Period 2 (1649-1815)

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

-"Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798): -population must eventually exceed the food supply -although the human population grows geometrically, the food supply can expand only arithmetically -according to him, the only way to avoid disaster was through late marriage, chastity, and contraception -plight of the working class: if wages increase, the workers would simply produce more children, who would, in turn, consume the extra food and wages

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

-"Fragments on Government" (1776) and "The Principles of Morals and Legislation" (1789) -argued that the application of utility would reform a society based on aristocratic privilege -will overcome special interests and privileged -government should -advocated for the abolition of slavery, separation of church and state, and equal rights for men and women

David Ricardo (1772-1823)

-"Principles of Political Economy" (1817) -iron law of wages: -wages must always be near poverty levels -if wages were raised, parents would have more babies -these children would flood the workforce and lower wages -as wages fell, working class people would have fewer children and the process would repeat itself -provided a basis for opposition of labor unions and convinced employers not to raise wages

Louis Blanc (1811-1882)

-"The Organization of Labor" (1839) -demanded an end to competition -suffrage for the working class

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)

-"What is Property?" -attacked the banking industry which rarely extended credit to small property owners or the poor -mutualism

Scientific Revolution

-16th to 17th Century intellectual movement that challenges the way humans view the natural world -was not a rapid movement for it took the brilliant minds of dislocated scientists in laboratories in Poland, Italy, Denmark, Bohemia, France, and Great Britain -science became the paramount subject of central authority in the western world

Enlightenment

-17th to 18th century intellectual movement that questioned the nature of government, emphasizing reason and common sense over tradition -profound time of optimism -it first occurs in Great Britain, it then spreads to France -contemporary western political and economic thought is a product of this thinking -it was inspired by the scientific revolution -was prepared to challenge intellectual and theological authority -goal was to achieve material and moral improvement, economic growth, and administrative reform -advocated agricultural improvement, commercial society, expanding consumption, and the application of innovative rational methods to traditional social and economic practices -characterized modern Europe and Western society -politically had a direct impact on some rulers in eastern and central Europe

Diplomatic Revolution (1756)

-Austria is pressured by Great Britain to give up Silesia -Great Britain was convinced that Prussia was stronger than Austria so they want to align with Prussia -Maria Theresa (Austria) seals an alliance with France with the marriage of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI -Great Britain and Prussia align

Fall of Bastille (July 14,1789)

-Bastille was the royal prison where political enemies to the King were locked up -Louis XVI gathered troops around Versailles and Paris -he considered taking military action against the National Constituent Assembly -Louis XVI dismissed Jacques Necker without consulting Assembly leaders on July 11 -Instead of cooperating with the National Constituent Assembly's goal to establish a constitutional monarchy, Louis decide to ally himself with the conservatives in the Second Estate -as Louis mobilized his forces, Parisians became anxious and organized a citizen militia -bread was the staple food for the poor and when prices rose it produced riots -rumor spread about the King storing weapons in the basement of Bastille -On July 14, small shopkeepers, tradespeople, artisans, and wage earners in Paris marched to Bastille to get weapons for militia -troops inside Bastille fired int the crowd killing 98 people and wounding many others -crowd stormed the fortress, released the 7 prisoners, and killed several troops and beheaded the governor of Bastille -it was a huge symbolic victory because It was the first serious act of royal defiance and it was done by the working class in Paris -from this point on the working class is going to be involved in the revolution

struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat

-Bourgeosie: middle class associated with industry and commerce -proletariat: workers -Marx believed the disparity between the wealthy and the poor would eventually forment revolution and a proletariat revolution was inevitable -a new propertyless and classless society would emerge

Labor Force

-Britain's labor force was economically diverse->"laboring poor" held jobs but made little more than enough for subsistence -poor working conditions->mines in Wales treated women and children notoriously poorly -factories in the 18th century->only the textile industry completely mechanized during the first half of the 19th century -artisans fought to retain their worth

Europe advancing towards an industrial society

-British dominance in Europe's economy -Britain emerged from the industrial rev of the 18th century as the world's industrial leader -French Rev and Nap wars destroy French-Atlantic trade and disrupts continental economic life for 2 decades -Latin America Independence Wars open South American markets to British goods -Both the USA and Canada demand British products -Britain commands South Asian and Indian markets -although the continental nations were slower, Belgium, France, and Germany increased their industrial output significantly by 1830 -Ruhr and Saar basins rich in coke -most manufacturing on the continent still took place in rural areas through the domestic system that started to integrate machinery

Fourierism

-Charles Fourier -believed that industrial order ignored the passionate side of human nature -advocated the creation of communities called phalanxes, in which liberated living would replace the boredom and dullness of industrial existence -Louis Blanc and "The Organization of Labor"

Saint-Simonianism

-Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon -modern society required rational management -private wealth, property, and enterprise should be subject to an administration other than that of its owners -he did not advocate the redistribution of wealth, but its management by experts, would alleviate the poverty of the age -societies formed

Treaty of Tilsit (July 1807)

-Czar Alexander I and Napoleon met on a raft in the Niemen River to negotiate and make peace -confirmed France's gains -Prussia lost half of its territory -Prussia openly and Russia secretly became allies of Napoleon -Napoleon appointed his family members to govern his empire; his stepson ruled Italy and three of his brothers and his brother-in-law were made kings of other conquered states

Cartesian Circle

-Descartes proves God's existence through this -the mind is divine, so it cannot be wrong -something imperfect can never give birth to something perfect -God has to exist because our ability to reason is perfect and only something perfect can create something perfect

Discourse on Method (1637)

-Descartes states that he would doubt everything except those propositions about which he could have clear and distinct ideas -his approach rejects all forms of intellectual authority except the conviction of his own reason -deduced the existence of God and since God was not deceiver, the ideas of God-given reason could not be false -concludes that human reason could fully comprehend the world

Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791)

-Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia get pressured by the émigrés to issue this ultimatum -the two monarchs vowed to intervene in France to protect the royal family and to preserve the monarchy if the other major European powers agreed

Enclosure replaces open-field farming methods

-England's communities of cultivators made communal decision regarding what crops to plant and shared common pastures for the grazing of livestock -this system discouraged improvement and favored the poorer farmers who needed the common pastures -the village method did not allow for the expansion of pastureland to produce more animals that would, in turn, produce more manure for fertilizer -by the 2nd half of the 18th century, rising wheat prices led landlords to systematically enclose their land in order to use the land more rationally and to achieve greater commercial profits -enclosure brought turmoil to the countryside -landlords fenced the common land which had previously functioned as common pastures -riots often ensued -since most members of parliament were larger landowners, they were able to enact legislation that granted legal right to enclose lands the enclosure movement exemplifies the introduction of entrepreneurial or capitalistic attitude of the urban merchant into the countryside

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

-English political philosopher -traveled to Paris were he studied alongside Descartes -traveled to Italy where he exchanged ideas with Galileo -his first publication was a translation of the Thucydides' classic History of the Peloponesian War from which he developed a dark view of human nature -believes humans are inheritantly bad because we are a self-interested animal as well as the fact that we are born free and equal and we all have the same needs and desires -believes that we are driven by 2 measures which are things that cause pleasure (food, shelter, water) and move from things that cause pain (starvation) -wrote Leviathan (1651) and The Social Contract -"The condition of man (in the State of Nature) is a condition of war of everyone against everyone. The life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." meaning that we are constantly going to kill each other given our equality and our appetite

Islam and European Universities

-European universities did provide professorships to study Arabic during the 17th century, however these university scholars generally agreed with theological critics that Islam embodied religion fanaticism -well-informed works based on knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sources such as Barthélemy d'Herbelot's Bibliothèque orientale [Oriental Library], which was a reference book published in 1697, and George Sale's introduction too the first full English translation of the Qur'an in 1734 were still very hostile to the subject of Islam -these books remained influential well into the 19th century

Major Themes of the Industrial Revolution

-Factors for the Industrial Revolution -Effects of Industrial Revolution -Rise of New Economic Philosophies

First Coalition War

-France's invasion of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and the revolutionary reorganization of that territory in 1792 led to active hostility from the rest of Europe against France -In November 1792, the Convention would declare that anyone who wished to use aristocratic and monarchical oppression would have aid from the Convention -the Convention also announced that the Scheldt River in the Netherlands would be open to free trade violating an agreement that Great Britain had made with Austria and olland -the Jacobins took control of the government by April 1793 and went to war against an alliance known as the First Coalition (Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland) -The goal of the First Coalition alliance was to protect their social structures, political systems, and economic interests against the revolution

Population explosion

-France: 32.5 million in 1831 to 35.8 million in 1851 -Germany: 26.5 million to 33.5 million -Britain: 16.3 to 20.8 million

Third of May

-Francisco Goya -shows the Spanish perspective of the Peninsular War

Partition of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)

-Fredrick the Great of Prussia made a proposal to Russia and Austria in an effort to prevent war among the major powers while also granting them each something they wanted and saving their appearances as major powers -Russia agreed to abandon the conquered Danubia provinces and in return they would receive a large portion of Poland -Because Prussia agreed to remain neutral in the growing hostilities, it received most of the territory between East Prussia and Prussia proper allowing Fredrick to unite the two separate sections of his kingdom -Austria took Galicia in southern Poland with its important salt mines -this split Poland into 3 partitions throughout three separate years

French National Guard

-French Revolutionary Army -commanded by Marquis de Lafayette

Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

-French intellectual and counterpart to Owen

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

-French mathematician and physical scientist -rendered his wealth to pursue an austere, self-disciplined life -made one of the most influential efforts to reconcile faith and the new science -allied himself with the Jansenists who were the opponents of the Jesuits -aspired to write a work that would refute dogmatism and skepticism -rejected the skeptics of his age because they either denied religion altogether (atheists) or accepted it only as it conformed to reason (deist) -believed that atheists and deists of his day placed too much emphasis on reason which was too weak to resolve the problems of human nature -he never produced a definite refutation of the two sides -he formulated his views on these matters in piecemeal fashion in a provocative collection of reflections on humankind and religion in a published posthumously called Pensées (Thoughts) -believed that in religious matters only the reasons of the heart and a "leap of faith" could prevail -believed there to be two Christian truths: a loving God exists and that because human beings are corrupted by nature, they are utterly unworthy of God -he engaged in a famous bet with skeptics to whom he insisted that it is a better bet to believe God exists and to stake everything on his promised mercy than not to do so

Marx's partnership with Engels

-Friedrich Engels (1820-1895): wrote "The Condition of the Working Class in England", which presented a devastating picture of industrial life -"The Communist Manifesto" -communism was implied the outright abolition of private property -it was not immediately influential and was just one of several radical political tracts circulating in intellectual circles

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632)

-Galileo presents the two ideas (heliocentric and geocentric) in the form of a dialogue -this book was clearly designed todefeni the physical truthfulness of Copernicanism -the character that advocates for the heliocentric model is named Galileo -the character that advocates for the geocentric model is named Simplicio, which appeared slow-witted -this puts him on trial, house arrest, as well as subjects him to the inquisition because Pope Urban VIII found it insulting

Maria Cunitz

-German female astronomer -from the artisan class and took over her husband's shop, which produced equipment for astronomy -published a book on astronomy that many people thought her husband had written until he added a preface supporting her sole authorship

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

-German philosopher -he valued the essential ideals of the Enlightenment -In his essay, What is Enlightenment? (1784) he argued that the Enlightenment marked a new way of thinking and eloquently affirmed the Enlightenment's confidence in and commitment to reason -wrote Metaphysical Foundations of Morals in 1785 in which he set forth the categorical imperative that remains a crucial principle in moral philosophy -he believed that people should think about whether they would want the moral principle underlying their action to be elevated to a universal law that would govern others in similar circumstances -wrote Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone in 1793 -he criticized European empires across the world by attacking the European perspective that the lands that have been conquered belonged to no one because they counted the native inhabitants as nothing -he also disagreed with the dehumanization efforts of the colonial powers -wrote The Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and The Critique of Practical Reason (1788)

Romanticism Literature

-German: highly sentimental and borrowed material from medieval romances, characters were symbolic of the larger truth of life -most influential German romantic writer was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe who wrote The Sorrows of Young Wether (1774) and Faust in 1808 -Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein which was about a mad scientist who creates a monster wile trying to gain knowledge however he is a misunderstood creature who has a heart and has emotions

Sources of Marx's Ideas

-Hegelianism: Hegel's abstract philosophical concept that thought develops from the clash of a thesis and an antithesis into a new intellectual synthesis. Marx theorized that conflict between dominant and subordinate social groups led to the emergence of a new dominant social group. -French utopian socialism: they initially raised and depicted the problems of capitalist society and has raised the issue of property redistribution -British classical economists: produced the analytical tools for an empirical, scientific examination of industrial capitalist society; based on this, Marx fashioned a philosophy that gave a special role or function to the new industrial workforce as the single most important driving force to contemporary history which he called the proletariat

Hobbes' Social Contract

-Hobbes contends that only a sovereign commonwealth established by a contract between the ruler and the ruled could enable human beings to meet their needs by limiting the free exercise of the natural human pursuit of self-interest with all its potential conflict -rejected the idea that human beings are naturally sociable but rather self-centered creatures -believed that in the state of nature humans live in constant conflict and fear of destruction and death -believes human beings are naturally willing to give up their natural rights for the comfort and protection provided by a strong central ruler and so that order can be established and progress can be made -this cannot be broken because people surrender all of their rights therefore they cannot do anything; this contract wants order and an absolute ruler will always want order as well

Factors that induced change

-Humanism in the Renaissance -The Age of Exploration -People challenging the Church laws and teachings -The Protestant Reformation

Third Estate Controls the Estate General

-In 1788, Parlement of Paris ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted by order, rather than by head (each estate was given one vote so the first and second estates vote out the third estate) -the royal council decides that strengthening the Third Estate would benefit the monarchy the most, so they announce that the Third Estate could elect twice as many representatives as the nobles and the clergy (voting by head) -Third Estate influence in Estates General increased -The Third Estate breaks away from the Estates General inviting clergy and nobles to join them in creating a new legislative body on June 1, 1789 -On June 17, 1789, the new legislative body became the National Assembly and voted to end Absolutism in France and establish a constitutional monarchy -On June 19, 1789, the Second Estate joined the National Assembly

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)

-In this writing Rousseau blamed much evil in the world on the uneven distribution of property -he raised the more fundamental question of what constitutes the good life rather than other philosophe beliefs that the human condition could improve itself from using the fruits of the earth to produce more goods -argued that human beings in a primeval state of nature had been good, but that as they eventually formed social relations and then social institutions, they lost that goodness -believed that society was the source of human evil and that one manifestation of that unnatural evil was unequal distribution of property

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

-Italian mathematician -discovers the law of the pendulum -in 1609 he used a telescope to observe the heavens -he saw stars where none had been before, mountains on the moon, spots moving across the sun, and moons orbiting Jupiter -by finding sun spots using a special filter on the telescope, he proves that the sun does not have a uniform color therefore it is not perfect -visually proves the heliocentric model by finding that the Earth is not the only planet that has a moon -publishes The Starry Messenger in 1610 and Letters on Sunspots in 1613 -his career illustrates the forging of the new science involved more than just presenting arguments and evidence -In 1610 he left the University of Padua for Florence and became the philosopher and mathematician for the Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany -he became dependent on princely patronage because he was pursuing natural philosophy in a princely court, so to win support for his works and theories, he named the moons of Jupiter after the Medici -became a high-profile advocate of Copernicanism -had problems with the Roman Catholic Church because of his ideas and his flair for self-advertisement -popularized the Copernican system and articulated the concept of a universe subject to mathematical laws -believed that the heavens conformed to mathematical regularity -Pope Urban VIII is a fan of his work, but tells him to publish the merits of both the geocentric and heliocentric models -he publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in 1632 -gets put on trial in 1633

Second Treatise of Government (1689)

-Locke advocated for a government that must be responsible for and responsive to the concerns of the governed -regarded humans in the state of nature as creatures of reason and basic goodwill -believes human beings have natural rights (life, liberty, and property)

Letters Concerning Toleration (1689)

-Locke advocated for extensive religious toleration among Christians to prevent the chaos caused religious struggles throughout the century -believed that religious salvation was an individual endeavor not to be mandated by the state -he did not believe toleration should be extended to Roman Catholics whom he believed to have pledged allegiance to a foreign prince (the papacy)

major cities that increase in population

-London grew from about 700,000 in 1700 to over a million in 1800 -by the time of the French Rev (1789), Paris had more than 500,000 inhabitants -Berlin's population tripled in the 18th century and reached 170,000 in 1800 -Warsaw had a population of 30,000 inhabitants in 1730, but almost 120,000 in 1794 -St. Petersburg, founded in 1703, numbered more than 250,000 a century later

Gordon Riots

-Lord George Gordon (1751-1793) announced an imaginary plot by Catholics after the government relieved military recruits from having to take anti-Catholic oaths

France's government policies based on classical economics

-Louis Philippe (1773-1850) in France and his minister Francois Guizot (1787-1874) told the French to go forth and enrich themselves through individual effort -his reign (1830-1848) saw the construction of major capital-intensive projects such as roads, canals, and highways

Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)

-Louis XVI called a "Royal Session" of the Estates General and ordered that the room where the National Assembly met to be locked and closed -The National Assembly moved to a nearby indoor tennis court where the members vowed to write a constitution for France -several members of the First and Second Estates joined the National Assembly in defiance of the king -The National Assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly because of its intention to write a new constitution

Execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793)

-Louis XVI was put on trials as "Citizen Capet" in December 1792 -Girondist tried to spare him his life but the Mountain defeated the effort -an overwhelming majority convicted Louis of conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of then state

Active Citizens

-Men who paid annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages -had the right to vote in elections -had to own land

Causes of Industrial Revolution

-Mercantilism provided Europe with much needed resources and markets necessary for industrialization -agricultural revolution -population increase from agriculture revolution -political stability (in Great Britain) -entrepreneurs had enormous social and economic incentive to create new innovative products and production techniques because it could generate enormous wealth

Major Theme of the Ancien Regime

-Mercantilist Rivalries (Spain is going to colonize and grow) -Shifting of Traditional Powers (political events combine with traditional rivalries) -Resurgence of Nobility

Montesquieu's views on women

-Montesquieu believed that the status of women in society was the result of climate, the political regime, culture, and women's physiology -he did not believe in the idea that women were naturally inferior to men -he indicated a belief in the equality of the sexes, however he still retained the traditional view of marriage and family -he also expected men to dominate institutions that a man would traditionally dominate

Napoleon's Empire

-Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804 through another new constitution which was ratified by a plebiscite -Napoleon invited Pope Pius VII to Notre Dame to take part in the coronation, however at the last minute Napoleon convinced Pope Pius VII to let the new emperor crown himself because Napoleon did not want anyone to think that his power and authority depended on the church -Napoleon conquered most of Europe and created. one of the largest empires in history -France's victories changed the map of Europe -awakened a phenomenon called French Nationalism -his empire spread ideals of the French Revolution throughout Europe -Napoleon built a massive French army of 700,000 men under arms at one time therefore they were able to risk 100,000 troops in battle, endure heavy losses, and could fight again -Napoleon's desire to forge a large Empire brought France to the pinnacle of power and, later, ultimate defeat

Italian Campaign (1792-1802)

-Napoleon marches on Italy -aim was to deprive Austria of its rich northern Italian province of Lombardy -defeats Piedmont, Naples, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain in this campaign -because Italy is wealthy, this campaign was a massive looting for French soldiers -War of Second Coalition (1799-1802) was war between Second Coalition (Russia, Austria, the Ottomans, and Great Britain) and France -campaign spreads ideas about the revolution -end with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 bringing peace of Europe

Napoleon against Prussia

-Napoleon quickly defeated Prussian army at Jena and Auerstädt on October 14, 1806 -occupied Berlin two weeks later -defeated the Russians at Friedland and occupied East Prussia on June 13, 1807

Hundred Days

-Napoleon returns from Elba on March 1, 1815 and assumes power again by plebiscite for his army was still loyal to him and the French preferred his rule to that of the restored Bourbons -Napoleon rules for 100 days -he promised a liberal constitution and a peaceful foreign policy, but the allies were not convinced -the allies declared Napoleon an outlaw and sent their armies to crush him -Napoleon is defeated by combined European forces at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815 -after loss, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the tiny island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic where he would die in 1821 -this period frightened the great powers and made the peace settlement for France harsher -the allies made some minor territorial adjustments and occupied France -alliances were formed

Egyptian Campaign (1798-1801)

-Napoleon saw it as impossible to cross the English Channel and invade Great Britain because his army and navy was not strong enough -instead he attacked British interests in the Mediterranean by capturing Egypt from the Ottoman Empire -Napoleon wanted to undermine British trade access with India and threaten the British Empire -invasion of Egypt was a failure and it was Napoleon's first defeat -In the Battle of the Nile on August 1, 1798, British admiral Horatio Nelson destroyed the French navy and the French army was cut off from France -Napoleon ditches his 40,000 troops in Egypt and smuggles through the Mediterranean Sea to get back to France -Defeat was hidden because Napoleon was a master of propaganda and he commissioned for Jacques Louis David to paint Napoleon Crossing the Alps. making him and his army look big and strong

Napoleon's Tactical Innovations

-Napoleon was a superior strategist and tactician -used the divide and conquer strategy which allowed him and his army to constantly win -they were able to travel fast quadrupling the amount of miles other countries did per day -they traveled light enabling them to move quickly -Napoleon and his army foraged for provisions, confiscating anything that was useful -they had flexibility in combat -they combined artillery and infantry -would reserve the best troops for the most critical part of battle

Confederation of the Rhine

-Napoleon would organize western Germany into this in order to better control most of the German states -340 states becomes 130 states -the Holy Roman Empire would be dissolved -Holy Roman Emperor Francis I took the title Emperor Francis I of Austria

Imperial Guard

-Napoleon's elite forces -had to prove that you were an extremely good soldier through the course of the campaign -had the best uniforms

Necker's Report (1781)

-Necker did not want to admit that France's situation was bad so says that France's financial situation is good -argued that if the expenses from the American Revolution were removed, the budget was in a surplus -also found that a large portion of royal revenues went to pensions or aristocrats and other royal court favorites -this made it more difficult for government officials to claim a real need to raise new taxes

Ideas of Newton and Locke

-Newtonian physics characterizes the natural world as a pattern of mathematical and mechanical rationality inspiring thinkers to believe that if nature was rational, society should be organized rationally as well -Newton also insisted on using empirical experience to check rational speculation -Locke believed in the idea that humans enter the world with a Tabula Rasa thus experience and only experience shapes character implying that human nature can be changed and modified by changing the surrounding environment -Locke's psychology rejected the Christian doctrine stating that sin permanently flawed human beings and that humans did not need to wait for God or other divine aid to better their lives because they control their own destiny

Major Themes of the French Revolution

-Problems in the Old Regime -Initial Stages of Revolution -Reign of Terror

Prussian Reform after Jena

-Prussia continued to resist Napoleon -German nationalists from other German states fled to Prussia and called or reform and unification -reforms occurred despite opposition because the defeat at Jena showed the Prussians that change had to occur in order to survive -Baron von Stein and Prince von Hardenberg worked to reform Prussia -Stein and Hardenberg hoped to produce a government that honored democratic rules but was guided by a monarch -serfdom was abolished in Prussia and the Junker monopoly of landholdings was broken -military reforms sought to increase the supply of soldiers and to improve their quality -inhumane military punishments were abolished in order to inspire Patriotic feelings in the soldiers -Prussian military became open to commoners and promotions were given on the basis of merit -war colleges were organized to develop new theories of strategy and tactics

Fredrick (II) the Great of Prussia (1712-1786)

-Prussian king who had a militaristic upbringing -invaded Habsburg province, Silesia, which was owned by HRE Maria Theresa which violated the Pragmatic Sanction starting the Silesian Wars -the best example of the embodiment of enlightened absolutism -he forged a state that commanded the loyalty of the military, the junker nobility, the Lutheran clergy, which was a growing bureaucracy recruited from an educated middle class, and the university professors -because the authority of the Prussian military and monarchy were so strong and the nobles, bureaucracy, clergy, and professors were so loyal, he was able to allow a more open discussion off Enlightenment ideas as well as put into effect more Enlightenment values like extensive religious toleration -declared himself "the first servant of the State" which implied that he works for the people -required nobles who sought positions in his well-paid bureaucracy to qualify for those jobs by merit -created Prussian Civil Service Commission -kept the Junkers satisfied by protecting their local social interests and leadership of the army -he participated in the culture of Enlightenment by allowing professors in Prussian universities to discuss new ideas and in return he received support and praise from them -he allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in his predominantly Lutheran country -he protected the Catholics living in Silesia after he conquered the province from the Habsburgs -also stated that he would be willing to build mosques for Turks if they moved to Prussia -his amount of religious tolerance won the support of philosophes such as Immanuel Kant and Moses Mendelssohn -despite his religious tolerance, he tended to appoint Protestants to most key positions in the bureaucracy and army -he ordered a new codification of Prussian law in order to rationalize the existing legal system and make it more efficient, eliminate regional peculiarities, reduce aristocratic influence, abolish torture, and limit the number of capital crimes -he made economic reforms which included importing workers from outside of Prussia, draining swamps, introducing new crops such as potatoes and turnips, encouraging peasants to migrate to migrate where they were needed, and establishing a land-portage credit association in order to help landowners raise money for agricultural improvements

Ptolemaic System

-Ptolemy wrote the Almagest in 150 C.E. -believed that above the Earth laid a series of concentric spheres (most likely fluid in character), one of the spheres contained the moon, another sphere contained the sun, and the other spheres contained the other planets and stars -believed that the planets moved uniformly about a small circle called an epicycle and the center of the epicycle moved about a larger circle called a deferent with the earth at or near its center -the circles in his system were not orbits, instead they were components of mathematical calculations that were meant to predict planetary positions

Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

-Revolutionary women established their own distinct institution called the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women -it was founded by Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe -the purpose of it was to fight the internal enemies of the revolution -members saw themselves as militant citizens -Jacobins were originally welcoming of the society for they filled the galleries of the Convention to hear the debates and cheer their favorite speakers, however the society became more and more radical seeking stricter controls on the price of food and other commodities -they fought with working market women that they thought were insufficiently revolutionary -also demanded the right to wear the revolutionary cockade that male citizens usually wore on their hats -Jacobins in the Convention started to fear the turmoil that the society was casing and banned all women's clubs and societies by October 1793 -Jacobins sieved the women's society opposed many of their economic policies and used Rousseau's "separate spheres" to justify the ban -women were then excluded from the army and public political life and were also seen as active citizens in the domestic sphere

Owenism

-Robert Owen -if humans were placed in the correct surrounding, they and their character could be renewed -he provided his workers with good living conditions -recreational opportunities -free thinker on religion and sex -Grand National Union -his attempt to draw all British trade unions into a single body

The End of the Reign of Terror

-Robespierre executes republican political figures on both the left and right of the Convention -On March 24, 1794, Robespierre secured the execution of certain extreme enragés because they wanted to further measures to regulate prices. secure social equality, and press dechristianization -Robespierre then turned against members in the Convention such as Jacques Danton who was a popular figure in revolutionary France -Danton was executed in April 1794 for being accused of being insufficiently militant on the war, profiting monetarily from the revolution, and rejecting the link between the politics and moral virtue -Robespierre then exterminated the leadership of both groups that might have threatened his position -passed the law of 22 Prairial on June 10 allowing the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substantial evidence against them -Robespierre made a hostile speech in the Convention on July 26 where he declared that other leaders of the government were conspiring against him and the revolution -Robespierre was arrested on July 27 by the members of the Convention and the next day (July 28, 1794) Robespierre and 80 of his supporters were executed without trial -The Convention convinced Parisians that Robespierre had sought dictatorial powers and was viewed as an internal enemy to the revolution

Republic of Virtue

-Robespierre seeks to establish this -civic virtue derived from Rousseau's ideas expressed in his Social Contract such as the sacrifice of one's self and one's interest for the good of the republic -streets were renamed with the egalitarian vocabulary of the revolution -republican dress copied that of the sans-culottés (no powdered wigs) and it became the fashion of the reign of terror -suppressed plays and other literature that was insufficiently republican -created the metric system

German Nationalism

-Romanticism in Germany produced German nationalism -nationalistic writers emphasized the unique and admirable qualities of German culture, which they claimed rose from the history of the German people -some German intellectuals began to urge resistance to Napoleon under the banner of German nationalism -many nationalists criticized the German princes for they selfishly ruled and were too loyal to Napoleon -believed that only a people united through its language and culture could resist the French -many Germans wanted to solve their internal political problems by attempting to establish a unified German state -after the Treaty of Tilsit, Prussia was the only German state that remained patriotic and everywhere else German rulers ruled under Napoleon and collaborated with him

Emile (1762)

-Rousseau declared that men and women occupy separate spheres -believed that women should be educated for a position subordinate to men emphasizing the skills needed for rearing children and other domestic needs -believed that the world of citizenship, political action, and civic virtue was the man's sphere and he did not portray the domestic role of women as a noble virtue -believed that the way to educate children is through experiencing direct contact with the world in order to develop their ingenuity, resourcefulness, and imagination so that they might become productive and responsible citizens -believed that the only way children will learn is if they feel a need to learn and if they find enjoyment in learning

Russia vs Ottoman Empire

-Russia wanted another warm-water port which required warfare with the Ottoman Turks -in 1769, the Turks declared war on Russia in response to a minor Russian attack -during 1769 and 1770 the Russian naval fleet sailed from the baltic to the Mediterranean -Russia won several major victories and by 1771, Russia gained control of Ottoman provinces on the Danube River and the Crimean coast on the Black Sea -treaty that ended this conflict was the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji

Russian Campaign

-Russian nobles disliked the alliance with France because they did not agree with the liberal politics of France and the Continental System prohibited timber sales to Britain -Napoleon gave Russia no aid against the Ottoman Empire -Czar Alexander I feared that Napoleon would launch an invasion of Russia from Poland where the Polish Duchy of Warsaw was a Napoleonic Satellite -Czar Alexander I was also angered by Napoleon's annexation of Holland which violated the Treaty of Tilsit, his recognition of the French marshal Bernadotte as the future King Charles XIV of Sweden, and his marriage to Marie Louise -Russia withdrew from the Continental System in 1810 and prepared for war -Napoleon invades Russia in 1812 in early summer, late spring expecting to defeat Alexander within 6 months -Napoleon's army consisted of 600,000 men while the Russians only had about 160,000 troops -Russians would retreat before Napoleon advanced following a "scorched-earth" policy where they destroyed all food and supplies as they retreated leaving Napoleon's men with nothing to live off -terrible rains, fierce heat, shortages of food and water, and the courage of the Russian rear guard destroyed the morale of Napoleon's army -the Battle of Borodino would be the only battle in the campaign and was regarded as the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic era costing the French 30,000 men and Russians 60,000 men -Russian army was not yet destroyed after battle -Alexander burns Moscow as the Russians retreat depriving the French troops of food, fuel, and housing -Napoleon and his Grand Armée were left far from the border lacking adequate supplies as the Russian winter came in -Typhus (disease), Russian winter, and sporadic attacks killed thousands of men forcing Napoleon to retreat -Napoleon loses over 400,000 to 500,000 troops and most of his cavalry -another coalition against France forms

James Watt (1736-1819)

-Scottish engineer who experimented with the Newcomen engine at the University of Glasgow -he discovered that it increased efficiency by separating the condenser from the piston and cylinder -Matthew Boulton, a toy and button manufacturer, along with John Wilkinson, a cannon manufacturer, provided the precise metal work needed to support his design

Theologico-Political Treatise (1670)

-Spinoza attacked the power of superstition in human life -encouraged historical readings of the Bible, for he believed that the Bible should be used as a source of Moral guidelines, not rational knowledge -taught that religious institutions of Christianity and Judaism led people away from the original teaching of scripture

Ethics

-Spinoza closely identified God and nature, a pantheistic idea that God is not a distinct personality, but rather present everywhere in nature -in this he believed in pantheism and monism

Major Themes of the Scientific Revolution

-Spirit of Inquiry (people have been questioning traditional theories and traditional authorities) -Emphasis on Rationalism -Reaction from Traditional Authorities

Jacques Necker (1732-1804)

-Swiss banker -appointed as the new director-general of finances (chief finance minister) in France in 1781 by Louis XVI -he is loved by the aristocrats and bourgeoisie -publishes a report about France's finances in 1781 -was pressured to leave office after the Necker report because the aristocrats were embarrassed by his report

Constitution of 1791

-The National Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy -National Constituent Assembly became the Legislative Assembly -limited Louis XVI's power and made him a constitutional monarch -major political authority of the nation would be a single legislative chamber

Factors that fostered the ideas of the Enlightenment

-The Newtonian worldview -The political stability and commercial prosperity in Great Britain after 1688 -The need for administrative and economic reform after the wars of Louis XIV -the consolidation of what is known as a print culture -rise of public opinion

Traditional view of the universe

-There are 3 sources used to view the universe: Bible, Aristotle, and Ptolemy -Aristotle's theory which forms the backbone of the people's knowledge of the world: •Everything in Heaven has to be perfect and it cannot be changed and since God is in Heaven, he is perfect (the sun is also in Heaven) •Everything in the firmament is semi-perfect (Angels, Planets, and the stars) •Earth is semi-flawed •Everything in Hell is perfectly flawed •a circle is a perfect shape

Europeans and Islam

-There were Muslims in the Balkans in Eastern Europe -European merchants traded with the Ottoman Empire and parts of South Africa -Everything that Europeans knew about Islam they gathered from books -the religious works of Christian missionaries, histories, and the reports of travelers were often hostile toward Islam and was deeply misleading -Islam was viewed as a rival to Christianity -Pascal wrote Pensees where he portrayed Islam as a false religion and Muhammed as an imposter and false prophet -islamic culture was criticized for promiscuity for they described heaven as a place of sensuous delights -there were writers such as Barthelemy d'Herbelot and Simon Ockley who presented a hostile view toward Islam in their works -Voltaire expressed his opinions about Islam in his tragedy called Fanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet (1742) -some enlightenment writers spoke favorably of the Islamic faith such as Deist John Toland, who opposed to prejudice against both Jews and Muslims and contended that Islam derived from early Christian writings and was thus a form of Christianity, however his views offended many and became known as a "Mohametan" Christian -Edward Gibbon was another enlightenment writer who spoke favorably of the Islamic faith by respectfully writing about Muhammad's leadership and Islam's success in conquering a vast amount of territory in the 1st century -Philosophes such as Montesquieu criticized Islam on cultural and political grounds

Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768)

-a German archaeologist -published Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture and The History of Ancient Art (1764) -in both works he attacked the superficiality of Rocco art with the seriousness of ancient art and architecture -helped foster the rise of Neoclassicism with his books

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

-a Scottish economist and writer -he was a professor at the University of Glasgow -considered to be the father of modern capitalism -published Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

Print Culture

-a culture in which books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets had achieved a status of their own -it impacted Renaissance humanism and the Reformation -a lively world of publication emerged first in the 17th century -many governments implemented strict censorship rules against this

Cult of the Supreme Being (1794)

-a deistic cult that reflects Rousseau's vision of a civi religion that would bring about morality among citizens -it abolishes God and it worships reason -Robespierre became head of this new religion

The Directory

-a five member council that leans towards more moderate policies -members were chosen by the Elders who would select from a list submitted by the lower council of 500 -royalists became a threat to them because they wanted to restore the Bourbon monarchs -incumbents were replaced with constitutional monarchists and their sympathizers during the spring elections of 1797 -staged a coup d'état on September 4, 1797

Servants in households in northwestern pre-industrial Europe

-a man or a women, usually young, who was hired to work for the head of a household in exchange for room, board, and wages -normally, they sat with the family at dinner and became an integral part of the family -working as a servant for 8-10 years gave young men and women an opportunity to save their wages to start their own households

Levée en Masse (1793)

-a mass military conscription on the entire population of France -conscripted males into the army -directed economic production to military purposes -makes the entire country mobilized for war

August Decrees (August 4, 1789)

-a meeting called by the National Constituent Assembly in order to bring a halt to the riots in the countryside -liberal nobles and clerics renounced their hierarchal privileges such as hunting and fishing rights, judicial authority, and legal exemptions -would bring equality under the law for all French citizens

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

-a meeting of European powers in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat -the 5 main powers were Austria (Clemens von Metternich), United Kingdom (Viscont Castlereagh), Russia (Alexander I), Prussia (Frederick William III), and later on France (Murice Talleyrand) -there were 3 objectives in this meeting: preservation of peace, determining the fate of France, and reducing the influence of the French Revolution -Austria, UK, Russia, and Prussia all agreed that one nation should not rise to a position of domination so they decided to increase the strength of the states surrounding France to provide a balance of power -Confederation of the Rhine becomes the German confederation -Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium and Luxembourg) were established to the north, Piedmont received Genoa, Prussia was given territories along the Rhine River, Austria gained full control of northern Italy and controlled the greater portion of the Confederation of the Rhine -does not want to punish France because it would disrupt the preservation of peace -Alexander I of Russia is just as ambitious as Napoleon -Alexander I wants all of Poland under his control, Prussia is willing to give it to him if they receive Saxony, however Austria was unwilling to surrender its portion of Poland creating a problem between the 3 powers -Talleyrand provided a solution for Eastern Europe; he suggested that Britain, Austria, and France enter an alliance and demand that Alexander except the proposal -Russia agreed to rule over a smaller Poland and Prussia settled for part of Saxony, France was still kept strong in the event that Russia becomes too powerful -Quadruple Alliance turns into a 5 Alliance -members agree to stifle, reduce, and crush any degree of revolutionary liberalism in any place -also agree to meet with each other -created long lasting peace in Europe allowing Europe to focus on other things like the Industrial Revolution

joint-stock company

-a pool of investors where they see parts of the world that they want to colonize in order to get resources -had to receive a charter from the government in order to go to countries that they wanted to colonize in exchange for a cut of the profit -government sanctioned not government aligned -ex) BEIC, FEIC, DEIC

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

-a sea battle between France and Great Britain -British admiral Horiato Nelson destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets, but died in battle and says "Thank God I have done my duty" -Napoleon is unable to defeat Great Britain -this battle ended all French hope of invading Britain -ensured that Britain would be able to maintain its opposition to France for the duration of the war -battle gave Great Britain supremacy on the sea as well as naval domination in global commercial shipping and a reputation for being undefeatable in military confrontation -foreshadowed Napoleon's ultimate defeat

women's role in the family economy

-a women's life experience was dependent on how well she was able to establish and maintain a household -outside a household, women were rarely able to support themselves by their own efforts -having and rearing kids were subordinate to a woman's need to remain part of a household

Enlightened Despots

-absolute rulers who were influenced by Enlightened thought -they were still absolutist rulers, however they applied Enlightenment ideas to their ruling policies -Voltaire was a strong monarchist whose ideas rulers favored over Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu -believed in the Enlightenment ideas surrounding speech, religion, and ownership of property -examples of these were Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia

Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881)

-advocated the use of terror and the development of a professional revolutionary army to attack capitalist society

War of the Sixth Coalition

-after Napoleon's defeat in Russia, none of the European powers were eager to fight another war against France -Austrian foreign minister Prince Clemens von Metternich would rather see Napoleon remain the leader of a shrunken, less powerful France than to see Russia dominate Europe, however Napoleon rejected the solution -the last and most powerful coalition formed against Napoleon consisting of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain -Napoleon's new army was inexperienced and poorly equipped, his generals lost confidence in him and were tired, Napoleon as well was worn out and sick -France defeated coalition at Dresden, but in October the coalition defeated Napoleon at Leipzig in what the Germans called the Battle of the nations -In March 1814, the coalition marched into Paris and Napoleon addicted and went into exile on the island of Elba -France would be ruled by Louis XVIII

life of a young girl in the family economy

-age 7:begins to care for the house of her parents -continues to work in her own house unless her labor elsewhere was not financially beneficial to the family -artisan's daughter would not leave home until marriage -in a large family where her labor wasn't vital, she left at age 12-14 -if a teenage girl left home, her goal was to raise enough capital for a dowry -a wife was expected to make an immediate financial contribution to starting a household at marriage and, as a result, age of marriage was late as it often took 10 years for a young woman to accumulate the necessary wealth

Concordat 1801

-agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII -required that both the refractory clergy and those who accepted the revolution to resign -replacements received their spiritual investiture from the pope, but the state named the bishops and paid their salaries and the salary of one priest in each parish -clergy had to swear n other of loyalty to the state -re-officially makes Catholicism the official religion of France

Germany's government policies based on classical economics

-all the major states (excluding Austria) formed the Zollverein (free trade union) -economist Friedrich List (1789-1846) supported the economic union

village and rural households in the family economy

-almost everyone was part of a household in pre-industrial Europe as it was difficult to survive on your own and those who lived out on their own were viewed as suspicious -the need to survive, poor harvest, winters, and economic slumps required that everyone in the household contribute -few families in western Europe had enough land to support their families from farming alone

George Danton

-along same lines as Robespierre -very charismatic -very good art leading an army

Voltaire (1694-1778)

-also known as François-Marie Arouet -influenced by the British because in the 1720s, he offended the French king and aristocrats by his socially and politically irreverent poetry and plays and was imprisoned in Bastille, then was released and went into exile in England where he visited coffeehouses and saw a tolerant English society in 1726 -advocated for religious toleration, however he hated the Catholic Church because it promotes religious intolerance, fanaticism, and etc, he said "crush the infamous thing" referring to the Catholic Church, he criticized the irrational act of witch trials, described religious fanaticism as an incurable disease and the only cure for it is death -advocated for the freedom of speech and said "I may disagree with what you have to say but I will defend to the death what you have to say" -returned to France in 1728 and published Letters on the English in 1733 -published Elements of the Philosophy of Newton with the help of the brilliant mathematician, Countess Emilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) in 1738, which popularized the thought of Newton across the continent -In 1742, he argued that Islam in general represents another example of religious fanaticism like that of Christianity in his tragedy, Fanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet -published Candide in 1759 and Treatise on Toleration in 1763 -questioned the truthfulness of priests and the morality of the Bible in his Philosophical Dictionary of 1764 -believed that human society could and should be improved, but he was never certain that reform, if achieved would be permanent -was the most influential French thinker -stayed at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia in Berlin for 3 years -his extremely popular plays, essays, histories, and stories along his far-flung correspondence made him the literary dictator of Europe

Napoleonic Code (1804)

-also known as the Civil Code of 1804 -Napoleon's filtered version of revolutionary ideas -codified laws in France regardless of social class -protected all forms of property -all privileges based on birth remained abolished -workers' organizations remained forbidden -workers had fewer rights than their employers -faters were granted extensive control over their children and husbands over their wives -the right of an eldest son to inherit most or all of his parents' property remained abolished -property was distributed among all children male and female -married women needed their husbands' consent to dispose of their own property -divorce was still more difficult for women than for men -abolished the old tax system and makes equal taxes -is imposed on all of Napoleon's Empire

Jews in Europe

-although small Jewish communities in Amsterdam and other Western European cities became famous for their intellectual like and financial institutions, most European Jews lived in Eastern Europe -Europe's Jewish population was concentrated in Poland, Lithuania, and Ukraine where no fewer than three million Jews lived -about 150,000 Jews lived in Habsburg lands, primarily Bohemia -fewer than 100,000 Jews lived in Germany -France had approximately 40,000 Jews -Catherine the Great specifically excluded Jews from a manifesto that welcomed foreigners to settle in Russia -after the first partition of Poland in 1772, the Russian Empire included a large number of Jews -Jews in most European nations did not enjoy the rights of citizens -oftentimes Jews were segregated in communities called ghettos but often times enjoyed a considerable degree of political autonomy within their own ghettos -court jews -most European Jews lived in poverty

Neoclassicism

-an 18th century European art and architecture style that and embodied a return to figurative and architectural models drawn from the Renaissance and the ancient world and it usually had to do with public lives or public morals and scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice -Winckelmann's books and the simultaneous rediscovery and partial excavation of Italy fostered the rise of this

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

-an Englishman who worked as a a lawyer, a high royal officer, wrote history, moral essays, and philosophical discourses -advocated experimentations in science (empiricism) -known as the father of empiricism and experimentation in science -his real accomplishment: setting an intellectual tone and helping create a climate conducive to scientific work -he perfected the scientific method -attacked humanist teachings that the pinnacle of human achievement was in the past (argues that the peak of human achievement is in the present) -In The Advancement of Learning (1605), the Nom Organum (1620), and The New Atlantis (1627), he attacks the scholastic belief that most truth had been discovered and one required explanation -attacked the old scholastic method of learning -believed that many scholastics paid too much attention to tradition and classics -he encouraged scientists to blaze new trails in their understanding of nature -believed human knowledge should produce deeds rather than words -he encouraged the application of knowledge to the improvement of the human condition -he linked science and material progress -influenced monarchs and governments as he encouraged leaders to use new knowledge to increase the efficiency and productivity of government -believed there were 2 books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

-an Enlightenment thinker, however was different from others because he thought humans should learn things when they eel they need to (don't teach people, let them teach themselves) -he emphasized role of reason and emotion in the decision making process -he was described as a strange, isolated genius who never felt comfortable with the other philosophes -he produced and abandoned numerous children -he hated the world because he believed that it was impossible for human beings to achieve moral or virtuous lives in the commercial society in which they lived -his major works were Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750), Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), Emile (1762) and The Social Contract (1762) -believed that civilized man was corrupted -believed that unhappiness derives from luxury -his genealogy of history was that man is a lazy beast and that corruption of man is due to private property

Rococo

-an European art and architecture style that originated in the early 18th century France and embraced lavish, often lighthearted decoration with an emphasis on pastel colors and the play of light -it spread throughout Europe -the most spectacular representations of this style is the Imperial Hall built in Wurzburg, Barvaria, which was designed by Balthasar Neumann and painted by Venetian Gian Battista Tiepolo -the common themes in this are fetes galantes, which are scenes of elegant parties in lush gardens idealizing landscape with carefree men and women pursuing a life of leisure -artist included Jean-Antinone Watteau, Boucher, and Jean-Honore Fragonard -it convinced many people in France that the monarchy of the court and aristocracy were decadent -Johann Joachim Winckelmann criticized this style of art and architecture

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

-an Italian aristocrat and philosophe -published On Crimes and Punishment in 1764 -applied the study of social science to criminal punishment -believed in utilitarianism

René Maupeou (1714-1792)

-appointed by Louis XV in 1770 as chancellor -he was determined to increase taxes on the nobility -he abolished the parlements and exiled members to other parts of country -began program to make the administration more efficient -Louis XV would die in 1774 of smallpox and Louis XVI, his successor would dismiss him

Étienne Charles Loménie de Brienne (1727-1794)

-archbishop of Toulouse -Louis XVI appointed him as the minister of finance replacing Calonne -he saw that the financial situation of France was bad -sought to reform the land tax, but Parlement of Paris did not allow him to do so -he appealed to the Assembly of the Clergy for financial support, however the clergy (mostly aristocrats) refused to loan the monarchy and reduced the don gratuity that the clergy paid to the government in the form of taxes -he resigned and was replaced by Necker

John Ray's The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation (1690)

-argued that God wanted human beings to first understand the work, then turn this knowledge into productive practical use through rationality -people came to believe that God wanted human beings to improve the world -provided a religious justification for the processes of economic improvement that would characterize the 18th century

Calling of the Estates General (1789)

-aristocrats wanted the monarchy to restore their privileges, bankers refused to loan the government money in the summer of 1788 -meets for the first tie since 1614 -called because of the political deadlock between the French monarchy and the interests of the aristocracy and the clergy -broken into 3 groups: The First Estate, The Second Estate, and The Third Estate -all representatives were men -each came with a list of grievances

Life of Artisan in Guild

-at an early age, a boy might become an apprentice to learn a craft -after several years he would become a journeyman -still later, if he proves skillful, he may become a master

upper classes in cities

-at the top of urban social structure sat small groups of nobles, large merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy, and government officials -they constituted a self-ruling oligarchy that governed the cities -a royal charter usually gave the city corporation its authority and ability to select its own members -some guilds controlled the cities on the continent but usually the wealthiest nobles in the area did

Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791)

-at this point the revolution was becoming more radical -Louis XVI still had authority however he hates all of the changes that he is forced to sign -is telling France that he is pro revolution even though he is not -the royal family disguised as servants and left Paris -their goal was to get to Metz in eastern France where a royalist military force was waiting for them -they made it as far as Varennes, however while at a tavern Louis is recognized by a member of the National Guard -was escorted by the National Guard back to Paris on June 24 -Louis XVI was now seen as the chief counterrevolutionary in France -many believed this signified that Louis XVI was a traitor -there was now a great amount of distrust after this event

Low literary culture

-authors who did not find financial success or acceptance from the upper upper rank of society -their lack of success led these lesser writers to produce radical ideas for consumption of the lower classes

Baroque Art

-baroque was the style associated with 17th century paintings, sculptures, and architecture -artists depict subjects in a more naturalistic way rather than an idealized manner -faith and interest in nature paralleled the new science and understanding of the natural world -deeper understanding of human anatomy -baroque artists included Michelangelo Caravaggio (Italian), Louis LeNain (Dutch), and Gian Lorenzo Bernini -became associated with Roman Catholicism and absolutism -painters portrayed biblical scenes from the lives of saints, which were intended to instruct the observer in religious truths -King Charles I of England ruled in 1630s hired the Roman Catholic Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens to decorate the ceiling of Banqueting Hall at his palace in London -Louis XIV's palace of Versailles contains the most elaborate monument that symbolizes political absolutism: decorated with dramatic paintings of Louis as the Sun King and his Hall of Mirrors, both representing his power

Political Riots

-became much more common near the end of the 18th century but rarely had artisan leaders -political riots were often ignited by the upper classes who relied on rowdy crowds to influence disputes they were having with the monarchy -in Geneva, middle-class citizens supported artisan riots against the local oligarchy -in Great Britain in 1792, the government incited mobs to attack English sympathizers of the French Rev

Continental System

-because Napoleon could not compete with the British navy, he planned to cut off all British trade with the European continent in order to cripple British commercial and financial power -Napoleon hoped to cause domestic unrest and drive Britain from the war -Berlin Decree and Milan Decree -he forced other European nations to enforce an embargo on Great Britain -closed every port in Europe to English trade -Great Britain responded with the Orders of Council -British economy survived due to their access to the growing markets of North and South America and eastern Mediterranean -Because Napoleon rejected advice to turn his empire into a free-trade area, European economies were badly hurt -people were starving as economies went down leading to countries in empire smuggling -lead to the Peninsular War

Family in Early Factory System

-before the late 18th century revolution in textile production, individual ones were the chief units of production in the industry -initially, machinery was brought into the home to speed up production -in the domestic system, mother and father worked alongside their children who they taught the craft -home and economic life were largely the same

Increase in Population

-beginning in the 18th century there was a steady increase of population (1700-110,000,000 1800-50,260,000,000) -positive process that developed due to a rising population -need to feed population caused food prices to rise -this spurred innovation in agriculture to meet the demand -death rate drastically declined in urban and rural areas -few wars and little disease in the 18th century -introduction of the potato (a crop found in the New World) -on a single acre, a peasant family could produce enough potatoes to sustain itself for a year -this created new demands for food, jobs, and services and left many rural people with employment; this led to a migration to cities

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

-believed that economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system -urged that the mercantile system in England, including the navigation acts governing colonial trade, the bounties the government gave to favored merchants industries, most tariffs, trading monopolies, and the domestic regulation of labor and manufacturing, be abolished -Smith disagreed with the mercantilist assumption that the Earth's resources were limited or scarce, but rather that they were boundless and that they should be exploited to improve human comfort -believed that the best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economist interests -his key ideas in this were laissez-faire and the idea of a four-stage theory of human society

Marxism

-believes every single event in history is tied to economics -highly appealing to the working class (proletariat) -Stages of History (his plan) -tied history to economics

Witchcraft and Witch-hunts

-between the years 1400 and 1700, courts sentenced an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 people to death for harmful magic (maleficium) and diabolical witchcraft -arose out of a pathological fear of women and black magic -80% of the victims of these were women -Widows, midwives, and women healers and herbalists were the three main groups of women targeted -accused of attending mass meetings known as sabbats and participating in sexual orgies with the devil (who appeared in animal form), as well as cannibalism (believed that they ate small Christian children) -believed to be able to fly -panic arose because of religious division, the belief that the Protestant Reformation took away traditional safeguards against devils and demons, and political consolidation leading rulers to eliminate potential rivalries to their loyalty in their realms

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

-born in 1769 to a poor family of lesser nobility on the Mediterranean island of Corsica -because France had annexed Corsica in 1768, Napoleon's father secured Napoleon a spot in a French military school -his mother was abusive, however he loved his mother and hated his father -he could not stand his French classmates in military school and hated the privileges the nobles in France got -favored the revolution and was a Jacobin -he had a brilliant military mind -trained in artillery in military school and in 1785 he obtained a commission as a French artillery officer -he rises in military rank through France's meritocracy system -played a leading role in recovering the port of Toulon from the British in 1793 and was appointed as a brigadier general -commanded the French army in Italy -would save the Directory from royalist mobs during the Thermidorian Reaction -later on would overthrow the Directory and rule as an absolute ruler

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

-born in Germany in the Prussian Rhineland -his family was Jewish but his father had converted to Lutheranism -middle-class family sent him to the University of Berlin where he was exposed to Hegelian philosophy and radical politics -most influential socialist -"The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.": the more things change, the more things stay the same -Marxism

middle class in cities

-bourgeoisie -division as the many lower-middle class people resented those of the upper-middle class -characterized as willing to get involved in entrepreneurial activities and investment unlike the idle nobility -members of this class were among Europe's leading consumers -artisans

Effects of the Father passing in Family Economy

-brought disaster to a family -widow might take over the farm or the business, or his children may do so -widow's sought to remarry quickly -high mortality rates meant that many households were reconstituted second families that included stepchildren and family widows who became dependent on relatives -children became dependent and therefore entered the workforce at an earlier age

Work for Women

-by 1850, less than half of all women employed in England/France worked in factories (France-majority in agriculture, England-majority are domestic servants) -cottage industry: lace-making, glove making, garment making, and all kinds of needlework employed women in the mid 19th century -all work by women commanded low wages and involved low skills -for example, a charwoman was hired by the day to do rough house cleaning and washing -many women resorted to prostitution -Louise Aston (1814-1871) wrote a poem about exploitation of women

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

-challenged the Ptolemaic picture in the most conservative manner possible -provided an alternative model for the geocentric model (Ptolemaic system) and Aristotelian Physics -adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model, but transferred them to a heliocentric model (the sun is at the center of the universe) -his model kept epicycles and retrograde motion of the planets was now explained as a result of an optical illusion that came about because people were observing them from Earth -argued that the farther the planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it, therefore making it easier to determine the order of the planets

Childhood in Northwestern Europe

-children lived with their parents until their early teens when they would typically leave home to find work as young servants and would live in their master's household -a child of a skilled artisan may stay home to learn a valuable skill

Passive Citizens

-citizens who did not pay the annual taxes -were not able to vote in elections -women could only be this type of citizen

factory discipline

-closing of factory gates to late workers, fines for lateness, dismissal for drunkenness, and public scolding -they faired economically better than textile workers who resisted the factory mode of production

Assembly of Notables (1787)

-committee nominated by the royal ministry from the upper ranks of the aristocracy and the church -assembly refused to give their support to Calonne -they did not trust him and called for the reappointment of Necker -the assembly refused to tax the nobles and clergy claiming that only the Estates General could give the monarchy approval to institute new taxes

English Factory Act of 1833

-concern for child labor -forbade employment of children under age 9 -limited working hours for children from 9-13 to nine-hour days -required factory owners to pay for two hours of education per day -education requirement began the process of removing education from the home and family to a school -in 1847, Parliament mandated a 10-hour work day for adults

domestic duties of a woman

-concerned primarily with food and cooking -managed family's finances -created the environment to which the other members returned after work

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

-conducted and financed experiments himself to improve farming methods -created the seed drill -improved farming by first using plows to turn the earth more deeply and planting wheat by drill rather than just casting seeds -his methods permitted land to be cultivated for longer periods without having to leave it fallow

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)

-considered as Napoleon's masterpiece and greatest victory -Napoleon defeated the combined Austrian and Russian forces while outnumbered 2 to 1 -lead to the Treaty of Pressburg where Austria would surrender its Italian possessions to France and Napoleon becomes recognized as king of Italy

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

-considered to be the father of modern philosophy -top-notch mathematician who invented analytic geometry -developed a scientific method that relied more on deduction than empirical observation and induction -was given a Jesuit education, but is familiar with the works of the Scholastics -"I think therefore I am" or "Cogito ergo sum", which basically says to doubt everything -argues that we have to exist because if you are doubting you existence, then you are thinking about you existence, therefore you exist -published Discourse on Method in 1637 and Meditations on First Philosophy in 1641 -believes in the divinity of the mind: the most divine part of us is our mind -the mind is divine, the body is not -reason is divine because it comes from the only thing in humans that is divine -God is essential for his philosophy: Cartesian Circle

Third Estate

-consisted of 3 groups: Bourgeoisie (educated, non-nobles), working class laborers, and peasants -made up 97% of the population -owned 40% of the land -paid 50% of their income in taxes and 10% of a taille -the Bourgeoisie represented them at the Estates General, they distrusted the nobility, but feared the lower classes -at the Estates General representatives from this estate made it clear that they would not allow the monarchy and the aristocracy to decided the future of France

Household in Northwestern Europe

-consisted of a married couple, their children through the early teenage years, and their servants -households usually consisted of 5-6 members -due to high mortality and late marriage, grandparents rarely survived to live under the same roofs as their grandchildren -nuclear family structure

September Massacres (1792)

-continual point into descent to radicalism -the Parisian crowd rose again to action by summarily executing or murdering about 1,200 people who were in the city jails -some of these prisoners were aristocrats or priests but most were just common criminals -crowd mistakenly assumed that the prisoners were all counterrevolutionaries -lasted for two days -was a polarizing event for the rest of the world

Spinning Jenny (1764)

-cotton textile weavers had the technical capacity to produce the quantity of fabric demanded -the spinners did not have the equipment to produce as much thread as the weavers needed -James Hargreaves invented this that could allow up to 120 spindles of thread to be spun

Reform in the British Prison System

-criminals convicted of serious offences were transported to the colony of New South Wales in Australia which was an alternative to capital punishment -The French gov in 1885 started to send criminals to Devil's Island off the coast of South America -John Howard (1726-1790) and Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) in England, and Charles Lucas (1803-1889) in France exposed horrendous conditions in prisons and demanded change

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

-designed and oversaw the construction of the great tabernacle beneath St. Peter's Basilica's towering dome over the space where St. Peter is said to be buried -behind tabernacle, he designed a monument to papal authority known as the chair of St. Peter -he created a sculpture of the Spanish mystic St. Teresea of Avila in the Church of Santa Maria de la Vittoria in Rome

segregation between urban poor and rich

-different communities -aristocrats and members of the upper middle class lived in fashionable townhouses, often constructed around laid-out green squares -poorest town dwellers usually congregated along the rivers -small merchants and artisans lived above their shops

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

-discovers cells with a microscope -discovers that their fundamental make up is what cannot see (microorganisms) -discovers Germ theory which is that diseases are caused by germs

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

-discovers the cause of planetary motion and established a foundation for the study of modern physics -publishes The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, otherwise known as Principia Mathematica in 1687 -believed in empiricism -opposed the idea of rationalism supported by Rene Descartes for he believed that it was insufficient guards against error -his work eliminates God from the universe -believed the universe to be rational for it can be explained using math -proposes that the universe runs on its own

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)

-documents published by the National Constituent Assembly stating the broad political principles of their organization -it reflected several enlightenment ideas -stated that all men were "born and remain free and equal in rights" -natural rights proclaimed were "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression" -all political sovereignty laid in the nation and its representatives -all citizens were to be equal before the law -due process of the law and presumption of innocence until proven guilty -freedom of religion was reaffirmed -taxation was to be distributed equally according to the amount of income -property constituted "an inviolable and sacred right" -was directed against the abuses of the old French monarchical and aristocratic regime -used universal language applicable across national borders -applied specifically to men, not women

Rise of Public Opinion

-due to the collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and it became discussed at home, in the workplace, and in centers of leisure -books and newspapers in the 18th century had thousands of readers who supported the writers who wrote the books they bought and the writers in return only had to answer to their readers -people began to have opinions about religious and governmental affairs -therefore governments began to have a hard time governing in secret

Court Jews

-during the 17th century some Jewish financiers funded wars for major rulers and developed close professional relationship with them and received this nickname -Samuel Oppenheimer, a Jewish Banker, financed the Habsburg struggle against the Turks and the defense of Vienna

Early Socialism

-during the 20th century, the socialist movement constituted one of the major political forces in Europe but at the beginning of the 19th century, advocates of socialism lacked any meaningful political following -early socialist supported the expansion of industrial production but they did not think the free market could function properly and that the community's resources needed oversight and management

Robert Owen (1771-1858)

-early British socialist -became a partner in the largest cotton factory in Britain at New Lanark, Scotland

Traditional household in Eastern Europe

-early marriage -landlords influence over the institution of marriage -frequently, a rural Russian one would consist of more than 9 people and sometimes nearly 20 -there were sometimes more than 4 generations living together in a household as a result of the young age of marriage -both men and women usually married before the age of 20 -often, the wife was older than the husband -in Russia, this did not involve starting a new household but rather expanding one already established

Utopian Socialism

-early socialists were considered this because they called for ideal communities and their views were thought of as visionary -some early socialists advocated free love and open family relationships which was off-putting to many -propose that society should move in a different way to improve the working class -believe that government should play a larger role -very idealistic -did not provide a plan -have liberal views on sexuality

life for a married woman in the family economy

-earning enough money or producing agricultural products was the primary concern -birth control was common as couples tried to limit the number of children through the practice of "coitus interruptus" (the withdrawal of the male before ejaculation)

Constitution of the Year VIII

-economic problems in France and a dangerous international led the Directory to propose a new constitution -Abbé Siéyès was one of the directors wanted a strong executive body independent from electoral politics, a government based on the principle of "confidence from below, power from above" -this change required another coup d'état with military support so Napoleon left Egypt, returned to France, and aligned himself with Siéyès -Siéyès thought that Napoleon would remove himself from politics after securing the coup, however Napoleon pushed Siéyès aside -the constitution divided executive power among three consuls where the first consul was given supreme authority (Napoleon took this title) -it promoted universal male suffrage -it included a complicated system of checks and balances

Utilitarianism

-economic system which advocates the right course of action that one produces the most happiness and reduces the most suffering

Arthur Young (1741-1820)

-edited "Annals of Agriculture" which was a collection of essays on cutting edge agricultural methods

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

-editor of the first Encyclopedia -he criticized European expansion across the world -believed that human beings may develop distinct cultures possessing intrinsic values that cannot be compared, one to the detriment of another because each culture possesses deep inner social and linguistic complexities

Treaty of Paris (1763)

-ended the Seven Years War -disastrous for France because Great Britain receives all of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and all the fur that both territories come with -France is forced to sell their main joint-stock company (BEIC) -Prussia gets to keep Silesia and the HRE power is reduced

Third Coalition

-established by prime minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger -consisted of Russia, Austria, and Great Britain

mechanization of weaving

-father became a machine weaver first in the household, then left pursue work in a factory -structure of early English factories allowed the father to preserve certain traditional family roles -for example, factory supervisors allowed fathers to employ their wives and children as helpers in the factory -spinning and weaving put under one roof -size of factories and machinery grew and fewer technicians were needed to operate the machinery -unskilled labor positions were given to women and children who were paid lower wages -men were now supervising women and children to whom they were not related

Josiah Wedgewood

-first attempted to find consumers among the royal family and the aristocracy to set a trend; after they purchased his products, he made an inexpensive version of the chinaware for the middle-class consumers

Railways

-first great age of building these took place from the 1830s to 1840s -Stockton and Darlington Line opened in England in 1825 -by 1830, another major train line had been built between Manchester and Liverpool -Belgium began constructing these by 1835, France in 1832, and Germany in 1835 -represented investment in capital goods rather than consumer goods -increased demand for steel and iron as well as a more skilled labor force -people were freer than ever before to leave their place of birth easily

Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

-first scientist to use a microscope

Industrialization in England

-first to industrialize -London was the center of the world of fashion and taste -people learned what to want while on business trips or pleasure excursions to London -social structure of Britain encouraged people to imitate the lifestyle of their social superiors -the British had good roads and waterways which did not charge tolls -British taxes-unlike most of the Continent-were legally approved through Parliament and all social classes and regions paid the same rate -British society offered social mobility through hard work and making wise decisions

Agricultural Revolution

-food supply was never certain and the farther east one traveled, the less stable it was -people in the countryside were more concerned with the food supply than city-dwellers, as municipal city govs frequently stored emergency reserves of grain -limited food supply cause a rise in prices that the poor couldn't withstand and had to rely on charity for survival -bread prices rose throughout the 18th century because of the growing population which benefitted the landlords -with better financial situations, landlords in western Europe began a series of innovations in farm production that became known as this

Chapelier Law (June 14, 1791)

-forbade workers' organizations because they reflected the guilds of the Old Regime -labor organizations opposed the new values of the revolution like political and social individualism

National Convention (September 21, 1792)

-formerly the Legislative Assembly -there was victory on the battlefield -the first act passed by the convention was declaring France a republic that is a nation governed by an elected assembly without a monarch

The Encyclopedia

-founded by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) -it was a collection of essays and compilation of human knowledge -there were over 100 contributors -contained seventeen volumes of texts and eleven of illustrations -between 14,000 and 16,000 copies were sold before the year 1789 -it promoted enlightenment ideas and succeeded in spreading them throughout Europe -the first volume appeared in 1751 -shows the determination of the enlightenment movement to probe life on earth rather than in a religious realm -considered to be a collective lea for freedom of expression -it was critical of ecclesiastical institutions and authoritative governments -contained articles about manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, and improved agricultural methods

artisans reaction to industrialization

-from the 1830s onward, artisans took the lead in attempting to formulate new ways to protect their economic and social interests

Eastern European family economy

-functioned in the context of serfdom and landlord domination -far fewer merchant and artisan households -dependence on the available land was the chief fact of life

Salons

-gatherings held at private residences of wealthy women -it was a sanctuary for the diffusion of ideas opened up by Parisian women where philosopher met to discuss their intellectual ideas -it allowed the ideas to flourish despite government efforts to stop it

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji (1774)

-gave Russia control of the Black Sea, free navigation rights in Ottoman waters, and free access through the Bosphorus -Crimea became an independent state, which Catherine would annex in 1783 -As empress of Russia, Catherine was made the protector of the Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

-genius -wrote On Liberty -Government should act not only to maximize happiness but the RIGHT kind of happiness -Government should impose policies that create higher pleasures like schooling -Government should play a more active role in governing society and economy

assignats

-government bonds issued by the revolutionary government that is based on the future revenue of the selling of church lands -value was guaranteed by the revenue expected to be generated from the sale of the church property -began to be used as currency -assembly then decided to issue a larger number of them in order to pay off the national debt which led to the value of it decreasing and inflation increasing

Committee of Public Safety

-group of people who sentenced people to prison or death by the guillotine -all revolutionary leaders who served in this were convinced republicans who had long opposed the policies of the Girondists -saw their task as saving the revolution from mortal enemies at home and abroad -enjoyed a working political relationship with the san-cullottés of Paris

Crisis of French Monarchy

-has a reputation of heavy spending -the loss of important territories in the New World after the Seven Years War led to bankruptcy of the treasury -on the eve of the revolution, the interest and payments on the royal debt equaled more than one-half of the entire budget -also had an unsustainable privilege system where nobles paid zero taxes and had a lot of power -monarchy is having trouble finding adequate revenues leading to conflict between aristocratic and ecclesiastical institutions -Louis XVI wants to start taxing the First and Second Estate but is blocked by the Parlement of Paris and provincial parlements -Louis XV and Louis XVI lacked the character and political skills to dissolve problems with aristocracy, therefore debt and aristocratic resistance to change grew and the monarchy hesitated, retreated, and lied -Louis XVI forced to meet with Estates General to discuss financial problems

Children in Wage Economy

-having a lot of kids was considered an economic asset to the family in the industrial wage economy because they were sent to work while the woman stayed home

Johann Gottlieb Herder (1744-1803)

-he believed that the people who Europeans had encountered in the Americas had possessed cultures that should be respected and understood rather than destroyed -he embraced cultural relativism

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

-he studied under Brahe and was given his data when he died -was a firm believer of the heliocentric theory -using Brahe's models, he concluded that planets revolves in elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits -published "The New Astronomy" in 1609

Growth of Cities

-in 1500, only 156 cities had populations of over 10,000, and only four of those cities (Paris, Milan, Venice, and Naples) had populations over 100,000 -by 1800, 363 cities had 10,000 or more inhabitants, and 17 of them had populations larger than 100,000 -a major shift in urban concentration from southern, Mediterranean Europe to the north has also occurred

Religious Riots

-in 1753, in London, Protestant mobs compelled the government to withdraw an act to legalize Jewish naturalization -gordon riots

middle class' relationship with the nobility

-in England and France, the nobles increasingly embraced the commercial spirit -wealthy members of the middle class tried to imitate the lifestyle of the nobility -upper-middle class professionals found social mobility frustrating since they frequently found their quest for prosperity and social prestige blocked by the privileges of the nobility -monarchical bureaucracies-controlled by the nobility-were viewed as ineffective by the bourgeoisie -middle class viewed the lower urban classes as violent and a threat to their property

Limited improvements in Eastern Europe

-in Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Poland, agricultural improvement was limited -landlords or their agents directed farm management rather than the villages in an effort to squeeze more labor from the serfs -the only notable achievement was the introduction of maize and the potato

Storming of the Tuileries (August 10, 1792)

-incited by pressure from both Marat and the Girondists, a large crowd stormed the Tuileries Palace -this forced the royal family to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly -the crowd fought with the royal Swiss guards -when Louis was unable to call off the troops, several hundred guards as well as many Parisian citizens lay dead in the most extensive violence since the fall of the Bastille -royal family would become imprisoned however their quarters were comfortable -Louis XVI was not allowed to perform any of his political functions -constitutional monarchy no longer had a reigning monarch

illegitimate children in the family economy

-increased during the 18th century possibly because increased migration of the population let to fleeting romances -often led to infanticide among the poor

Effects of Industrial Revolution

-increased standard of living -rise of middle class -growth of cities -created filthy conditions due to rapid urbanization -abusive working conditions in factories -machines replaced many skilled laborers

Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women

-industrialization decreased the significance of women in the workforce -it became difficult for women to earn a living from the land -women who previously worked in textile production from the home were replaced by the new machines and shift of textile production from the home -thousands of women became domestic servants -Priscilla Wakefield writes "Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupation for Women" because she believed the number of jobs available to women were limited -prior to this, women were important in agricultural production but machines, operated by men, replaced their contributions -women who had operated milking and butter industries were replaced as large corporation took over the production of these goods -literature on improving the efficiency of farming often encouraged the removal of women from the agricultural workforce -industrialization increasingly brought women back to the home -some women who previously worked in textile production from the home and were replaced by new machines, turned to the cottage industries such as knitting, button making, and glove stitching but made significantly less profit

Causes of the French Revolution

-influence of Enlightenment ideas created new views on government (people wanted more equality, liberty, and democracy) -influence of the American Revolution -monarchy was in crisis -there was inequality amongst each class -France was in a great amount of debt

Foundling Hospitals

-institutions that are developed to preserve lives of abandoned children -Paris Foundling Hospital (1670) -London Foundling Hospital (1739) -despite these efforts, in Paris only about 10% of abandoned children lived to the age of 10

Romanticism

-intellectual movement that emerged during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Age -was characterized by tremendous emotion and sense of unpredictability -emphasis of emotion in the human experience -rejected the Enlightenment and baroque ideas -writers and artists of this movement saw the imagination as superior to reason as a means to perceive the world -favored art, literature, and architecture of medieval times -thinkers of this period were fascinated by dreams, hallucinations, sleepwalking, and other phenomena that suggested the existence of a world beyond empirical observation, sensory data, and discursive reasoning -were interested in folklore, folk songs, and fairy tales

Power Loom

-invented by Edmund Cartwright -it supplied a power source for machine weaving

Water Frame (1771)

-invented by Richard Arkwright -water-power device designed to permit the production of purely cotton fabric, rather than a cotton fabric containing linen for durability -this brought production out of the home as factories popped up in the countryside along waterways

Charles "Turnip" Townshend (1674-1738)

-invented crop rotation -taught farmers how to cultivate sandy soils with the correct combinations of fertilizers -instituted the practice of "crop rotation" using wheat, barley, turnips, and clover; and eliminated the three-field system -this increased the amount of fodder and thus more livestock could be raised

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)

-issued by the National Constituent Assembly -increased tensions between the church and the state in France -it required all clergy members to take an oath to support the constitution -members of the clergy who refused to take the oath were labeled as "refractory" and were removed from their clerical roles -nationalizes the French Church -the number of bishoprics reduced from 135 to 83 -provided for the election of pastors and bishops making them salaried employees of the state -this was in an effort pay off debt in France because the Church owned 10% of the land which was then taken by the French government to sell -assembly would lose support from half of the country -The Roman Catholic Church condemned the Revolution -conflict between the revolutionary government in France and the Roman Catholic Church created moral crisis for lots of people in France

Nationalism

-it is not pride in one's country -the belief that one's greatest loyalty is to a group of people with common bonds (religion, language, culture, history, etc.)

Fall of Verdun

-it was a massive defeat for the revolutionary army -the general who was leading the battle was a member of the Girondists and he switched sides in battle -from then on the Jacobins believed that the Girondists were traitors

Michelangelo Caravaggio

-known for contrasts between light and darkness, which created dramatic scenes -his works were known to be theatrical as they draw the viewer into an emotional involvement in the work

Grand Armée

-largest army in Europe -consisted of 554,000 men -he conscripted forces from all French territories to build up his army -no enemy could match up to Napoleon's resources

Artisans

-largest group in any cities -they included grocers, butchers, fishmongers, carpenters, cabinet makers, smiths, printers, hand-loom weavers, and tailors -many tried to consume the same goods as the upper middle class -they were, indeed impacted, by bread prices -guilds only played a minor role in 18th century cities -they often determined who could pursue a craft in order to prevent the flooding of the workforce and lessen competition -working in a guild

Law of Suspects (1793)

-law passed that significantly reduced the freedoms of citizens -if you look suspicious, you get arrested

Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

-liberal French aristocrat -fought in the American Rev -considered the earliest socialist pioneer -father of technocracy -believed government should control the industry

Rural Areas

-liberals envisioned a progressive free peasantry of industrious farmers but freed peasants typically became conservative landholders -rural emancipation was granted to persons living in the countryside of England, France, and the Low Countries, but movement was difficult for serfs in Russia, Germany, and Eastern Europe which were liberated much later

Cahiers de Doléances

-lists of grievances registered by the local electors to be presented to the king -reflected some Enlightenment principles -the second and third estates both agree that the French government needed major reform, however there was conflict in the early sessions of the Estates General -included complaints such as government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption, and hunting rights of the aristocracy -suggested reforms such as more equitable taxes, are local control of administration, free press, unified weights and measures to facilitate trade, and end of aristocratic domination

Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786)

-lived in Germany and was known as the "Jewish Socrates" -advocated for the assimilation of jews into modern European life -wrote On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism (1783) where he argued for religious toleration and the sentence of distinct Jewish communities

Prison System in 19th Century

-local jails and state prisons like the Bastille -gov sent some criminals to prison ships ("hulks") -mediterranean nations sentenced criminals to the galleys -regardless of the crime, all criminals were housed together Changes in view: -crime was no longer seen as an assault on order and authority but as a mark of character fault in the criminal and prison was then seen to rehabilitate criminals -prisoners were to be trained in a trade or skill so they could emerge from prison as a productive member of society

Landlord influence over the institution of marriage in a traditional household in eastern Europe

-lords wanted to ensure that their lands would be cultivated so they insisted that serfs marry only those on their lands in order to keep the labor force strong -sometimes lord required widows and widowers to marry -in Russia, landlords ordered families of young people in their villages to arrange marriages within a set amount of time

Preindustrial Urbanization

-major cities grow in population -between 1500 and 1750, major urban expansion occurred in already established cities, but after 1750 the pattern changed as new cities sprouted out of nowhere -growth of capitals and ports -the emergence of new cities and the growth of small towns

Poverty in cities

-many prostitutes, vagrants, begging, and alcoholism -little food, disease, poor housing, etc. -"gin age"-mid 18th century London -depicted in engravings by William Hogarth -public executions were a common occurrence of 18th century Europe here

Women during the Enlightenment

-many women hosted salons in Paris such as prominent socialites Marie-Therese Geoffrey, Julie de Lespinasse, and Claudine de Tencin which gave philosopher access to useful social and political contacts -the mistress of King Louis XV: the marquis de Pompador played a huge role in overcoming efforts to censor the Encyclopedia -Madame de Tencin actively promoted Montesquieu's ideas

Women and Marriage

-marriages were less and less arranged -cohabitation before marriage was not uncommon -women typically left the workforce when they married -young women became domestic servants before marriage to earn enough to afford a dowry -if a young woman became a factory worker, she would likely live in a supervised dormitory

Sans-Cullotés

-means "without breeches" and are called this because they are the working people meaning they wear long trousers instead of the aristocratic knee breeches -radical revolutionary group from lower classes -consisted of shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and in a few cases, factory workers -did not trust the bourgeoisie -they were organized into groups and the leaders were called enragés because they were angry -sought immediate relief from food shortages and rising prices through price controls -believed that all people have a right to subsistence -resented most forms of social inequality -advocated for a community of small property owners who would participate in the politics of the nation -they were anti monarchical, strongly republican, and suspicious even of representative government -The Paris Commune was their chief political vehicle and crowd action was their chief instrument

Classical Economics

-mid-19th century economist who largely derived their ideas from Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations", dominated the discussions of industrial and commercial policy -"laissez-faire" translates roughly to "let people do what they please" -economists believed in economic growth through competitive free enterprise -role of gov in the economy according to mainstream 19th century economists -maintain a sound currency, enforce contracts, protect property, impose low tariffs and taxes, and leave the rest of economic life to private initiative

Charles Alexandre de Calonne (1734-1802)

-minister of finance -encouraged internal trade -lowered some taxes such as the gabelle -transformed the corvée into money payments -sought to remove internal barriers to trade -reduced government regulation of the grain trade -wanted to impose a new land tax that all landowners had to pay regardless of social status -also wanted to establish new local assemblies made up of landowners in order to approve land taxes and the voting power in the assemblies would be determined by the amount of land a person owned instead of their social status -met with an Assembly of Notables in 1787 to seek support for his plan

Girondists

-moderate group -wanted a republic under the control of the bourgeoisie -would call for constitutional monarch after the September Massacre which would cause even more division

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)

-more radical leader than Brissot -inspired by Rousseau -very controversial character in history -calls for full equality, but believes that there should be separation between the educated and the non-educated -shrewd and sensitive politician -known as the incorruptible -emerged as the dominant figure on the Committee of Public Safety -depended mainly on the support of the republican government -during the reign of terror he was determined to reform France and erase all memory of the Old Regime

Dechristinization of France

-most dramatic and radical step then by the republic of virtue -Robespierre waned to completely secularize France -in November 1793 the Convention created a new calendar to replace the Christian calendar -the new calendar dated from the first day of the French Republic and there were 12 months each with 30 days with names associated with the seasons and climate -every tenth day was a holiday rather than every seventh -the Convention renamed the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris a "temple of reason" in November 1793 -legislature sent trusted members (deputies) not provinces to enforce dechristianization by closing churches, persecuting clergy and believers (both Catholic and Protestant), occasionally forced priests to marry, and sometimes killed priests and nuns -Churches were systematically destroyed -there was enormous popular opposition to this -alienated parts of the French provinces from the revolutionary government in Paris

Jacobins

-most influential and radical political club -most advanced political club as well -wanted a republic with direct democracy instead of a constitutional monarchy -were not suspicious of all wealth but did hate the aristocracy and hereditary privilege -favored an unregulated economy -wanted to improve lower classes -worked with the San-Cullotés and Marat -drew their political language from the most radical thought of the Enlightenment most specifically Rousseau's emphasis on equality, popular sovereignty, and civic virtue -more radical branch who sat higher up in convention were called the Mountain/Montagnards -wanted to execute Louis XVI

Jacques Brissot

-most moderate -wants a republic lead by the Bourgeoisie

Jean-Paul Marat (1743-1793)

-most radical -not part of National Assembly -believes in full equality, no separation -was a newspaper editor -if you do not support radical equality, then you are against the revolution and you are a traitor and you should die

growth of capitals in ports

-most rapid growth of cities occurred here -growth of capitals illustrates the development and growth of government bureaucracies and strong central government -the growth of ports shows the increase in European overseas trade -cities with populations of fewer than 40,000 inhabitants declined between 1600 and 1750 -many of these cities were landlocked trading centers, medieval industrial centers, and ecclesiastical centers

wet-nursing

-most women had too many responsibilities in the household to nurse their own children -wealthy women did it for convenience -it was a well-organized industry and children from the cities were often transported to the country for months, or even a year, to live with their assigned nurse

emergence of new cities and the growth of small towns

-new pattern of urban population started the mid-18th century as the rate of growth existing larger cities declined, new cities emerged, and existing smaller cities grew -Jan De Vries calls this pattern "an urban growth from below" -in the early stages of the Industrial Rev occurred in the countryside and fostered the growth of smaller towns and factories near factories -improved agricultural methods increased crop production which led to the development of trading centers and the growth of smaller cities

Coup d'état (1799)

-overthrow of the state -Napoleon took control and ruled as an absolute ruler

Role of Women in Factories

-paradox of the impact of the emergence of factories on them: factories opened many new jobs for them, but lowered the level of skills they needed to have -young comprised the bulk of them who worked in factories as married women got pregnant and could often rely on the salaries of their husbands

Women's March on Versailles (October 5, 1789)

-people became suspicious Louis XVI might use force when he stalled to ratify the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen and the aristocratic renunciation of feudalism -7,000 Parisian women called poissonieres marched on Versailles demanding for more bread -they were armed with pikes, guns, swords, and knives -Louis XVI agreed to approve the requests of the Assembly -the crowd ordered for Louis XVI and the royal family to return to Paris with them -the royal family settled in the old palace of the Tuileries in the heart of Paris

Locke's Social Contract

-people enter into the social contract in order to form political society to secure and preserve the rights, liberty, and property that they already possess prior to the existence of political authority -the relationship between the governed and the government is one of trust, if the government breaks that trust, it is the responsibility of the governed to replace them -people empower the government to one end and that is for the preservation of their natural rights

Influence of Books

-people in aristocratic and middle-class society were increasingly expected to be familiar with books and secular ideas -The Spectator (1711) by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele -coffeehouses became centers of discourse for discussing political ideas and writing -the lodges of Freemasons were another place for discussing secular ideas and secular books -authorship became an occupation, writers were able to make a living for their work for the first time -Alexander Pope in England (1688-1744) and Voltaire in France grew in wealth and status based on merit and commercial competition rather than through heredity and patronage

Migration

-people moving from rural areas to towns -by 1850, 1/2 the population of England and Wales had become town dwellers Eastern Europe remained, by contrast, overwhelmingly rural -Irish famine of 1845 to 1847 saw 500,000 people starve to death

Steam Engine (1765&1769)

-perfected by James Watt in 1769 -it used steam power to run textile machinery and factories could be easily located in urban areas -provided the first source of steady and essentially unlimited supply of inanimate power ever in human history -steam power relied on mineral energy that never got tired -Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) invented the first practical engine to use for steam power but it did not use coal resources efficiently

Thermidorian Reaction

-period between the Reign of Terror and Napoleon characterized by more moderate politics -members of the Convention used Robespierre's execution to reassert their authority over the executive power of the committee of Public Safety -destroyed the machinery of terror -also established a new constitutional regime due to a widespread feeling that the revolution had become too radical -sans-culottés leadership was replaced by generally wealthy middle-class -Convention allowed the imprisoned and hiding Girondists to return to their seats -political prisoners were freed -restructured the Committee of Public Safety and reduced its power -the Law of 22 Prairial was repealed -Paris Commune was outlaws and its leaders and deputies were executed -The Paris Jacobin club was closed and Jacobin clubs in provinces were forbidden to correspond with each other -In Lyons, Toulon, and Marseilles, "bands of Jesus" dragged suspected terrorists from prisons and murdered them -Republican dress disappeared -new plays appeared in theaters -Catholic services were allowed to be held, refractory priests returned to France, and there was a revival of Catholic worship -Frenchwomen lost freedom during this period -The National Convention replaced with the Directory -new constitution was written creating a legislature with 2 houses: Council of Elders and the Lower Council of 500

Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

-period in the Revolution where the Jacobins had control of the government and took extraordinary actions to ensure the survival of the ideals of the revolution -thousands of people from all walks of life including peasants, nobles, clergy, business and professional people, one-time revolutionary leaders, and the monarchy were arrested and executed -the need to protect the revolution from enemies real or not spread throughout France -Robespierre acts as a dictator

Physiocrats

-philosophes who believed that existing legislation and regulation of trade in the mercantilist economic system hampered the expansion of trade, manufacturing, and agriculture -they mainly believed that governments were primarily responsibly for protecting private property -they encouraged the consolidation of peasant lands -they also improved methods of agriculture -leading spokesmen for this were François Quesnay (1694-1774) and Pierre Dupont de Nemours (1739-1817)

Robert Bakewell (1725-1795)

-pioneered new methods of animal breeding that produced more and better animals and more milk and meat

Crime and Order During the Industrial Revolution

-political and economic elite were concerned about social order as larger masses of people began to gather in cities, experiencing unemployment and social frustration -crime rose steadily from 1800-1860 in the cities of Europe -better systems of police -creation of officers to keep order, protect property, investigate crime, and apprehend criminals -professional police forces did not exist until the early 19th century -Paris introduced police in 1828 and Robert Peel (1788-1805) sponsored a legislation passed by British Parliament in 1829 that put police in London -English police known as bobbies or Peelers -Berlin instituted police after the revolution of 1848

Louis LeNain

-portrayed still lives and scenes of everyday life -was fascinated with French peasant life

Educating Children in 18th Century

-primarily upper-class children -as economic skills became more demanding, literacy became more valuable, and as a result, literacy rates rose

William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806)

-prime minister of Great Britain -turned against reform and popular movements and suppressed the London Corresponding Society which was founded in 1792as a working-class reform group -he secured Parliamentary approval for acts suspending habeas corpus and making the writing of certain ideas treasonable

Philadelphia System

-prisoners were kept rigorously separate from each other at all times -Pentonville Prison near London notoriously followed this model

Auburn Prison (New York)

-prisoners were separated from each other during the night but could associate with one another while working in the day

proletarianization

-process by which the labor of artisans and factory workers became a commodity in the marketplace -artisans gradually lost ownership of the means of production and control over their trades

Holy Alliance

-proposed by Alexander -a promise between the monarchs to act together in accordance with Christian principles -Austria and Prussia signed but England and France abstained -becomes a symbol of extreme political reaction

Great Britain's Toleration and Political Stability

-provided a living example of society in which enlightened reforms seemed to benefit everyone -had high amounts of religious toleration to all religions except for Unitarians and Roman Catholics, however they were not actively persecuted -established the English Bill of Rights providing citizens relative freedom of speech and press, as well as rights; it also limited the power of the monarchy and Parliament had political sovereignty and it allowed the courts to protect citizens from arbitrary imprisonment -there was no extensive literary censorship, overregulation of the economy, or influence of aristocratic military value

Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814)

-provided for the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne -also provided for the contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792

Principia Mathematica (1687)

-published by Newton -found that the principle of inertia applied to both objects at rest and in motion: if it is at the same speed, it never changes -reasoned that all bodies move through mutual attraction (gravity) -the attraction of gravity explained why the planets moved in an orderly fashion instead of a chaotic fashion

Urban conditions

-pure water was rare -cattle, pigs, goats, and other animals roamed the streets

domestic system of textile production

-putting out -basic unit of production in rural environments -those who farmed in the spring, summer, and fall often spun thread or wove in the winter -the merchant capitalist usually owned the machinery as well as the raw material -merchants took wool or un-spun fibers to peasant homes -peasants spun it into thread -merchant transported the thread to other peasants who wove it into textiles -the merchant sold the wares

Deism

-rationality applied to religion led to the belief that the universe is so well made due to these mathematical and intellectual laws -suggests that God was a divine mechanic and clockmaker who had arranged the world like a machine that would thereafter function automatically -believe in the existence of God and they thought that the study of nature could empirically justify his existence -also believe in life after death because they believed a rational God must favor rational mortality -was an empirical, tolerant, reasonable, and virtuous way of living

Deductive Reasoning

-reasoning from a general principle to arrive at facts -his method of gaining knowledge is through thought, logic, and reason to come to a conclusion -senses are not used because they can be deceiving

anarchism

-rejected both industry and the dominance of government -Auguste Blanqui -Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and "What is Property?"

Repeal of Corn Laws 1846

-repeal the tariff that protected the domestic price of grain -sparked by the Irish famine in 1846 -enabled owners to pay their workers less

Vendée (1793)

-royalist counterrevolutionary revolt led by aristocratic officers -gained lots of popular support

The Great Fear

-rumors spread across the French countryside that royal troops would be sent into rural districts -bread prices were also rising -this made peasants very anxious leading them to revolt -they burned chateaux, destroyed legal records and documents, and refused to pay feudal dues -this revolt was effective unlike the German Peasant's Revolt

Scientific Revolution Effects on European Society

-science becomes paramount authority -everything is now mathematically proven -ontology (existence) and epistemology (knowledge) -people began to believe that genuinely new knowledge about nature and humanity could be discovered contrast to medieval and Renaissance notions of looking back on antiquity for knowledge -scientists formed "institutes for sharing" ideas about science -there was a reduction in witchcraft because witchcraft lacked empirical evidence to prove that it is real -universities slowly began to include new sciences into their curriculum -the Royal Society of London was founded in 1660 and consisted of members who followed the path of Bacon -Academy of Experiments in Florence was established in 1657 -the French Academy of Science was established in 1666 -people outside of. the elite class like craftspeople, who could manufacture scientific equipment, sailors who had traveled to different parts of the world and explored different cultures, and workers who had practical knowledge of problems in the countryside were inverts to these new scientific societies that mainly consisted of the literate class -explorers brought back specimens and experiences from exotic places that required classification, analysis, and observation

Emilie Châtelet (1706-1749)

-she aided Voltaire in his composition of an important French popularization of Newton's science -her knowledge of mathematics was more extensive than Voltaire's -she was crucial to Voltaire in completing his book -she also translated Newton's Principia Mathematica int French, which was only made possible by her exceptional understanding of advanced mathematics

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762)

-she was one of the most positive commentators on 18th century Islam -between the years 1716 and 1718 she lived with in Istanbul with her husband, who was the British ambassador to Turkey -wrote a series of letters about her experiences that were publishes a year after her death -she praised the Ottoman society and urged the English to copy the Turkish practice of vaccination against smallpox in her Turkish Embassy Letters -she had private access to he private quarters of women in Istanbul -despite upper-class Turkish women had to wear clothing that completely covered them in public, she thought that they were remarkably free and that their husbands treated them well -she actually believed that the anonymity that being fully covered granted women allowed them to move freely in Istanbul -also considered the Ottoman architecture to be better than anything in Western Europe -declared that many of the hostile comments about Islam and Islamic morality were wrong

Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)

-she was the wife of the duke of Newcastle, which introduced her into a circle of natural philosophers -made significant contributions to the scientific literature of the day -as a girl, she was privately tutored and became widely read -understood the new science, quarreled with the ideas of Descartes and Hobbes, she criticized the Royal Society for being more interested in novel scientific instruments than in solving practical problems -her most important works were Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1688) -was the only woman in the 17th century who was allowed to visit a meeting of the Royal Society of London -composed a Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World (1666) to introduce women to the new science

Family Structures during Industrial Revolution

-since industrialization took place sporadically throughout Europe, it changed this in different places at different times -industrialism did not affect all of them directly, and many peasant lives changed very little -change in this is most evident in Great Britain during the first half of the 19th century

mutualism

-society organized in a system which amounted to a system of small businesses and other cooperative enterprises among which there will be peaceful cooperation and exchanges of goods based on mutual recognition of the labor each area of production required

Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

-son of Maria Theresa and co-ruled with her from the years 1765 to 1780 -he was a ruler the embodied rational and impersonal force -was an austere and humorless person -he prided himself on a narrow, passionless rationality, which he sought to impose by his own will on the various Habsburg domains -despite his personal eccentricities and old personality, he sincerely wanted to improve the lives of his people -after the War of Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa worked hard to strengthen the power of the crown by building a larger, more effective bureaucracy, imposing a more effective system of taxation, establishing central councils to handle governmental problems, expanding primary education, having concern for the peasants and the serfs, and expanding royal authority over the nobility in order to protect serfs from lords by limiting the amount of labor landowners could demand from serfs -he was more determined than Maria Theresa for he wanted to extend his territory at the expense of Poland, Bavaria, and the Ottoman Empire, but more than anything, he wanted to exert more control over the Habsburg territories and take the power of regional rulers, specifically the Hungarian autonomy, by imposing central authority on areas of political and social life -to reduce the Hungarian autonomy, he refused to crown himself king of Hungary in an effort to avoid having to guarantee Hungary's existing privileges or extend new ones -he also sent the Crown of Saint Stephen, a symbol of the Hungarian state, sent to the Imperial Treasury in Vienna -he then proceeded to reorganize the Hungarian government to increase the authority of his own officials and also required the use of German in all governmental matters -he was a practicing Catholic, however he extended freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox worshippers, he allowed these groups to build churches, operate their own schools, enter skilled trades, and hold academic appointments and positions of public service -he relaxed rules against Jews, but did not fully grant them equality -he sought to bring the Roman Catholic Church directly under royal control by forbidding the bishops of his realm to communicate directly with the pope, closing more than 600 monasteries, confiscating the church's lands, creating new parishes in areas where there was a shortage of priests, and reorganizing the training of priests where seminaries were put under governmental supervision and priests became employees of the state -he abolished internal tarriffs on trade, encouraged road building, and improved river transport in order to improve the economic life of his lands -he also personally inspected farms and manufacturing districts, reconstructed the judicial system in order to make laws more uniform and rational, did not abolish the authority of landlords over peasants, but he did seek to make the authority more moderate and subject to oversight of royal officials, granted peasants the right to marry, to engage in skilled work and to have their children learn a skill -he also wanted to reduce the traditional burdens on peasants in an effort to make them more productive and industrious farmers -during his reign all owners of land were to be taxed regardless of social status, however nobles blocked the implementation of this decree

Bread Riots

-sparked by a baker or grain merchant announcing a price that was considered unjust-often produced riots -artisan leaders often confiscated the bread, sold it to the urban classes for a fair price, and gave the income back to the merchants and bakers from whom they had stolen

Coup d'état (!797)

-staged by the Directory -put their own supporters (antimonarchists) into the legislative seats that their opponents (royalists) had won -did this in order to preserve the republic and to prevent a peaceful restoration of the Bourbons -it imposed censorship -some enemies were exiled

Agricultural Revolution in the Netherlands

-started due to shortage of land required to nourish a growing population -landlords and farmers constructed advanced dikes and methods to drain land -experimented with new crops like turnips and clover that increased the supply of animal fodder and restored the soil quickly -Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer, was hired by England in the 17th century to drain thousands of acres of land around Cambridge

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

-starts because Frederick II of Prussia violates the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction and invades Silesia -France and Prussia vs Austria and Great Britain -Britain is aligned with Austria but they do not supply them with troops -ends with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Silesian Wars (1740-42, 1744-45, 1756-63)

-starts with Fredrick the Great invading Silesia, which was a Habsburg territory owned by Maria Theresa, which meant he violated the Pragmatic Sanction that allowed Maria Theresa to stay ruler of the HRE -it is also known as the War of Austrian Succession -there were 3 wars in which Prussia wins all 3 -this leads to the Partition of Poland

Poor Laws of 1843

-supporters of Bentham in the House of Commons proposed this measure that established a Poor Law Commission -government established workhouses for poverty-stricken people which were designed to be unpleasant in order to motivate people to seek steady employment -people had to prove a certain level of poverty to go to work houses and any luxuries of theirs were deemed against them even spouses, so men sold their wives -families were split up in workhouses

guillotine

-symbol of terror during the French Revolution -meant to be an enlightened method of punishment -instant and painless -showed equality in life and death (everyone was executed this way) -used to execute traitors during the Reign of Terror

Ancien Regime

-term given for Europe prior to the French Revolution -the Golden Age of Aristocracy -nobles want to gain back power lost during reign of Louis XIV, but also want to keep their privileges -aristocrats want to maintain traditions, keep hierarchy -exploitation of the lower classes

Iron Production

-the chief element of all heavy industry and of land or sea transport -British makers began to substitute coke for charcoal, derived from wood, to smelt it -in 1784, Henry Court (1740-1800) created a new method for melting and stirring molten ore which extracted more impurities from the molten metal, and in turn led to a higher equality of iron -Court also created a rolling mill that shaped the still molten metal into bars, rails, and other forms

First Estate

-the clergy -1% of the population -owned 10% of land -paid 1% of their income in taxes

Émigrés

-the collective name for the 16,000 aristocrats who left France during the revolution in order to form the counterrevolution -King Louis XVI's younger brother, the count of Artois was the leader -members usually consisted of nobles -they fermented bad ideas about the revolution in the monarchies around France -they persuaded Louis XVI to attempt to flee France in the summer of 1791

Brunswick Manifesto (1792)

-the duke of Brunswick who is the commander of the Prussian military, issued a declaration threatening to burn Paris to the ground if the royal family was harmed -galvanizes French republicanism further and enrages French Revolutionaries such as Marat and the Girondists -ignited further suspicions against the king

Bourgeoisie

-the educated, non-noble, middle class in France -comprised of the prosperous merchants, trades people, bankers, and other professionals -not always immensely wealthy

Revolution in Consumption

-the ever-increasing demand for goods sparked the ingenuity of designers and inventors -Dutch prosperity led the way in new forms of consumption and were followed by the English and French who seemed to have more disposable income by the 18th century -producers developed new methods of marketing -Josiah Wedgewood -brewing industry became completely commercialized -style was impacted as fashion magazines widely circulated so the poor and middle class were more aware of the latest trends which they could imitate by purchasing less expensive versions

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825)

-the foremost French Neoclassical painter -used ancient republican themes in the 1780s to emphasize the corruption of the French monarchical government -His Other of the Hortii illustrates scene derived from the story of the Roman Livy, of soldiers taking an oath vowing to die for the Roman Republic and while the brothers take the oath to defend the republic with their lives, the women in the scene appear too emotional to enter the m

Family Economy

-the household in pre-industrial Europe was the basic unit of production and consumption -the household mode of organization predominated on the farms, in artisan's workshops, and in small merchant shops

Women in the Early Industrial Revolution

-the industrial economy placed a tremendous burden on the home and family life of women -it took productive work out of the household and instead of wage earners, women became associated with housekeeping, food preparation, and child rearing -division of labor between men and women became clear during this period -although they had been deeply involved in spinning and weaving in the domestic textile industry, they were replaced by men when production moved to factories

Philosophes

-the intellectual thinkers during the Enlightenment -the writers and critics who flourished in the expansion of print culture and who took lead in forging the new attitudes that were favorable to change, championed reform, and advocated religious toleration -their goals were to apply common sense and rationality to all aspects of life especially government, to criticize traditional practices and beliefs of government that violate common sense, and to work towards what they viewed as a better society guided by research -they targeted demographics, which included the Bourgeoisie

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

-the major work of European psychology during the 18th century -believed the mind to be a "blank tablet" at birth whose content would e determined by sense experience; therefore, the human condition could be improved by changing the environment

Case of Galileo (1633)

-the most famous incident of conflict between modern science and religious institutions -after the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church taught a more literal interpretation of scripture in order to respond to Protestant criticisms and it did not want to surrender the interpretation of scripture to a layman like Galileo -Galileo published a Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615) in order to explain how scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science -Galileo chooses to defend himself -the Church wants Galileo to recant his ideas, but Galileo does not recant -Galileo argues that if one wants to find information about the natural world, the Bible is not the place to find that information -Galileo is found as a heretic and is condemned for his discoveries -Galileo is forced to recant his theories in order to not receive the punishment of a heretic -this event symbolizes the Church's repression of learning -In 1992, Pope John Paul II formally ordered the reassessment of the Galileo case and the Roman Catholic Church admitted that errors had occurred, particularly in the biblical interpretations of Pope Urban VIII's advisors

Second Estate

-the nobility -2 to 3% of the population -owned 40% of the land -paid no taxes

Village origins of witchcraft

-the origins for the belief in witches are found in both poplar and elite culture -people in village societies respected "cunning folk" which helped the simple folk cope with disasters by magical means -possession of magical powers made one an important person in a village -oftentimes widowed-women were those who needed to boost their social prestige -witch beliefs in village societies were a way to defy urban Christian society attempts to impose orthodox beliefs, laws, and institutions on the countryside

Neolocalism

-the process of moving away from home -young people married relatively late in the 18th century as men were generally around 26 and women around 23 -couples usually had children soon after they married -premarital sexual relations were common

Epistemology

-the study of what is true -philosophical method to arrive at what constitutes knowledge

Industrial Revolution

-the term describes an era which instituted change and ideas that caused the sustained economic growth of the western world through the present -industrialization made possible the production of more goods and services than ever before in human history -human ability to manipulate and impact nature led to sudden environmental concerns

Influence of Scientific Revolution on Enlightenment

-the universe is rational and everything in the universe is rational -something rational should make something rational, therefore the government should be rational too

Mechanism

-the view that the universe is a machine -sees a universe that is rid of unpredictability

Emergence of Print Culture

-there was a huge demand for printed works -the volume of printed material (books, journals, magazines, and daily newspapers) increased immensely throughout Europe, but especially in Britain during the 18th century -Prose became valued as highly as poetry and the novel emerged as a distinct literary genre -the increase in literacy in Europe contributed to this -a growing concern with everyday life and material concerns with secular issues as opposed to religious issues accompanied this as well -novels often provided moral and social instruction that religious books once provided -books were inexpensive in 18th century -private and public libraries emerged allowing copies to reach many readers

French Nobility

-there were a lot of nobles in France -had a tremendous amount of privileges -had little social/political influence because the King had absolute power -they were divided into nobles of the sword (most prominent families in France) and the nobles of the robe (nobles who held government positions and had previously bought their nobility)

skilled artisans

-they typically worked out of their homes -the father usually was the head -fathers usually trained their eldest son -wives frequently ran the business while the husband was away on business purchasing supplies or other goods

The Social Contract (1762)

-this book outlines the political structure that Rousseau believed would help overcome the evils of contemporary politics and society (his solution for society) -he sees that man is inauthentic -his opening line states "All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains" -he believed that society is more important than its individuals meaning that each person could maintain personal freedom while behaving as a loyal member of the larger community -"man surrenders his individual liberty to the collective whole of citizens who in turn govern using reason and common sense according to the general will" implying that the decisions of the general will, will be guided by reason and common sense and that the worst ideas will be eliminated -the general will can never be wrong because it is in the best interest of most people -those who do not follow the general will, will be forced to -this justifies dictatorship

Urban Riot

-traditionally, artisans rioted if what was economically "just" had been offended -bread riots -religious riots violence in riots was typically directed toward property rather than individuals -political riots

impact of the emergence of a wage-labor force on artisan shops

-traditionally, these shops had a shop owner with 3-4 workers that was organized into a guild system with journeymen who could eventually become a master -19th century became difficult for them to exercise corporate or guild protection and control over their trades as continental legislation outlawed guilds and workers organizations -impact on production->in France, they began to follow a practice called confection (goods, such as shoes, clothing, and furniture, were produced in standard sizes and style rather than by special order)

Treaty of Campo Formio

-treaty involved France and the Dutch Republic, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany -redistributed territories along the Rhine River -Austria's influence in Germany was reduced -all German states in the West became dependent on Napoleon

Peninsular War (1808-1814)

-war between France and Spain -Portugal decides to break away from the Continental System -France and Spain had been allies since 1796 -Napoleon marches into Spain in order to force Portugal to abandon its traditional alliance with Britain -Napoleon's army stays in Spain in order to protect lines of supply and communication -a revolt breaks out in Madrid and Napoleon uses it as a reason to depose the Spanish Bourbons and replace them with his brother Joseph -members of the upper classes were ready to work with Napoleon, but the peasants encouraged by the lower clergy and monks rebelled -Spanish use guerrilla warfare cutting lines of communication, killing stragglers, destroying isolated units, and then disappearing into the mountains -British army under Sir Arthur Wellesley would support the Spanish -this encourages other countries to disobey the Continental System -France loses approximately 300,000 men

Seven Years War (1756-1763)

-war fought in India, Europe, North America -France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden vs Great Britain and Prussia -Great Britain defeats France in North America (French and Indian War) -Prussia defeats France's allies in Europe because Peter III of Russia idolizes Frederick and surrenders all Austrian land and makes peace with Prussia -ends with the Treaty of Paris

Austrian War of Liberation (1809)

-war in Spain encourages Austria to renew war with France -the Austrians were counting on Napoleon's distraction in Spain, French war weariness, and aid from other German princes -Napoleon was in command in France and German princes did not come to aid -French army marches into Austria and won the Battle of Wagram -resulted in the Peace of Schönbrunn which deprived Austria of substantial territory and 3.5 million subjects -Napoleon also divorced his wife Josephine de Beauharnais because she was 46 and borne him no children, and married Austrian archduchess, daughter of Emperor Francis I, Marie Louise -emperor of Austria was in no position to refuse the marriage

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

-was a Polish priest and scientist -educated at the University of Krakow -first philosopher to question the traditional view of the universe -was influenced by a Scholastic named William of Ockham who had the idea of Ockham's Razor -realizes that if you move the sun from the outside to the center, it becomes easier to calculate the revolutions of Planets -published "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" in 1543 -provided an intellectual springboard for a complete criticism of the then-dominant view of the position of Earth in the universe -helped the papacy reform the calendar so it could correctly calculate the date for Easter based on a more accurate understanding of astronomy

Parlement of Paris

-was a check to royal authority -was able to stall the recording of the King's law, but eventually got rid of that privilege so the King's law had to be passed before it could be protested which limited the nobility's power during the reign of Louis XIV

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

-was a controversial Jewish Enlightenment thinker -lived in the Netherlands and advocated for a secularized version of Judaism -was heavily influenced by Descartes -looked to the power of human reason to reconceptulize traditional thought -his works include Theologico-Political Treatise (1670) and Ethics -seen as a sell out by the people of the Enlightenment -Jews hate him because of his stance of championing toleration while condemning Judaism itself (would later characterize the outlook of many non-Jewish Europeans regarding the assimilation of Jews into European civic life) and Jewish communities could not welcome this outlook without considerable modification

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

-was a lawyer, nab;e pf the robe, and a member of a provincial parliament -belonged to the Bordeaux Academy of Science where he presented papers on scientific topics -saw a need for reform -used Islamic culture as a reason to criticize European society -wrote Persian Letters (1721), which was a satire of European culture from the perspective of two Muslim travelers -publishes Spirit of Laws in 1748

Edmund Burke (1729-1799)

-was an Irish-born writer and British statesman who attacked the French Revolution -he hates the Revolution because he believes that it is supposed to be rationally grounded and it is not -published Reflections on the Revolution in France where he condemned the reconstruction of the French administration for the application of a blind rationalism that ignored the historical realities of political development and the main complexities of social relations -was concerned about the turmoil that would continue as people not used to governing attempt to reconstruct a war ravaged France -predicted the possible deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette as well as predicted that the revolution would end in military despotism

Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

-was born a German princess -married the descendant of Peter the Great, Peter III of Russia -Peter III was a weak ruler who many contemporaries considered to be mad, and as czar he immediately exempted the nobles from compulsory military service and made peace with Fredrick the Great who he greatly admired, however a few months after his succession as czar, he was murdered with Catherine's approval -while she was in the court of Elizabeth (Peter's aunt who he succeeded) she befriended important nobles and read the books of the philosophes -after Peter III died, she was immediately proclaimed empress -became familiar with the Enlightenment and the culture of Western Europe and came to the conclusion that Russia was backward and it needed major reforms in order to remain a great power -she expanded educational opportunities for very select Russians, tried to improve life for Russians, and made beautification projects to beautify Russia, specifically St. Petersburg -she wanted to revise law in Russia, so she invited over 500 delegates from different walks of life to participate in the legislative commission that she summoned to help her revise Russia's law and government where she opened with an address that she wrote herself that included instructions to incorporate key ideas of the philosophes in the new legal code, however reform of Russian law did not take place until 50 years later -the conference ended up gathering information about local economics and administration -she gave strong support to the boyars, therefore she received support from them -she appealed to the Boyars because she expanded Russia into the Ottoman Empire, who were enemies of Russia, which allowed for more economic opportunities, more land, and etc, she also gained the Crimean peninsula where she created another warm-water port on the Black Sea, and in 1785 she issued the Charter of the Nobility -she wanted to continue the economic developments that Peter the Great had started by attempting to suppress internal barriers on trade -exporting grains, flax, furs, and naval supplies drastically grew -tried to maintain ties of friendships and correspondence with the philosophes in order for them to give her a progressive reputation throughout Europe -the Pugachev Rebellion would end her enlightened despotism

Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834)

-was known as the French hero of the American Revolution -young liberal aristocrat -creates the new French flag from the cockade, which the red and blue stripes from the colors of the coat of arms of Paris -it was separated by the white stripes of the royal flag -it became the symbol for the revolution and eventually the tricolor flag of France

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

-was not a very influential scientist -he did not believe Copernicus' view (heliocentric model) -spent much of his life advcating for a geocentric system -suggested that Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun but the moon, the sun, and the other planets revolved around the Earth -worked on the math to prove his theory for 30 years -collected a tremendous amount of very detailed data of his observations -left all of his work for Kepler therefore paving way for Kepler

Olympe de Gouges

-was the daughter of a butcher in northwest France -became a major revolutionary radical in Paris -wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women -would be guillotined in November of 1793 for opposing the Terror and accusing the Jacobins of corruption

John Locke (1632-1704)

-was the most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th century -his family had Puritan sympathies -his father fought on the side of Parliament in the English Civil War -was a close associate of Ashley Cooper, the earl of Shaftesbury and was considered radical; they were both forced to flee to Holland after Shaftesbury organized an unsuccessful rebellion to overthrow Charles II -wrote First Treatise of Government (1689), which was proved enormously important because it cleared the philosophical decks of a long-standing traditional argument that could not stand up to rigorous analysis -also wrote Second Treatise of Government (1689), Letters Concerning Toleration (1689), and Essay Concerning Human Toleration (1690) -had an optimistic view of man -believes that man has the ability to cooperate -he criticized absolutism -believed that all we are is a collection of experiences -believes that when we are born, we enter the world with a tabula rasa -influenced by Newton -environment and education is very important to Locke -was a contract theorist

Jean-Antinone Watteau (1684-1721)

-was the most prominent artist -painted Pilgrimage to Isle of Cithera where young lovers embark to pay homage to the goddess Venus

Almagest (150 C.E.)

-was the standard explanation of the place of the earth in the heavens which combined the mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy with the physical cosmology of Aristotle -considered the authority on astronomy throughout the Middle Ages -suggested a geocentric model of the universe (Earth is the center of the universe)

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

-weak and not intelligent ruler -he does not have a strong personality -he wants to be loved by France -is very influenced by the nobles around him as well -he is indecisive: always goes back and forth changing ideas -after coming into power, he wanted to regain popular support so he dismissed Maupeou, restored Parlement and its privileges and powers

Marie Antoinette (1755-1793)

-wife of Louis XVI -she is from Austria which is the enemy country of France -French hated her -she was accused of sexual misconduct and personal extravagance in an underground pamphlet campaign -many rumors spread about her -had outrageous spending habits -rumored to have said "let them eat cake" when bread prices were rising and the peasants were starving

Economic Role of the Family Changes

-with the spread of industrial capitalism and public education, the European family shifted from being the key factor in both consumption and production to becoming the chief unit of consumption alone -parents and children relied on sharing wages from different sources of employment rather than working together -wage employment weakened familial bonds as now workers were mobile

concerns over childbirth in the family economy

-women and infants were vulnerable to contagious diseases -perpetual fever was common -some midwives were unskilled

Women during the Scientific Revolution

-women were excluded from the growing advances in science -it was suggested that women's ideas about medical practice, philosophy, and biology made them and their minds different from and inferior to men -women were able to exercise influence over princely courts where natural philosophers like Galileo went for patronage, but they usually did not determine the patronage decisions or benefit from them -Queen Christina of Sweden (r: 1632-1654) had a major impact on the development of science because she brought René Descartes to Stockholm to provide the regulations for a new science academy, but she was an exception to women in science -there was virtually no social spaces that might have permitted women to pursue science easily -women associated with artisan crafts achieved greater freedom to pursue the new sciences than noblewomen did -a few noblewomen and women from the artisan class however did manage to engage in scientific activity such as Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673), Maria Cunitz, Bernard Fontenelle (Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds), Francesco Algarotti (Newtonianism for the Ladies 1737), and Emilie du Châtelet -Elisabetha and Johannes Hevelius and Maria and Gottfried Winkelmann constituted husband-wife astronomical teams, however the wife served as the assistant to to an artisan astronomer -Winkelmann worked with her husband at the Berlin Academy of Sciences, but after his death her application to continue their work was rejected -still with few exceptions, women were barred from science and medicine until the late 19th century and not until the 20th century did they enter these fields in significant numbers

On Crimes and Punishment (1764)

-written by Beccaria -applied critical analysis to the problem of making punishments both effective and just -scorned torture and capital punishment -believed that torture is not common sense -wanted the laws of monarchs and legislatures to conform with the rational laws of nature -believed that the purpose of laws was not to impose the will of God or some other ideal of perfection, but to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings -believed that laws and punishments should be governed by reason -encouraged the judicial system to grant speedy trials and to deal out punishments designed to deter further crime

Faust (1808)

-written by Goethe -considered to be his masterpiece -about a man named Faust who made a deal with the devil to sell his soul in exchange for gaining all knowledge -he seduces young women named Gretchen, but she dies and Faust realizes that he has to continue to live -in the end Faust dedicates his life to the improvement of humankind

Spirit of Laws (1748)

-written by Montesquieu -one of the most influential books of the century -exhibits the internal tensions of the Enlightenment -Montesquieu pursues an empirical method, taking illustrative examples from the political experience of both ancient and modern polities leading him to conclude that no single set of political laws cold apply to all people at all times and in all places -believed good political life depended on the relationships among many variables such as what the best form of government for a country was (monarchy or republic), which depended on the country's size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions, and climate -for France he favored a monarchical government, but believed that the power of the monarch should be limited by aristocratic groups like parliament, corporate bodies, and the towns -believes that liberty and freedom cannot exist if all power is concentrated in one institution -advocates for the separation of power where he admires the English system of separation of power in government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branch (checks and balances) -this book also explains how the excessive influence of Islamic religious leaders prevented the Ottoman Empire from adapting itself to new advances in technology

Declaration of the Rights of Women

-written by Olympe de Gouges -was addressed to Queen Marie Antoinette -a lot of the document reprinted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen -replaced the word "man" with "woman" -demanded that women be seen as citizens rather than daughters, sisters, wives, and mothers of citizens -wanted there to be equality under the law -wanted women to be allowed to own property -wanted men to be required to recognize the paternity of their children -"Women, wake up; the tocsin of reason is being heard throughout the whole universe; discover your rights" -illustrates how the universal language of the document (Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen) can apply to even those not mentioned in it

The Rights of Man (1791-1792)

-written by Thomas Paine in response to Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France -defended the revolutionary principles -Paine declared "From what we now see, nothing of reform on the political world ought to be held improbable. It is an age of revolutions, in which everything may be looked for"

Candide (1759)

-written by Voltaire -his response to critics of his deeply pessimistic poem commemorating the massive earthquake that struck Lisbon, Portugal, killing at least 60,000 people -it is still a widely read satire -it attacks war, religious persecution, and what he considered unwarranted optimism about the human condition

Letters on the English (1733)

-written by Voltaire -praises the virtues of the English, especially their religious toleration -implicitly criticizes the abuses of French society -Parlement of Paris condemned this book

Treatise on Toleration (1763)

-written by Voltaire -he wrote this after learning about the execution of a Huguenot, Jean Calas, who had been accused of murdering his son to prevent him from converting to Roman Catholicism -Calas was publicly tortured and strangled to death -he hounded the authors for a new investigation

Leviathan (1651)

-written shortly after the English Civil War -philosophically advocates for an absolutist government -Hobbes traced all psychological processes to bare sensation and regarded all human motivations as egotistical -it was intended to increase pleasure and minimize pain -rejected the idea that the state should not be obeyed when it violated God's law -believes human beings only exist to meet the needs of daily life rather than spiritual ends or any moral purpose -thought that rulers should be absolute and have unlimited power for he believed that the dangers of anarchy (no government) to be greater than tyranny -also believed that humans in a natural state are creatures of uncontrolled passion and selfishness so they need to be governed by an absolute ruler or there would be constant warfare -represents a giant sea monster that destroys the world

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

-wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792 as a response to the implementation of Rousseau's views on women during the French Revolution -she accused Rousseau of attempting to narrow women's visions and limit their experience -believed that by separating women and men in different worlds, women were essentially tyrannized by men

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Planets move in elliptical orbits 2. Planets velocity is not uniform, but changes due to proximity of the sun 3. The square of the revolution of any 2 planets are proportional to the mean distance of the sun (planets are moving in a mathematical fashion)

four-stage theory of human societies

1. hunter-gather 2. pastoral or herding 3. agricultural 4. commercial (Smith believed that this was a more civilized system than the first 3)

Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781)

A German playwright who wrote Nathan the Wise as a plea for toleration of not only Christian sects, but for people of all religious faiths

Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)

Descartes encourages an emphasis on deduction, rational, speculation, and internal reflection of the mind

Edward Gibbon

English historian and author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) and explained the rise of Christianity in terms of natural causes rather than the influence of piety and miracles

Stages of History (Marx)

First Stage: Struggle Between the Haves and the Have-Nots -capitalism will destroy itself -bad businesses will go away leaving the good businesses to compete with each other until there are the better businesses which will then lead to a monopoly, which means there's no more capitalism -the monopoly can treat workers poorly Second Stage: Inevitability of Revolution -world wide revolution among working class (Proletariat) -caused by heavy exploitation by upper class Third Stage: Government Controls Production -what Marx calls Socialism -Government hast o restore stability after revolution -abolishes private property, then it abolishes social classes -centrally planned economy: government controls production of goods, by 20th year you don't need government to tell you how much to make anymore -at this point you've reached pure communism and you don't need government anymore, everyone shares everything

The Starry Messenger (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613)

Galileo used his rhetorical skills to argue that his newly observed physically evidence, particularly in the phases of Venus, required a heliocentric model of the heavens (solar system)

The New Astronomy (1609)

Kepler used Copernicus's heliocentric model and Brahe's empirical data to solve the problem of planetary motion

October 23, 1793

Marie Antoinette's execution date

Milan Decree of 1807

Napoleon attempted to stop neutral nations from trading with Britain

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

Published collections of essays as books that once appeared in newspapers and journals

Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750)

Rousseau states that the process of civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature

Pantheism

Spinoza disagrees with the Jewish belief that God is all powerful, instead believes the substance of God is everywhere

Dualism (Descartes)

The idea that mind and body are separate but intertwined

Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828)

a French Neoclassical artist who produced numerous portraits in stone of leading philosopher such as Voltaire and Rousseau as well as American representatives of the Enlightenment like Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

Revolution

a change so drastic that people's lives can never go back to the way it was before

Enlightened absolutism

a form of monarchical government in which central absolutist administration as strengthened and rationalized at the cost of other, lesser centers of political power, such as aristocracy, the church, and parliaments

Pugachev Rebellion (1773-1775)

a massive peasant rebellion that makes Catherine fear the social and political upheaval that it released leading her to end any enlightened despotism ideas and reforms that she had

Plebiscite

a nationwide vote of yes or no

David Hume (1711-1776)

a philosophe that criticized Christianity by arguing that there was no empirical evidence that supported the possibility of divine miracles central to much of Christianity in "Of Miracles" a chapter in his Inquiry into Human Nature (1748)

The Spectator (1711) by Joseph Addison (1672-1719) and Richard Steele (1672-1729)

a popular publication that fostered the value of polite conversation and the reading of books

Lettres de Cachet

a royal edict that sends people to prison

noumenal world

a sphere of moral and aesthetic reality known by "practical reason" and conscience

Concert of Europe

alliance between Austria, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France to crush revolutionary liberalism

Quadruple Alliance

alliance between Austria, Prussia, and Russia that was renewed on November 20, 1815

Prussian Civil Service Commission

an agency that oversaw the education and examinations required for all major government positions making it clear that merit rather than privilege from birth would determine who served the Prussian state

laissez-faire

an economic policy that favors a limited role of government in economic life, however Smith did recognize the benefits of government commercial activities like the opening of dangerous new trade routes that were economically desirable, and providing schools, armies, navies, and roads

categorical imperative

an inner command of moral duty or awareness

Tabula Rasa

blank slate or page

Tithe

church tax

Journess

days during the revolution, such as the storming of Bastille, when the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution

Two-Thirds Law

enabled members to maintain their seats for prolonged periods of time

Blood Tax

every territory depending on how big it was by population had to give a certain amount of eligible men to the army

Orders of Council

forbid British subjects, allies, or even neutral countries from trading with France

Berlin Decrees (November 1806)

forbid Napoleon's allies from importing British goods

Vingtieme

income tax

corvée

labor tax

Taille

land tax

ontology

learning about the world through scientific means

Lower Council of 500

men of at least 30 years who were either single or married

Council of Elders

men over 40 who were either husbands or widowers

empiricism

one must observe phenomena before attempting to explain it through mathematics

Bastille

political prison that enemies of the government went to

Physio-theology

religious thought associated with the deducing of religious conclusions from nature

Gabelle

salt tax

High literary culture

successful Enlightenment authors addressed themselves to monarchs, nobles, the upper middle class, and professional groups wo were read and accepted in these upper levels of society

cultural relativism

the belief that human beings living in different societies possessed the capacity as human beings to develop in culturally different fashions

Monism

the belief that nature and God are the same substance and it is found everywhere in the universe

utilitarianism

the belief that society should seek to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings

Ockham's Razor

the principle that irrelevant detail should be cut away to find the truth

social science

the study of social laws in hope of ending human cruelty

Baron d'Holbach (1723-1789) and Julien Offray de La Metrrie (1709-1751)

they wrote about atheism and materialism

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

turns the privileges of the boyars into a law, which makes their privileges rights that cannot be taken away

Organic Articles of 1802

without consulting the pope, the French government established supremacy of the state over the Church