Ezra's purpose for going to Jerusalem was "to study the law of the Lord, and to do it, and to teach the statutes and ordinances in Israel" (Ezra 7:10 NRSV). He was well equipped for this task as a priest and scribe. Jerusalem needed the law of God. The permanence of the Jews was threatened by opposition from non-Jews and by the Jews' careless disregard for the things of God. Ezra's teaching was needed to give solidity and strength to the Jewish community struggling against pressures to surrender its ethnic and theological identity

Gedaliah

(gehd uh li' uh) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh has done great things." 1. The son of Ahikam who was appointed ruler of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 587 B.C. (2 Kings 25:22 ). Jerusalem had fallen to the Babylonians, and many of the residents of Judah had been deported. Ahikam, the father of Gedaliah, was an ally of the prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 26:24; Jeremiah 39:14 ), and Gedaliah may have been in sympathy with Jeremiah's political views. That could explain why Nebuchadnezzar selected Gedaliah to be governor. Gedaliah's time in office was brief. After only two months he was murdered by a group of fanatically zealous nationalists under the leadership of Ishmael (Jeremiah 40:1-41:18 ). 2 . A royal official under King Zedekiah (597-586 B.C.) who was with the group that got the king's permission to imprison Jeremiah in a cistern (Jeremiah 38:1 ). 3 . Temple singer and prophet who played the harp with his father Jeduthan and five brothers (1 Chronicles 25:3 ). He headed one of the twenty-four divisions of Temple servants (1 Chronicles 25:9 ). An abbreviated form of the Hebrew name is given a priest with a foreign wife under Ezra (Ezra 10:18 ) and the grandfather of the prophet Zephaniah (Zephaniah 1:1 )

Gideon

(gihd ih uhn) Personal name meaning, "one who cuts to pieces." The fifth major judge of twelfth century Israel. He was also called Jerubbaal and was the son of Joash of the tribe of Manasseh. He judged for forty years (Judges 6:11-8:35 ). See Jerubaal. Gideon was given the task of delivering the Israelites from the Midianites and Amalekites, desert nomads who repeatedly raided the country. Their use of the camel allowed them to ride in, destroy crops, take plunder, and then escape back into the desert with such speed the Israelites could not catch them. Gideon was not a willing volunteer. Although he knew the will of God, twice he laid out the fleece in what seems an effort to avoid the will of God by imposing impossible conditions. God met his conditions both times and then set out the strategy that would guarantee victory for Israel. To reduce their number, two tests were given to the 32,000 men in Gideon's army. This was done that Israel could not claim victory by any other means than continued dependence upon God. Those who were afraid and those who knelt down to get a drink of water were sent home. The remaining 300 were given pitchers, torches, and trumpets, and placed around the Midianite encampment. The strategy was one of terror: at Gideon's signal the pitchers were broken, the torches then became visible, and the trumpets sounded, giving the enemy the impression they were surrounded. They took flight, their leaders were killed, and the Midianite oppression was brought to an end. The hero of faith (Hebrews 11:32 ) ended life on a sad note. He angrily punished Succoth and Penuel for not helping in his war against the Midianite kings (Judges 8:1-17 ). He refused the people's offer to crown him king, testifying that only God was King (Judges 8:22-23 ), but he ordered the people to give him their golden earrings, taken as war spoil from the Ishmaelites. He made a worship symbol, an ephod, out of it and led his people astray with it (Judges 8:24-27 ). His family did not follow his God (Judges 8:33 ). See Camel; Judge; Midianites.

Gomer

(goh' muhr) Personal name meaning, "complete, enough," or "burning coal." 1. Daughter of Diblaim and wife of Hosea the prophet (Hosea 1:3 ). She is described in Hosea 1:2 as "a wife of whoredoms." Various explanations have been offered for that designation. Some have maintained that she was a common prostitute. Others have maintained that she was a cultic prostitute in the service of Baal. Some have suggested she symbolized Israel's worship of many gods. Still others have believed she was an ordinary woman who became unfaithful after her marriage to Hosea.fjcr pbHer unfaithfulness to her husband became a sort of living parable of Israel's unfaithfulness to Yahweh. See Genesis 10:2 ). He is apparently seen as representing the Cimmerians, an Indo-European people from southern Russia who settled in Cappadocia in Asia Minor. Assyrian sources show they threatened Assyria after 700 B.C. He was the father of Ashkenaz or the Scythians of Jeremiah 51:27 who displaced the Cimmerians from their home in Russia. Gomer was also the father of Riphath (or Diphath in 1 Chronicles 1:6 ) and of Togarmah. Riphath is unknown except for Josephus' identification of them with the Paphlagonians who lived between the Black Sea and Bithynia. Togarmah was a city-state north of Carchemish near modern Gurun. The nation Gomer made Ezekiel's list of condemned peoples in the days of Gog of Magog (Ezekiel 38:6 )

Goliath

(guh li' uhth) In 1 Samuel 17:4 , the huge Philistine champion who baited the Israelite army under Saul in the valley of Elah for forty days. He was slain by the youthful David. See Elhanan.

Haggai

(hag' gah ee). Personal name of a sixth century prophet meaning, "festive" and of the book preserving his preaching. Compared to most of the writing prophets, we have very little information on the personal life of Haggai. Haggai has no genealogy. The reason for the missing genealogy is not clear, but it may be that the author wanted to focus on what Haggai said. Thus, it may reflect a change in style of prophetic reporting. The book consists of a series of addresses by Haggai together with the results of his work. The specific historical details presented makes possible exact dating of the book between the sixth and the ninth month of the year 520 B.C. The final form of the book may have been the work of someone other than the prophet who put the collection together. When Cyrus took over Babylon in 538 B.C. and established the kingdom of Persia, the Hebrews came under a Persian governor. Permission was given for the exiles to return and restore their temples. After the death of Cyrus, and of his son Cambyses, Darius became ruler and continued the benevolent policies of Cyrus. Then Darius appointed Zerubbabel as governor with the specific responsibility of resuming work on the Temple, begun earlier by Shesh-bazzar. At first, it appears that Judah was part of the administrative district of Samaria, but the appointment of Zerubbabel may have represented a move in the direction of autonomy for Judah which became a reality in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah a few decades later. Apparently the adjustments required of the returning exiles were so difficult that rebuilding their own homes and the Temple at the same time put a strain on their resources. They despaired of ever restoring the Temple to its former glory. Work on the Temple ceased. Haggai, along with Zechariah, helped Zerubbabel gain the support and help he needed from the returning exiles to carry out his assigned task. Haggai may have viewed the restoration of order by Darius and the appointment of Zerubbabel as a sign of the end of Gentile rule and preparation for the messianic kingdom.

Hannah

(han' nuh) Personal name meaning, "grace." One of the wives of Elkanah and mother of Samuel (1 Samuel 1:2 ). Because she had been barren for many years, she vowed to the Lord that if she should give birth to a son, she would dedicate the child to God (1 Samuel 1:11 ). Subsequently, she gave birth to the child Samuel. She fulfilled her vow by bringing her son to the sanctuary at Shiloh, where he served the Lord under the direction of Eli. Later on, Hannah had other sons and daughters. See Samuel .

Hagar

(hay' gahr) Personal name meaning, "stranger." The personal servant of Sarah, who was given as a concubine to Abraham and became the mother of Ishmael (Genesis 16:1-16; Genesis 21:8-21; Genesis 25:12; Galatians 4:24-25 ). Genesis 16:1-7 details the events of the initial conflict of Sarah with Hagar and the flight of Hagar. Genesis 16:8-16 detail the visit of the messenger of Yahweh bringing the promise of a son to the mother in distress, encouraging Hagar to return to Sarah. These conflicts were related to the wife's and concubine's positions in the family and community. (Compare similar conflicts in Genesis 29-30 .) Genesis 21:8-21 gives the story of the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael and their miraculous deliverance. Pauline interpretation (Galatians) relates the superiority of a son born according to the Spirit over the son born according to the "flesh." In Galatians 4:1 Paul used the Hagar story to stand for slavery under the old covenant in contrast to freedom of the new covenant symbolized by Isaac.

Haman

(hay' muhn) Personal name meaning, "magnificent." The Agagite who became prime minister under the Persian king Ahasuerus (Esther 3:1 ). He was a fierce enemy of the Jews, and he devised a plot to exterminate them. In particular, he had a gallows erected on which he hoped to hang Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow to him. Through the intervention of Esther, however, his scheme was unmasked; and he was hanged on the gallows he had designed for Mordecai the Jew. See Esther .

Hosea

(hoh ssee' uh) Personal name meaning, "salvation." Title of the first book in the section of the Hebrew Bible called the Book of the Twelve, named after its prophetic hero. The small prophetic books that make up this section frequently are designated Minor Prophets. This title is not an assessment of worth, but a description of size as compared to Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. In Hebrew the name is the same as that of Joshua's original name (Numbers 13:16; Deuteronomy 32:44 ) and of the last king of Israel (2 Kings 17:1 ), who lived at the same time as the prophet. One of David's officers bore the name (1 Chronicles 27:20 ) as did a clan chief in the time of Nehemiah (Nehemiah 10:23 ). English translators have often chosen to spell the prophet's name Hosea to distinguish him from the others, whose names they spell, Hoshea. The prophet's name "Hosea" appears in the Bible only at Hosea 1:1-2; Romans 9:25 . Assyria's rise to power posed a constant threat to Israel's national existence. Hosea's name symbolized the pressing need for national deliverance. His message pointed the nation to the deliverer (Hosea 13:4 ).

Habakkuk

(huh' bak' kuhk) A prophet of the late seventh century B.C., contemporary to Jeremiah. One explanation has his name based on a root meaning "to embrace." The Greek Old Testament spelling "Hambakoum" suggests a root meaning "plant" or "vegetable." The Times Judah had just experienced the exhilaration of the glorious days of Josiah, marked by freedom, prosperity, and a great religious revival. The Assyrians, once the scourge of the Middle East, were only a shadow of their former selves. In their place, however, stood the Babylonians. In the Book of Habakkuk, they are called the Chaldeans, so named for the region from which their rulers came. The Babylonian armies were led by the energetic Nebuchadnezzar, who was soon to succeed his father Nabopolassar as king. Nineveh, Assyria's capital, fell in 612 B.C. The powerful poetry of Nahum celebrates its fall. In 609 B.C., disaster struck. King Josiah, attempting to block the Egyptians as they moved north along the Palestinian coast to aid Assyria, was killed at Megiddo in northern Palestine. In his place the Egyptians set up Josiah's son, Jehoiakim. Unlike his father, Jehoiakim was a petty tyrant. Over the next ten or eleven years, Jehoiakim tried to play the Babylonians off against the Egyptians until he finally exhausted the patience of Nebuchadnezzar. In 598, he laid siege to Jerusalem. That same year, Jehoiakim died, leaving his son, Jehoiachin, to become Nebuchadnezzar's prisoner when Jerusalem fell in 597 B.C. People from the upper classes and skilled workmen were also among those taken to Babylon as captives. The Man Other than his work as a prophet, nothing for certain of a personal nature is known about Habakkuk. Tradition makes him a priest of the tribe of Levi. The apocryphal work Bel and the Dragon (Bel and the Dragon 1:33-39) tells a story about Habakkuk being taken to Babylon by an angel to feed Daniel while he was in the lions den.

Isaac

(i' zac) Personal name meaning "laughter." Only son of Abraham by Sarah and a patriarch of the nation of Israel. Old Testament Isaac was the child of a promise from God, born when Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah was 90 (Genesis 17:17; Genesis 21:5 ). Isaac means "he laughs" and reflects his parents' unbelieving laughter regarding the promise (Genesis 17:17-19; Genesis 18:11-15 ) as well as their joy in its fulfillment (Genesis 21:1-7 ). Sarah wanted Hagar and Ishmael banished. God directed Abraham to comply, saying that it would be through Isaac that his descendants would be reckoned (Genesis 21:8-13; compare Romans 9:7 ). Abraham's test of faith was God's command to sacrifice Isaac (Genesis 22:1-19 ). Isaac married Rebekah (Genesis 24:1 ), who bore him twin sons, Esau and Jacob (Genesis 25:21-28 ). Isaac passed her off as a sister at Gerar (as Abraham had done). He became quite prosperous, later moving to Beersheba (Genesis 26:1 ). Isaac was deceived into giving Jacob his blessing and priority over Esau (Genesis 27:1 ). Isaac died at Mamre near Hebron at the age of 180 and was buried by his sons (Genesis 35:27-29 ). Though less significant than Abraham and Jacob, Isaac was revered as one of the Israelite patriarchs (Exodus 3:6; 1 Kings 18:36; Jeremiah 33:26 ). Amos used the name Isaac as a poetic expression for the nation of Israel (Amos 7:9 ,Amos 7:9,7:16 ). New Testament In the New Testament Isaac appears in the genealogies of Jesus (Matthew 1:2; Luke 3:34 ), as one of the three great patriarchs (Matthew 8:11; Luke 13:28; Acts 3:13 ), and an example of faith (Hebrews 11:20 ). Isaac's sacrifice by Abraham (Hebrews 11:17-18; James 2:21 ), in which he was obedient to the point of death, serves as a type looking forward to Christ and as an example for Christians. Paul reminded believers that "we, brethren, as Isaac, are the children of promise" (Galatians 4:28 ).

Jonathon

(jah' uh thuhn) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh gave." 1. A Levite who served as priest of Micah in Ephraim and later with tribe of Dan (Judges 17-18 ). 2 . Eldest son of King Saul; mother: Ahinroam; brothers: Abinadab, Malchishua and Ish-baal; sisters Merab and Michal; son Mephibosheth (Meribbaal). Jonathan possessed courage, fidelity, and friendship. He led 1,000 soldiers to defeat the Philistines at Geba (Gibeah) (1 Samuel 13:2-3 ). Then Jonathan took only his armor-bearer to the rocky crags at Michmash and brought panic to the Philistines by killing twenty of them (1 Samuel 14:1-16 ). Saul discovered that Jonathan was missing, called for the ark of God, went to battle, and defeated the Philistines. Jonathan ate honey, unaware that Saul had forbidden the people to eat that day. Saul would have had Jonathan put to death, but the people spoke in praise of Jonathan and ransomed him from death (1 Samuel 14:27-46 ). The next four accounts about Jonathan focus on his friendship with David. First, Jonathan formed a close friendship with David by giving him his robe, armor, sword, bow, and girdle (1 Samuel 18:1-5 ). Second, Jonathan pleaded successfully with Saul to reinstate David (1 Samuel 19:1-7 ). Third, Jonathan left Saul's table angrily to inform David that the king would never receive David again (1 Samuel 20:1-42 ). Fourth, Jonathan held a final meeting with David at Horesh. They made covenant with one another as Jonathan acknowledged David as the next king (1 Samuel 23:16-18 ). The end of 1Samuel reports the end of Saul and three of his sons, Jonathan, Abinadab, and Melchishua, at Mount Gilboa (1 Samuel 31:1-13 ). Their bodies were first hung on the wall of Beth-shan and later retrieved to Jabesh. Eventually, David had the bones buried in the land of Benjamin, in Zela in the tomb of Kish, Jonathan's grandfather (2 Samuel 21:12-14 ). See Saul; David; Mephibosheth .

Joshua

(jahssh yoo uh) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh delivered." 1. Leader of Israelites who first took control of Promised Land of Canaan. Joshua is one of the unsung heroes of the Old Testament. He, not Moses, led the people into the Promised Land. He was a person of such stature that he could succeed the incomparable Moses and compile a record of notable success (Joshua 24:31 ). The Hebrew variations of Joshua are Oshea (Numbers 13:16 ); Hosea (Hosea 1:1 ). English versions differ in their transliteration of the Hebrew names. Its New Testament equivalent is Jesus. Joshua was born in Egypt during the period of slavery. He was a member of Ephraim, the important tribe that later formed the heart of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. He first appeared during the battle with the Amalekites during the desert travels. He was Moses' general, who led the troops in the actual fighting while Aaron and Hur held up Moses' hands (Exodus 17:8-13 ). Joshua was Moses's servant (Exodus 24:13 ). He was on the mountain when Moses received the Law (Exodus 32:17 ). He was also one of the twelve spies Moses sent to investigate Canaan (Numbers 13:8 ). He and Caleb returned with a positive, minority report. Of all the adults alive at that time, only the two of them were allowed to live to enter the land of Canaan (Numbers 14:28-30 ,Numbers 14:28-30,14:38 ). The Lord selected Joshua to be Moses' successor long before Moses' death (Numbers 27:15-23; Deuteronomy 31:14-15 ,Deuteronomy 31:14-15,31:23; Deuteronomy 34:9 ). Joshua was a military leader, a political leader, and a spiritual leader. He was quiet and unassuming, but he was not buffaloed by his responsibilities or the task that lay before him. He was a battlefield genius, particularly in the areas of careful planning, strategy, and execution. He was a capable administrator for the nation, effective in maintaining harmony among people and groups. He was a spokesman to the people for the Lord. Though he did not receive the Law as Moses had, he communicated the Lord's will and the Lord's message much like Moses. Joshua was at the helm of the nation during the conquest and the distribution and settlement of Canaan. He led in the covenant renewal at mount Ebal and Shechem (Joshua 8:30-35; Joshua 24:1-28 ). He was able to challenge his people by both word and example. His pattern is a hard one to better. See Joshua, The Book of; Moses . 2. High priest of community who returned from Babylonian Exile in 538 B.C. See Jeshua 3.

Jeroboam I

(jehr oh boh' am) Personal name possibly meaning, "he who contends for justice for the people" or "may the people multiply." 1. First king of the Northern Kingdom Israel about 926-909 B.C. Jeroboam had an interesting rise to power. He managed the laborers Solomon had conscripted for his huge building projects (1 Kings 11:28 ). During Solomon's reign Ahijah, a prophet from Shiloh, confronted Jeroboam, tore his own coat into twelve pieces, and gave ten of them to Jeroboam (1 Kings 11:29-39 ). Ahijah interpreted this as God's pledge that Jeroboam would become king over ten of the twelve tribes. Upon Solomon's death, Jeroboam learned that the tribes would assemble at Shechem to make Solomon's son Rehoboam their king. Seizing upon the people's resentment toward Solomon's high-handed policies, Jeroboam led the ten tribes to revolt against the house of David. They then crowned Jeroboam king. The inspired biblical writers did not consider Jeroboam a good king. Rather he became the example of evil kings in Israel because he built temples in Dan and Bethel with golden calves representing God's presence. What appeared to be good politics diverted people from worshiping at Jerusalem, God's chosen place. All the following northern kings suffered the biblical writers' condemnation because they walked in the ways of Jeroboam, encouraging worship at Dan and Bethel (see for example 1Kings 15:26,1 Kings 15:34; 1Kings 16:19,1 Kings 16:31 ). Jeroboam also instituted new worship practices at his temples (1 Kings 12:25-33 ), intentionally making Israelite worship different from that in Jerusalem, though claiming to worship the same God with the same worship traditions. Prophetic warnings failed to move Jeroboam (1 Kings 13:1-14:20 ).

Jesse

(jehss' ssih) Personal name meaning, "man" or "manly." Father of David the king (1 Samuel 16:1 ). He was a Judahite who lived in Bethlehem, the son of Obed and the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (1 Samuel 16:1; Ruth 4:17 ). He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest, and two daughters. He is mentioned in the genealogies of Jesus in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. See David .

Jezebel

(jehz' eh behl) Personal name meaning, "Where is the prince?" perhaps derived from Phoenician name meaning, "Baal is the prince." Wife of King Ahab of Israel (874-853 B.C.), who brought the worship of Baal from Sidon, where her father Ethbaal was king (1 Kings 16:31 ). Jezebel tried to destroy all God's prophets in Israel (1 Kings 18:4 ), while installing prophets of Baal and Asherah (1 Kings 18:19 , modern translations) as part of the royal household. Elijah proved these prophets to be false on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:1 ), bringing Jezebel's threat to kill Elijah (1 Kings 19:2 ). Elijah ran for his life to Beersheba. When Ahab wanted Naboth's vineyard, Jezebel connived with the leaders of the city who falsely accused and convicted Naboth, stoning him to death. Elijah then prophesied Jezebel's death, she being the one who had "stirred up" Ahab to wickedness (1 Kings 21:1 ). She continued her evil influence as her son Joram ruled (2 Kings 9:22 ). Elisha anointed Jehu to replace Joram. Jehu assassinated Joram and then went to Jezreel after Jezebel. She tried to adorn herself and entice him, but her servants obeyed Jehu's call to throw her from the window to the street, where horses trod her in the ground (2 Kings 9:30-37 ). Jezebel's name became so associated with wickedness that the false prophetess in the church at Thyatira was labeled, "Jezebel" (Revelation 2:20 ).

Jehoiakim

(jih hoy' uh kihm) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh has caused to stand." Son of Josiah who succeeded Jehoahaz as king of Judah (609-597). Jehoiakim was a throne name given to him by Pharaoh Neco of Egypt, who deposed his brother Jehoahaz. His original name had been Eliakim (2 Kings 23:34 ). He and his predecessor on the throne were brothers, sons of Josiah. He reigned for eleven years. At the beginning of his reign, Judah was subject to Egypt. Probably in 605 B.C., however, Babylon defeated Egypt. Jehoiakim, who apparently had been content to be a vassal of Egypt, transferred his allegiance to Babylon, but rebelled after three years. At his death he was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin. See Israel; Chronology of Biblical Period.

Johoiachin

(jih hoy' uh kin) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh establishes." In 2 Kings 24:6 , the son and successor of Jehoiakim as king of Judah. He was eighteen years old when he came to the throne late in 598 B.C., and he reigned for three months in Jerusalem before being taken into captivity by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon. The prominence in the account of his reign of his mother Nehushta suggests that she may have wielded considerable influence during the time that her son was in office. Jehoiachin evidently was a throne name taken at the time of accession to the kingship. Jehoiachin's original name seems to have been Jeconiah or Coniah. He retained the title "king of Judah" even in Exile, but he never returned to Judah to exercise rule there. Nevertheless, he was ultimately released from prison by Evil-merodach of Babylon and accorded some honor in the land of his captivity (2 Kings 25:27-30 ). See Israel; Chronology of the Biblical Period .

Josiah

(joh ssi' uh) Personal name meaning, "Yahweh heals." Judah's king from about 640-609 B.C. He succeeded his father Amon, an idolatrous king, who ruled for only two years before being murdered by his servants (2 Kings 21:19-23; 2 Chronicles 33:21-24 ). Josiah became king at the age of eight due to wishes of "the people of the land" who put his father's assassins to death (2 Kings 21:24 ). Josiah's reign lasted for thirty-one years (2 Kings 22:1; 2 Chronicles 34:1 ). The Book of 2Chronicles reveals much about the early years of Josiah. In his eighth year as king he began to seek the God of David (2 Chronicles 34:3 ). Josiah initiated a religious purge of Jerusalem, Judah, and surrounding areas during his twelfth year on the throne (2 Chronicles 34:3-7 ). This purge included tearing down the high places, the Asherah, and the altars to Baal. The high places were essentially Canaanite worship centers that had been taken over by Israel. The Asherah were cult objects associated with the worship of Baal, the fertility god of Canaan. See Asherah . In his eighteenth year as king an unexpected event turned his energies in new directions. A "Book of the Law" was discovered while repairs were being made on the Temple. Hilkiah, the high priest, found the book and gave it to Shaphan, the scribe, who in turn read it to King Josiah. Upon hearing the message of the book, Josiah tore his clothes, a sign of repentance, and humbled himself before God. Josiah was assured that the promised destruction would not come in his time (2 Kings 22:8-20; 2 Chronicles 34:15-28 ). The reading of this book prompted Josiah to instigate the most far-reaching religious reforms in Israel's history. What was this "Book of the Law" and when was it written? Most scholars believe that this book included at least the core of our present Book of Deuteronomy, either 2 Chronicles 5-26 or 12-26. A major thrust of the Book of Deuteronomy was to call the nation Israel to exclusive loyalty to Yahweh. Perhaps a thrust such as this inspired the Josianic revival. The Bible is silent about the remaining years of Josiah until his death. On the international scene during those years Assyria's power was waning, and Babylon's was on the rise. Assyria had aligned itself with Egypt against Babylon. Pharoah Neco's troups were passing through territory north of Judah en route to join forces with Assyria. Josiah's army blocked the movement of Egyptian troups at Megiddo. In the battle that followed Josiah was mortally wounded (2 Kings 23:29 ). His body was taken to Jerusalem where he was buried. There was great mourning for him throughout the land (2 Chronicles 35:24-25 ). Though only thirty-nine when he died, Josiah was remembered as Judah's greatest king (2 Kings 23:25 ): "Neither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to the Lord as he did—with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his strength, in accordance with the Law of Moses" (NIV).

Jonah

(joh' nuh) Personal name meaning, "dove" and name of book of Bible preserving story of a part of prophet's ministry. The Book of Jonah is unique among the Minor Prophets in consisting of a short story about a prophet and in confining his message to a sentence (3:4). The hero or rather anti-hero is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:23-29 as active in the reign of Jeroboam II (about 785-745 B.C.). His prediction of national expansion for the Northern Kingdom, evidently made early in the reign, expressed God's longing to save His people, wicked though they were. This theological background is important for the book.

Joseph

(joh' ssihf) Personal name meaning, "adding." Name of several men in the Bible, most importantly a patriarch of the nation Israel and the foster father of Jesus. Old Testament 1. Joseph in the Old Testament primarily refers to the patriarch, one of the sons of Israel. Joseph was the eleventh of twelve sons, the first by Jacob's favorite wife, Rachel. His name, "may he [the Lord] add," was a part of Rachel's prayer at his birth (Genesis 30:24 ). As the child of Jacob's old age and Rachel's son, Joseph became the favorite and was given the famous "coat of many colors" (Genesis 37:3; "long robe with sleeves," NRSV, NEB; "richly ornamented robe" NIV) by his father. This and dreams which showed his rule over his family inspired the envy of his brothers, who sold Joseph to a caravan of Ishmaelites (Genesis 37:1 ). Joseph was taken to Egypt where he became a trusted slave in the house of Potiphar, an official of the pharaoh. On false accusations of Potiphar's wife, Joseph was thrown in the royal prison, where he interpreted the dreams of two officials who had offended the pharaoh (Genesis 39-40 ). Eventually Joseph was brought to interpret some worrisome dreams for the pharaoh. Joseph predicted seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine and recommended a program of preparation by storing grain. Pharaoh responded by making Joseph his second in command (Genesis 41:39-45 ). With the famine, persons from other countries came to Egypt to buy food, including Joseph's brothers. They did not recognize him, but Joseph saw the fulfillment of his earlier dreams in which his brothers bowed down to him. After testing their character in various ways, Joseph revealed himself to them on their second visit (Genesis 42-45 ). Under Joseph's patronage, Jacob moved into Egypt (Genesis 46:1-47:12 ). Joseph died in Egypt but was embalmed and later buried in Shechem (Genesis 50:26; Exodus 13:19; Joshua 24:32 ). That the influential Joseph (Genesis 47:13-26 ) is not known from Egyptian records would be expected if he served under a Hyksos pharaoh, as seems likely. See Exodus 1:8 , NRSV) did not "know" of him in a political or historical sense. While in Egypt, Joseph became the father of two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (Genesis 41:50-52 ), who were counted as sons of Jacob (Genesis 48:5-6 ) and whose tribes dominated the northern nation of Israel. The name Joseph is used later in the Old Testament as a reference to the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (Numbers 1:32; Numbers 36:1 ,Numbers 36:1,36:5; 1 Kings 11:28 ) or as a designation for the whole Northern Kingdom (Psalm 78:67; Ezekiel 37:16 ,Ezekiel 37:16,37:19; Amos 5:6 ,Amos 5:6,5:15; Amos 6:6; Obadiah 1:18; Zechariah 10:6 ).

Mordecai

(mawr' dih ci) Personal name meaning, "little man." 1. Esther's cousin and the mastermind behind her rise to power and subsequent victory over the evil Haman. Haman, a descendant of the Amalekite king Agag, sought to destroy the Jewish race. Mordecai, a descendant of King Saul's family, led Esther to thwart the attempt, Haman was hanged on the gallows he had erected for Mordecai. See Esther .

Miriam

(mih' ih uhm) Personal name of uncertain meaning, perhaps "bitter," "God's gift," "beloved," or "defiant." 1. Sister of Moses and Aaron and the daughter of Jochebed and Amram. Miriam played a key role in the rescue of Moses (Exodus 2:4-8 ) and in the subsequent experience of the Exodus and the wilderness community. After crossing the Red Sea, she assumed the role of prophetess and led the women in the song of victory that was steeped in faith and gratitude (Exodus 15:20-21 ). See Poetry . At Hazeroth, Miriam sided with Aaron in an act of rebellion against Moses when he married an Ethiopian woman (Numbers 12:1-15 ). Beneath her disapproval of Moses' choice of a wife lay a deeper problem of ambition and insubordination. Consequently, God reminded her of Moses' divinely appointed leadership and chastened her with leprosy. She was healed following Moses' intercessory prayer and a seven-day quarantine (Numbers 12:15 ). See Intercession; Leprosy. Miriam died at Kadesh (Numbers 20:1 ). Later biblical writers remembered her as an example to Israel in cases of leprosy (Deuteronomy 24:9 ) and as a leader sent by God (Micah 6:4 ).

Manasseh

(muh nass' sseh) A personal name meaning "God has caused me to forget" (trouble). 1. One of at least two sons born to Joseph by Asenath (Genesis 41:50-51 ). Manasseh was adopted by Jacob as one to receive his blessing. Along with Ephraim, Manasseh became one of the twelve tribes of Israel and received a landed inheritance. In almost typical Old Testament fashion, Manasseh, the elder brother, did not receive the blessing of the firstborn (Genesis 48:13-20 ). Jacob crossed his hands and gave that blessing to Ephraim. When the Promised Land was apportioned, half of the tribe of Manasseh, the elder brother, did not receive the blessing of the firstborn (Genesis 48:13-20 ). Jacob crossed his hands and gave that blessing to Ephraim. When the Promised Land was apportioned, half of the tribe of Manasseh settled on the east bank of the Jordan and half on the west. See Tribes of Israel. 2. King of Judah (696-642 B.C.) who was a son of Hezekiah (2 Kings 20:21 ). His was the longest reign of any Judean king. Manasseh's reign was known as one of unfaithfulness to Yahweh. Second Kings blames him for Judah's ultimate destruction and exile (2 Kings 21:10-16 ).

Noah

(noh uh) A personal name of uncertain meaning, related to "rest." Old Testament 1. The son of Lamech, a descendant of Adam in the line of Seth, and a survivor of the flood. A good and righteous man, Noah was the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth who were born when he was 500 years old. God warned Noah that He was going to wipe mankind from the face of the earth. Because Noah walked with God and stood blameless among the people of that time, God gave him specific instructions for building the ark by which Noah and his family would survive the coming flood. Noah followed the building instructions down to every detail. Then a week before the flood (Genesis 7:4 ), Noah led his family and all of the animals into the ark just as God directed. After seven days, the rain began and lasted for 40 days. As he sought to know whether it was safe to leave the ark, he sent out first a raven and then a dove. When the dove returned with an olive leaf, Noah knew the water had receded. Once out of the ark, Noah built an altar and sacrificed clean animals as burnt offerings on the altar. Then the Lord promised never again to destroy living creatures as He had done in the flood and established a covenant with Noah and his sons and sealed that covenant with a rainbow. See Covenant . The sinful nature of humanity is one thing that remained preserved on the ark. Once on dry ground, Noah planted a vineyard, drank of its wine, became drunk, and exposed himself in his tent. Ham informed Shem and Japheth about their father's nakedness. The latter two showed respect for their father and covered him. As a result, they received rich blessings for their descendants from Noah. Ham in turn received a curse for his descendant: Canaan. Noah lived another 350 years after the flood and died at the age of 950 years. New Testament Hebrews 11:7 affirms Noah's actions of faith in building the ark. The references to Noah in 1 Peter 3:20 and 2 Peter 2:5 speak of Noah and those of his family who were saved in the flood. See Flood .

Rachel

(ray' chehl) Personal name meaning, "ewe." Younger daughter of Laban, the second wife and cousin of Jacob, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. In flight from his brother, Esau, Jacob met her when Rachel brought the sheep to water. She immediately become the object of his attention. See Jacob . Two Old Testament passages outside Genesis name Rachel. Ruth 4:11 calls her one who built up the house of Israel. Jeremiah 31:15 refers to her weeping over children being taken in Exile. Matthew ( Jeremiah 2:18 ) cited Jeremiah's reference of weeping in connection with Herod's order to kill male children under two.

Rehoboam

(ree' hoh boh' uhm) Personal name meaning, "he enlarges the people." One of Solomon's sons and his successor to the throne of the united monarchy (1 Kings 11:43 ). He reigned about 931-913 B.C. While at Shechem for his crowning ceremony as king over Israel (1 Kings 12:1 ), the people asked Rehoboam if he would remove some of the tax burden and labor laws which his father had placed on them. Instead of taking the advice of the older men, he acted on the counsel of those who wanted to increase further the burden. The northern tribes revolted and made the rebel Jeroboam their king. Rehoboam was left with only the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. He continued the pagan ways which Solomon had allowed (1 Kings 14:21-24 ) and fought against Jeroboam and Shishak of Egypt. Some of his fortifications may be those at Lachish and Azekah.

Rebekkah

(reh behk' uh) Personal name perhaps meaning, "cow." Daughter of Bethuel, Abraham's nephew (Genesis 24:15 ); Isaac's wife (Genesis 24:67 ); mother of Jacob and Esau (Genesis 25:25-26 ). Rebekah was a complex character. She is introduced as a beautiful virgin (Genesis 24:16 ), willing servant (Genesis 24:19 ), and as hospitable to strangers (Genesis 24:25 ). In obedience to God's will, she left her home in Paddan-aram to be Isaac's wife (Genesis 24:58 ). Rebekah comforted Isaac after the death of Sarah (Genesis 24:67 ). When distressed by her problem pregnancy, she turned to God for counsel (Genesis 25:22-23 ). Less favorable is Rebekah's favoritism towards Jacob (Genesis 25:28 ), especially as evidenced in the plan she concocted to enable Jacob to steal Esau's blessing (Genesis 27:5-17 ). Rebekah was forced to send her favorite to her brother's household to save Jacob from Esau's vengeance (Genesis 27:42-46 ).

Sargon II

(ssahr' gahn) Akkadian royal name meaning, "the king is legitimate." An ancient throne name first taken by the king of Akkad about 2100 B.C. In 722 B.C., Sargon II of Assyria succeeded his brother, Shalmaneser V. His father was the famous king, Tiglath-pileser III. Sargon finished the destruction of Samaria begun by his brother. See Isaiah 20:1 . He deported the people of Israel to Media and other parts of the Middle East. Sargon then launched military campaigns against King Midas of Muski in southeast Asia Minor and against the kingdom of Urartu. He conquered both. Sargon was succeeded by his son, Senneracherib. See Assyria; Israel .

Samson

(ssam' ssuhn) Personal name meaning, "Of the sun." Last of the major judges over Israel about 1100 B.C. (Judges 13:1-16:31 ). The son of Manoah of the tribe of Dan, Samson was a legendary hero who frequently did battle against the Philistines who, at that time, "had dominion over Israel" (Judges 14:4 ). Before his conception, Samson was dedicated by his parents to be a lifelong Nazirite (Judges 13:3-7 ), a person especially devoted or consecrated. Part of the vow included letting the hair grow and abstaining from wine and strong drink. Samson's legendary strength did not come from his long hair. Rather, it came through the "Spirit of the Lord" who would "come upon" him to enable him to perform amazing feats of physical strength (Judges 14:6 ,Judges 14:6,14:19; Judges 15:14; compare Judges 16:28-29 ). Although a Nazirite, Samson did not live a devoted life. More frequently, he was careless in his vow. He secretly disobeyed the prohibition of approaching a dead body (Judges 14:8-9 ), had immoral relations with a Gaza harlot (Judges 16:1 ), and with Delilah (Judges 16:4-20 ). Samson is portrayed as a headstrong young man with little or no self-control. None of his exploits show him as a religious enthusiast. In fact, every major crisis in his life resulting in clashes against the Philistines were brought on by his relationships with Philistine women. Samson's fascination with Delilah finally wrought his downfall. The lords of the Philistines offered her eleven hundred pieces of silver from each of them to find out the source of Samson's strength. In her first three attempts, Samson gave her false answers. However, he did not seem to equate the Philistines binding him each time with betrayal by Delilah. Finally, she coaxed the truth from him, and Samson was captured. Ultimately, Samson proved little more than a thorn in the flesh to the Philistines. He never really freed Israel from the dominion of the Philistines. In his death, he killed more Philistines than the total he had killed during his life (Judges 16:30 ). He is listed with the heroes of faith in Hebrews 11:32 , because his strength came from God and because in his dying act, he demonstrated his faith. See Nazirite; Judge; Judges, Book of; Spirit .

Senacherib

(sseen nak' uhr ihb) Assyrian royal name meaning, "Sin (the god) has replaced my brother." King of Assyria (704-681 BC). See Assyria; Israel .

Tamar

(tay' mahr) Personal name meaning, "date palm." 1. Daughter-in-law of Judah, wife of his eldest son, Er (Genesis 38:6 ). After her wicked husband died without fathering a child, Tamar was given to Er's brother, Onan, for the purpose of bearing a child in the name of the dead man. Onan refused to impregnate Tamar, for which God killed him. She then tricked her father-in-law into fathering her child (Genesis 38:18 ). See Levirate Marriage. 2. A daughter of David raped by her half brother, Amnon (2 Samuel 13:14 ). The act was avenged by her full brother, Absalom, when he had Amnon murdered (2 Samuel 13:28-29 ). These acts were part of Nathan's property that the sword would never depart from David's house (2 Samuel 12:10 ).

Tiglath-Pileser III

(tihg' lath-pih lee' zuhr) Personal name meaning, "My trust is the son of Esarra (the temple of Asshur)." King of Assyria from 745 to 727 B.C. (2 Kings 16:7 ), also known as Tilgath-Pilneser (1 Chronicles 5:6; 2 Chronicles 28:20 ) and Pul (2 Kings 15:19; 1 Chronicles 5:26 ). See Assyria, History and Religion of .

Uriah

(yoo ri' uh) Personal name meaning, "fire of Yah." 1. A Hittite mercenary, or a native, perhaps noble Israelite of Hittite ancestry, in David's army (2 Samuel 11:1 ), a member of David's elite warriors (2 Samuel 23:39 ). He was the husband of Bathsheba, the woman with whom David committed adultery. The sin led to the eventual murder of Uriah after the king could cover the affair no longer. The Dead Sea Scrolls and Josephus report that Uriah was Joab's weapon-bearer. Uriah displayed more character and morality than did the king. See Bathsheba; David . 2. High priest in Jerusalem Temple under King Ahaz who followed the king's instructions in setting up an altar in the Temple according to a Syrian pattern (2 Kings 16:10-16 ). He apparently served as a witness for Isaiah (2 Kings 8:2 ). 3. Priest in time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 8:33; Nehemiah 3:4 ,Nehemiah 3:4,3:21 ). 4 . Person who helped Ezra in informing the people of God's word (Nehemiah 8:4 ).

Adam

ad' uhm uhnd eeve) The first man and woman created by God from whom all other people are descended. They introduced sin into human experience. Old Testament The Hebrew word for Eve means "life," while the Hebrew word for Adam simply means "man." The Hebrew word adam is used in at least three different ways in the Old Testament. In its most common occurrence, the word adam refers to mankind in general. It has this use in Genesis 1:26-27 , where it includes both male and female, those who were created in the image of God. It is also used in referring to a specific man where it occurs with the Hebrew definite article (Genesis 2:24; Genesis 4:1 ). A third use of Adam is in reference to the city beside Zaretan (Joshua 3:16 ) on the Jordan. The Hebrew word for Eve is used only as reference to Adam's wife. New Testament In the New Testament, Adam is used as a proper name, clearly referring to our ancestral parents. Jesus' genealogy is traced back to Adam (Luke 3:38 ). However, the most important New Testament usage treats Jesus as a second Adam (1 Corinthians 15:45 ), where the word is used as a symbol. Furthermore, Paul in a similar manner treats Adam as a type of Christ (Romans 5:14 ). As the first Adam brought death into the world, the "second Adam" brought life and righteousness (Romans 5:15-19 ). Eve is referenced two times in the New Testament. In 2 Corinthians 11:3 , Eve's gullibility before the serpent is presented as undesirable. In 1 Timothy 2:11-15 , women are urged to be silent and subjected to man because Adam was created before Eve and because Eve was deceived into sinning. Theological Concerns Adam and Eve are the ancestors of humanity. They are described as being the first persons. They also produced the first offspring (Genesis 4:1-2 ,Genesis 4:1-2,4:25 ). The Genesis narrative shows the development of humanity from these first parents. The interrelatedness of all humanity is stressed in Genesis. Further the biblical writers use the story of Adam and Eve as symbolic of the universal history of all mankind. All persons reenact in their own lives the tragic story of our ancestral parents. Thus Adam and Eve are real but also symbolic. Adam and Eve introduced sin into human experience. The first record of sinful rebellion in the Bible is found in the narrative of the first persons (Genesis 3:1-13 ). They fell victim to the serpent's lie (Genesis 3:4 ). They made the choice to disbelieve and to disobey. They were not forced to disobey God but freely chose to do so. The consequences of Adam and Eve's sin fell not merely upon them but upon the earth as well (Genesis 3:14-19 ). The consequences of sin had lasting influence far beyond the two individuals. Further, following their sin, Adam and Eve hid from God; God did not hide from them (Genesis 3:8-9 ). Their ultimate punishment was being driven from the garden (Genesis 3:22-24 ). However, this was also an act of God's mercy, for it kept humanity from living forever in a sinful state. Thus an opportunity was offered for the possibility of future redemption. See Jesus; Sin; Judgement; Wrath; Mercy.

Deborah

Deborah, the leader of Israel, is identified as a prophetess, a judge, and the wife of Lapidoth (Judges 4:4 ). She probably lived about 1200 B.C. or slightly later during a period of Canaanite oppression. Deborah is described in Judges 5:7 as "a mother in Israel" because of her role in delivering God's people. After Moses, only Samuel filled the same combination of offices: prophet, judge, and military leader. Deborah served regularly as a judge, hearing and deciding cases brought to her by the people of Israel. She held court at "the palm tree of Deborah," in the southern part of the territory of Ephraim, between Ramah and Bethel (Judges 4:4-5 ). Nothing is said about the procedures at her court or about the extent of her jurisdiction. As a prophet, Deborah summoned Barak and delivered an oracle giving him God's instructions for a battle in the Jezreel Valley against the Canaanite army commanded by Sisera (Judges 4:6-9; compare Samuel in 1 Samuel 15:2-3 and the unnamed prophet in 1 Kings 20:13-15 ). Barak obeyed, and the Israelites won the battle. Some scholars believe that Deborah as prophet also composed the victory poem she and Barak sang in Judges 5:1 . Deborah's authority under God was evidenced by Barak's desire to have her present with him in the army camp (Judges 4:8 ,Judges 4:8,4:14 ) and by the testimony to her leadership in the song (Judges 5:7 ,Judges 5:7,5:12 ,Judges 5:12,5:15 ).

Omri

(ahm' ri) Personal name meaning, "pilgrim" or "life." 1. King of Israel 885-874 B.C. and founder of the Omride dynasty, which ruled until 842. Omri came to the throne in a very odd manner. Zimri, a chariot captain in Israel's army, assassinated King Elah and took control of the palace of Tirzah (1 Kings 16:8-15 ). Half of the people rebelled and installed Omri ("captain of the host," 1 Kings 16:16 ) as king. When Zimri realized his situation was hopeless, he burned the palace down upon himself. Omri became king only after successfully opposing another rebellion in the person of Tibni (1 Kings 16:21-22 ). In his reign of eleven years, Omri's greatest accomplishment was to buy the hill of Samaria and build the capital of Israel there. He was succeeded by his son, Ahab. Assyrian sources continued to call Israel, "the land of Omri." Micah accused Jerusalem of following Omri's actions and also his son Ahab's. That was grounds for God's destroying Jerusalem (Micah 6:16 ). 2 . Officer of tribe of Issachar under David (1 Chronicles 27:18 ). 3 . Grandson of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:8 ). 4 . Grandfather of member of tribe of Judah who returned to Jerusalem from Exile about 537 B.C.

Abel

(ay' behl) Name meaning, "breath, vapor, meadow." Abel's name is associated with the shortness of life. The second son of Adam and Eve may have been a twin because Genesis 4:2 literally reads, "And she continued to bear his brother Abel." His claim to fame is that "by faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain" ( Hebrews 11:4 ). Some have thought that it was the better sacrifice because it was the sacrifice of an animal. However, the emphasis on "faith" in Hebrews and the idea of a "proper offering" in the Septuagint translation of Genesis 4:7 suggest that Abel's offering was made with a correct attitude and in the proper manner. Because of jealousy, Cain killed Abel. Hebrews 12:24 compares Abel's blood with Christ's blood. Abel's blood calls for vengeance, but Christ's blood carries with it the idea of forgiveness ( Matthew 23:35; Luke 11:51; 1 John 1:7 ). Nevertheless, Abel is outstanding because he was the first person to worship God correctly, to demonstrate faith accurately, and to please God fully. Abel was the first shepherd and influenced the early Hebrews to place a priority on the pastoral life. Also, he was the first man to be murdered and the first human to die.

Elijah

(e li' jah) Personal name meaning, "my God is Yah." The prophet from the ninth century B.C. from Tishbe of Gilead in the Northern Kingdom has been called the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced. See 1Kings 17:1-2 Kings 2:18 . He was a complex man of the desert who counseled kings. His life is best understood when considered from four historical perspectives which at times are interrelated: his miracles, his struggle against Baalism, his prophetic role, and his eschatological relationship to Messiah. Miracles His first miracle was associated with his prophecy before King Ahab (1 Kings 17:1 ) in which he said there would be no rain or dew apart from his declaration. Immediately after the prophecy, he retreated to the brook Cherith where he was fed by ravens. His next refuge was Zarephath where he performed the miracle of raising the widow's dead son (1 Kings 17:17-24 ). Here he was first called "a man of God." On Mount Carmel his greatest public miracle involved his encounter with the 450 prophets of Baal and the 400 prophets of Asherah (1 Kings 18:19-40 ). The contest was to determine the true God. The false prophets called on their gods, and Elijah called on His God to see which would rain fire from heaven. After the false prophets failed to hear from their gods, Elijah wet the wood on his altar to the true God by pouring four jars of water over it three times. In response of Elijah's prayer, Yahweh rained fire from heaven to consume the wet wood. As a result of their deception, Elijah ordered the false prophets killed. Elijah next prophesied that the drought was soon to end (1 Kings 18:41 ) after three rainless years. From Carmel, Elijah prayed. He sent his servant seven times to see if rain was coming. The seventh time a cloud the size of a hand appeared on the horizon. Ahab was told to flee before the storm. Elijah outran his chariot and the storm to arrive at Jezreel. Baalism Interwoven in the life of Elijah is his struggle with Baalism. Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon and Tyre (1 Kings 16:31 ), was Ahab's wife and Israel's queen. She brought the worship of her god Baal into Ahab's kingdom. Even "Ahab served Baal a little" (2 Kings 10:18 ). The contest on Carmel showed a contrast between the contesting deities. Yahweh's power and Baal's impotence was further revealed through the drought. A later involvement with Naboth showed the moral superiority of Elijah's faith (2 Kings 9:25-37 ). Jezebel planned revenge toward Elijah for ordering the false prophets slain, so Elijah retreated to Judah and finally Mount Horeb. There he observed the power of the wind, earthquake, and fire; but the Lord was not seen in these forces. In a small voice the Lord commanded him to go anoint Hazael king of Syria, Jehu king of Israel, and Elisha as his own successor (1 Kings 19:1-17 ). Prophet His prophetic role constantly placed Elijah in opposition to the majority of the people of his nation. His prophetic confrontations involved King Ahab and later his son Ahaziah. Their toleration of polytheism was the ongoing reason for Elijah's prophetic denunciations. When Ahaziah fell and injured himself, he sent messengers to ask Baal-zebub (lord of flies) about his fate. Elijah intercepted them and sent word back to Ahaziah that he was soon to die (2 Kings 1:1 ). Ahaziah sent three different detachments of fifty soldiers each to arrest Elijah. The first two units were destroyed by fire from heaven. The captain of the third group pleaded for his life. He safely escorted Elijah to the king where he delivered the prophecy of his pending death personally. Relationship to Messiah Elijah and Elisha were involved in the schools of the prophets when Elijah struck the waters of the Jordan and they parted to allow their crossing (2 Kings 2:1-12 ). There, immediately after conferring a double portion of his spirit on Elisha (2 Kings 2:9 ), the two were separated by a chariot and horses of fire which carried Elijah away in a whirlwind as Elisha watched shouting, "My father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof." Malachi promised God would send Elijah the prophet before the coming "day of the Lord" (Malachi 4:5 ). John the Baptist was spoken of as the one who would go before Messiah "in the spirit and power" of Elijah (Luke 1:17 ). John personally denied that he was literally Elijah reincarnate (John 1:21 ,John 1:21,1:25 ). Some considered Jesus to be Elijah (Matthew 16:14; Mark 6:15 ). Elijah appeared along with Moses on the Mount of Transfiguration with Jesus to discuss His "departure." Here Peter suggested that three tabernacles be built for Jesus, Moses, and Elijah (Matthew 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33 ). Paul used as an illustration of faithfulness the 7,000 faithful worshipers in the time of Elijah (Romans 11:2-5 ). The two witnesses referred to in Revelation 11:6 are not identified by name, but their capacity "to shut heaven, that it rain not" leads many to conclude they are Moses and Elijah.

Nebuchadnezzar II

(nehb yoo kad nehz' zuhr) Personal name meaning, "Nabu protects." King of Babylon 602-562 B.C. He was the son of Nabopolassar and inherited the throne upon the death of his father. Nebuchadnezzar served as a general under his father and was a brilliant strategist. His victory over the Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605) signaled the completion of abylon's conquest of Palestine. See Babylon, History and Religion of .

Potiphar

(paht' ih fahr) Personal name meaning, "belonging to the sun." Egyptian captain of the guard who purchased Joseph from the Midianite traders (Genesis 37:36; Genesis 39:1 ). He saw great potential in Joseph's abilities and appointed him as steward over his household. Potiphar's wife tried to seduce Joseph, but he refused her advances. Because of this rejection, she told her husband that Joseph tried to rape her. Potiphar had Joseph thrown in prison.

Ruth

(ryooth) The woman, an ancestor of David and Jesus, and the biblical book which tells the story of the reversal of fortunes for Ruth and her mother-in-law, Naomi. Ruth is a self-contained story and is not dependent on other Old Testament narratives for continuity. The story's time is set in the period of Israel's judges. Story place is given as the agrarian world of Moab and the environs of Bethlehem. It can be divided into a series of scenes or episodes with different narrator's comments. The story begins (Ruth 1:1-5 ) by telling why Naomi is in Moab and her plight following the deaths of her husband and sons. Episode A (Ruth 1:6-22 ) narrates her return to and reception in Bethlehem, and how Ruth came to be with her. Episode B (Ruth 2:1-16 ) finds Ruth and Boaz meeting while she gleans grain during harvest. Episode C (Ruth 2:17-23 ) shows Naomi and Ruth discussing Ruth's day in the field and identifies Boaz as a kinsman with a certain role to fulfill. Episode D (Ruth 3:1-5 ) finds Naomi pressing Boaz's role as kinsman. Episode E (Ruth 3:6-13 ) follows a transition in which Ruth and Boaz encounter each other, and Boaz is confronted by his responsibility as kinsman. Episode F (Ruth 3:14-18 ) delays the plot's resolution while Naomi assures Ruth that the matter will be settled. Episode G (Ruth 4:1-6 ) tells of Boaz at the gate settling the matters of Elimelech's property and Ruth, with another kinsman. A narrative aside (Ruth 4:7-8 ) explains the custom of the sandal. Boaz's actions are witnessed, and he is blessed by the people and the elders for his role as kinsman in Episode H (Ruth 4:9-12 ). Episode I (Ruth 4:13-17 ) reverses the fortunes of Naomi and Ruth with Obed's birth, who is declared a child of Naomi. This declaration ensures a name and a future for Naomi's family. A coda (Ruth 4:18-22 ) ties up the story with a family genealogy. Ruth is one of the five Megilloth (scrolls read for Jewish festivals), and is read at the Feast of Weeks. See Deuteronomy 25:5-10 ) as a family obligation at work. See Ruth 4:17-22 ) which details David's family background and serves to legitimate him as king on Saul's throne.

Jeroboam II

2. Powerful king of Israel in the dynasty of Jehu about 793-753 B.C. (2 Kings 14:23-29 ). He managed to restore prosperity and territory to a weak nation but continued the religious practices of Jeroboam I and thus met condemnation from the biblical writers. Jonah, Amos, and Hosea prophesied during his reign. Jeroboam basically restored the boundaries of David's empire, reaching even into Syria.