Personal MCAT Fcards

" Khan Academy Videos KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: 3 causes of Point Mutations-------- "TERM: Mispairing (also called Mismatch)

" "when a nucleotide base incorrectly pairs with another nucleotide base that violates Chargoff's Rules • (ex: when Adenine incorrectly pairs with Guanine instead of Thymine)

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: The Effects of Mutations-------- "TERM: Conservative Mutation

" "when an amino acid is replaced with another amino acid that has similar biochemical properties; usually less harmful than nonconservative mutations • (ex: swapping out a small nonpolar amino acid Alanine for another small nonpolar amino acid Valine)" Also Related to------silent mutations

Amino Acids "amino acids that are BOTH Glucogenic & Ketogenic

" Mnemonic: To be BOTH glucocenic and ketogenic, you gotta be FITTT "Meaning- (F)henylalanine, Isoleucine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Threonine the 5 amino acids that are BOTH glucogenic and ketogenic are: • the amino acids with the abbreviations F and I • the 3 amino acids that start with the letter T " Krebs Cycle

RNA and the Genetic Code: Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes-------- TERM: How is Lactose broken down?

"(via the enzyme β-Galactosidase) Lactose (disaccharide) ---> glucose (monosaccharide) + galactose (monosaccharide) In E. Coli, β-Galactosidase is coded for by the Lac Z region of the Lac Operon." Also Related to------prokaryotes

Term: Role Conflict vs. Role Strain

"- Role Conflict is the difficulty in satisfying the requirements and expectations of BETWEEN multiple roles (Being a doctor, a father, and a husband) - Role strain is the difficulty in satisfying the requirements and expectations WITHIN THE same role (Buying diapers, changing diapers, potty train, feeding the baby, stop the baby from crying, etc.)"

Term: Double Bond formation

"- a bonding orbital and 2 non-bonding p orbitals - 1 σ bond and 1 π bond

" Term: Triple Bond formation

"- a bonding orbital and 4 non-bonding p orbitals - 1 σ bond and 2 π bonds

Term: Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

"3 independent intelligences that lead to real world success: • analytical intelligence • practical intelligence • creative intelligence" -----Also Related to: Robert Sternberg

Term: Self-Determination Theory

"3 universal needs that motivate our actions: - autonomy - the control over our own actions - competence - need to excel at tasks we find difficult - relatedness - desire to feel accepted or desired by other"

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Loop of Henle

"Descending Loop: Only permeable to water. Water leaves the loop, creating an increasingly concentrated solution at the end of the loop. Ascending Loop: Only permeable to salts. This allows the highly concentrated fluid at the end of the loop to be reabsorbed by the vasa recta, decreasing concentration by the time the fluid gets to the distal convoluted tubules.

Term: System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)

"Developed in the 1970s from the technique ""Interaction Process Analysis"". It believes that there are three dimensions of interactions: 1) Dominance vs Submission 2) Friendliness vs Unfriendliness 3) Instrumentally Controlled vs Emotionally Expressive"

Topic: Configurational Isomers ------ Term: Diastereomers

"Don't differ at every chiral carbon, only some (at least one) - unlike enantiomers, two diastereomers have different chemical and physical properties from each other. - the category of diasteromers can also include either (1) epimers or (2) anomers." ------ EXAMPLE: glucose vs. galactose vs. aldose vs. mannose, etc "------ Also Related to: epimers anomers

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: 2 causes of Frameshift Mutations-------- TERM: insertion

"inserting a base into the DNA sequence, which shifts the reading frame of RNA • (ex: normal: GTG GTG GTG insertion: GTG AGT GGT G

What is the action of Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

"irreversibly transforms Fructose 6-Phosphate into Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate • consumes 1 ATP. Rate-limiting enzyme in Glycolysis

" Topic: Energy Density ------ Term: energy density

"is a measure of a battery's ability to produce power as a function of its weight. Lead-acid batteries have a lower energy density compared to other batteries because they require a heavier amount of battery material to produce a certain output. Below of the comparison of energy densities of common types of rechargable batteries: (low/bad) Lead-Acid < Nickel-Cadmium < Nickel-Metal Anhydride (high/good)

Term: Michelangelo Phenomenon

"states that the concept of ""self"" is made up of both the intrapersonal self (the ideas you have regarding your own abilities, traits, and beliefs) and the interpersonal self (the manner in which other people influence the creation of your ideal self. Interdependent individuals influence and ""sculpt"" each other to become closer to their ideal selves. Opposite of Blueberry Phenomenon."

" Bioenergetics: Term: Standard Free Energy

"∆G˚ is energy change that occurs at 1 M, 1 atm, and 25˚C. • ∆Gº = -RT ln (K) occurs when the rxn is at equilibrium • ∆G = ∆G˚ + RT ln(Q) occurs when the rxn is not a equilbrium

Cardiovascular: TERM: Fetal Hemoglobin

(HbF) has higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin (HbA), in order to pull oxygen from mother's hemoglobin and onto fetal hemoglobin. Results in left shifted oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

Term: Concentration After Dilution

(M1)(V1) = (M2)(V2) where M is Molarity and V is volume

steroid structure

4 rings- 3 cyclohexane + 1 cyclopentane, can have other modifications.

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Tetrose

4-carbon sugars

Metabolism: Term: Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

ADP is directly phosphorylated into ATP. Alternative to oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP in cells without mitochondria or oxygen. This is the only method of generating ATP in anaerobic respiration. ------Also related to: Anaerobic Respiration

" How is Behavioral Theory applied to language

AKA "Learning Theory". Children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through Operant Conditioning. Reinforcement comes from parent's smiling and excitement when baby says "Mama"

Term: Cultural Learning

AKA Cultural Transmission: the manner in which society socializes its members

PFK 1 is promoted by

AMP, Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is inhibited by

AMP, insulin

Glycogen Phosphorylase is inhibited by

ATP

PFK 1 is inhibited by

ATP, Citrate

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is promoted by

ATP, glucagon

endocrine Calconin

Mnemonic: Calcitonin tones down calcium levels in the blood "Meaning- Calcitonin lowers plasma calcium levels in three ways: increasing calcium excretion from the kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption from the gut, and increasing storage of calcium in the bone (""tones up bones""); stimulated by high levels of calcium in the blood"

Carbohydrate Metabolism Citric Acid Cycle Substrates

Mnemonic: Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money, Officer? "Meaning- Citrate, Isocitrate, α-Ketoglutarate, Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, Oxaloacetate"

integumentary Layers of the Epidermis

Mnemonic: Come, Let's Get Sun Burned "Meaning- (from superficial to deep): Stratum Corneum Stratum Lucidum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Spinosum Stratum Basale "

Physics Spherical Mirrors

Mnemonic: Concave is like looking into a cave. "Meaning- If we were to look from the inside of a sphere to its surface, we would see a concave surface." converging mirrors

Psychological Disorders Bipolar Dissorder Symtoms

Mnemonic: DIG FAST "Meaning- Distractability ↑ Indiscretion ↑ (which means excessive involvment in pleasure activities like sex) Grandiosity ↑ Flight of ideas ↑ Activity ↑ Sleep ↓ Talkativeness ↑"

" digestive Small Intestine Pathway

Mnemonic: Dow Jones Index (DJI) "Meaning- Duodenum --> Jejunum --> Ileum"

Organic Chemistry Spectroscopy

Mnemonic: Downfield = Deshielding "Meaning- When dealing with H-NMR on the MCAT, think of a proton as being surrounded by a shield of electrons. As we add electronegative atoms or have resonance structures that pull electrons AWAY from the proton, we Deshield and move Downfield."

excretory Waste products in Urine

Mnemonic: Dump the HUNK "Meaning- The major waste products in the kidneys to be excreted in the urine: H+ Urea NH3 K+ " nephron

cardiovascular Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Mnemonic: EXERCISE is the RIGHT thing to do! "Meaning- everything associated with EXERCISE causes the curve to shift RIGHT: • increased partial pressure of CO2 in the body (b/c CO2 is a byproduct of Krebs Cycle) • increased [H+] aka decreased blood pH • increased body temperature • increased 2,3-DPG This is because exercised muscle benefits from more oxygen being unloaded from the RBC (aka decreased affinity of Hb)" Bohr Effect

Organic Chemistry Enantiomers

Mnemonic: Enantiomer sounds like "an-Ant-in-a-mirror" "Meaning- Enantiomers are mirror images of each other http://i.imgur.com/3SpNPkZ.png"

reproductive Estrogen

Mnemonic: Estrogen Establishes "Meaning- Estrogen is responsible for the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and female secondary sexual characteristics (breast growth, widening of the hips, changes in fat distribution). In the embryo, estrogens stimuluate the development of the reproductive tract."

endocrine Anterior Pituitary hormones

Mnemonic: FLAT PEG "Meaning- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Prolactin Endorphins Growth hormone (GH) The 4 hormones in FLAT are all tropic hormones. The 3 hormones in PEG are all direct hormones."

genetics DNA nitrogenous bases

Mnemonic: Gaurdian Angles "Meaning- A and G are purines - Think of Gold wedding rings. It takes TWO gold rings (bride + groom) to complete a wedding, and likewise purines have two rings in their structure"

endocrine Glucagon

Mnemonic: Glucagon acts when Glucose is gone "Meaning- Glucagon is secreted during times of fasting in order to stimulate the degradation of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and production of new glucose via gluconeogenesis" Liver, Insulin, Gluconeogenesis

General Chemistry Gibbs free energy

Mnemonic: Goldfish ARE (equals sign) Horrible WITHOUT (minus sign) TarterSauce "Meaning- The equation for the change in Gibbs free energy is: ΔG = ΔH - TΔS"

Hydrogen Bonds

Mnemonic: I can't talk right now, I'm bonding with Hydrogen the FON (phone) "Meaning- Hydrogen bonds exist in molecules containing a Hydrogen atom that is bonded to Fluorine, Oxygen, or Nitrogen because these 3 atoms are highly electronegative, causing the hydrogen atom to carry only a small amount of the electron density in the covalent bond."

Enzymes Major Enzyme Classifications

Mnemonic: LIL HOT "Meaning- Enzymes can be classified into 6 categories, based on their function or mechansism: • Ligase • Isomerase • Lyase • Hydrolase • Oxidoreductase • Transferase"

General Chemistry Redox Reactions

Mnemonic: LeO the lion says GeR "Meaning- Losing electrons = Oxidized Gaining electrons = Reduced (think: if you gain electrons, that's the same as ""reducing"" your overall charge from high to low)"

Subject Topic

Mnemonic: Mnemonic "Meaning- Meaning" Also Related To:

optics Different eye conditions and which lenses treat them

Mnemonic: My New Dog is Hyper For Candy "Meaning- • Myopia = Nearsightedness; corrected with Diverging lenses • Hyperopia = Farsightness; corrected with Converging lenses"

"Mnemonic: • Top sign for ""Toward"" • Bottom sign for ""away""" Physics Standing Waves

Mnemonic: Nodes are points of No Displacement "Meaning- In standing waves, nodes occur where the displacement is zero, and antinodes occur where there is maximum amplitude. Nodes always occur at the ends of strings and the closed end of a pipe. Antinodes always occur at the open ends of a pipe."

reproductive Progesterone

Mnemonic: Progesterone Protects the endometrium "Meaning- Progesterone is involved in the maintenance of the endometrium, but not in the initial thickening of the endometrium--this is the role of estrogen."

reproductive Sperm Pathway

Mnemonic: SEVE(N) UP "Meaning- Seminiferous Tubules Epididymus Vas deferens Ejaculatory Duct (Nothing) Urethra Penis (recall that sperm is produced in the Seminiferous Tubules and drains to the Epididymus to be stored)"

Psychological Disorders Depressive Dissorder Symptoms

Mnemonic: SIG E CAPS "Meaning- Sleep ↑↓ Interests ↓ Guilt ↑ Energy ↓ Concentration ↓ Appetite ↑↓ Psychomotor ↓ Suicide ↑"

genetics DNA mutations

Mnemonic: STOP that nonsense! "Meaning- Point mutations can sometimes cause a nonsense mutation, which produces a premature stop codon. These are bad because they lead to a truncated protein or truncated polypeptide chain."

skeletal Carpal (wrist) bones

Mnemonic: So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb "Meaning- Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrium, Pisiform Hamate, Capitate, Trapezium, Trapezoid"

Nomenclature of Component Anions

Mnemonic: The "liteest" anions have the fewest oxygens "Meaning- Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen and are therefore called oxyanions. When an element forms two oxyanions, the name of the one with less oxygen ends in -ite, and the one with more oxygen ends in -ate. (NO2 - anion is Nitrite and NO3 - anion is Nitrate. SO3 2- anion is Sulfite and SO4 2- anion is Sulfate)" Mnemonic: The heaviest anions ate the most oxygens.

Amino Acids Which amino acids are essential vs. non-essential?

Mnemonic: Very Heavy MILK is essential??? WTF. "Meaning- The 9 essential amino acids are ones with the one-letter abbreviations: V, H, M, I, L, K, W, T, F Thus, all the remaining 11 amino acids that were excluded from the list above must be non-essential."

Behavioral Sciences (Psych + Soc) Nervous System Lateral Hypothalamus

Mnemonic: When the Lateral Hypothalamus is destroyed (LH), one Lacks Hunger "Meaning- The Lateral Hypothalamus is referred to as the hunger center becuase it has receptors that detect when the body needs more food or fluid."

Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: Tropomyosin

Protein that spirals around actin in muscles, covering the myosin binding sites.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Small Intestine

Responsible for continued digestion and absorption of nutrients. Approximately 7 meters long. Consists of three segments: Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum. The majority of chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum while the majority of absorption takes place in the jejunum and ileum.

" What is the action of Glucose-6-phosphatase

Reverse of Glucokinase. Only found in ER of liver cells. Removes the phosphate from Glucose-6-Phosphate to turn it into Glucose... hence the name

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Pancreatic Juices

Secreted by pancreas into duodenum due to stimulation by cholecystokinin (CCK). Complex mixture of ezymes in bicarbonate-rich solution. This basic solution neutralizes chyme to allow for ideal pH for enzymatic digestion (most active around pH 8.5). Contains enzymes to digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Also Related to------Acinar Cells

What is secreted from the Duodenum

Secretin What is secreted from the Duodenum^ Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: Duodenal Papillae

Secretion point of pancreatic juices into duodenum from pancreatic ducts.There is a major and a minor duodenal papilla. Also Related to------Pancreatic Juices

concentration in cortical portion of collecting tube

The collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption of water and salts can occur. The glomerular filtrate is, however, slightly less concentrated in the cortical portion of the collecting duct than in the medullary portion.

common cells in connective tissue

The common cell types in connective tissue include: fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages, adipocytes, and leukocytes.

what is the most common type of sex linked disease and why; and what does this mean for men who are the offspring of a woman with x linked recesssive trait.

X linked recessive, bc if X linked dominant than woman sick and likelihood of passing on chromosomes is decreased. To answer the part of sons born to sex linked fathers will never have the trait, while sons with a sex linked mother but normal father have a chance of obtaining the trait.

"How is Biological Theory applied to behavior

You act like your parents because you have the same genes as them

How is Biological Theory applied to attitudes

You adopt your attitudes about things from your parents.

Topic: Coordinate Covalent Bonds ------ Term: Coordinate Covalent Bond

a type of covalent bond in which both of the shared electrons originated from the same atom. Generally, this means that a lone pair of one atom attacked another atom with an unhybridized p-orbital to form a bond. ------ Also Related to: Lewis acid-base reactions

paramagnetism

a type of induced magnetism, associated with unpaired electrons, that causes a substance to be attracted into the inducing magnetic field

Term: Cross-Sectional Study

a type of study design where both the exposure and outcome status are taken AT THE SAME TIME "-----Also Related to: - considered a ""snapshot"" of the population - Prevalence Ratio

" Term: Cohort Study

a type of study design where the study sample is recruited based on their Exposure Status (yes/no) and then follows the patient over time to see if they developed a certain Outcome/Disease. -----Also Related to: - Relative Risk

Term: Case-Control Study

a type of study design where the study sample is recruited based on their Outcome Status (yes/no) and then finds out the odds that they were exposed to a certain determinant -----Also Related to: - Odds Ratio

" amino acids: Term: pI of Basic amino acids

above 7

Term: Functions

according to Functional theorists, they are the beneficial consequences of people's actions -----Also Related to: Functionalism

Term: Dysfuntions

according to Functional theorists, they are the harmful consequences of people's actions because they undermine a social system's equilibrium -----Also Related to: Functionalism

when does homologous pairing occur

During the zygotene stage of prophase I, the homologous chromosomes pair up with each other. This pairing occurs by a synapsis process where the synaptonemal complex - a protein scaffold - is assembled and joins the homologous chromosomes along their lengths.

Term: Agent of Socialization

Influencing factor that affects socialization. Includes family, peers, religion, ethnicity, workplace, mass media, school, government, geographical location, etc.

Genetics: Fundamental Concepts-------- TERM: Mendel's Second Law (Law of Independent Assortment)

Inheriting one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene. This was later explained by recombination during meiosis. Problematic when linked genes were discovered.

Term: Borderline Personality Disorder

Instable behavior, mood, and self image. Often intense and unstable relationships. Intense fear of abandonment. Use "splitting" as a defense mechanisms where others are either pure good or evil. Suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common. Twice as common in females. -----Also Related to: Cluster B Personality Disorder

What is secreted from the Pancreas β-cells

Insulin

During the production of insulin, the translated polypeptide is cleaved into the mature form and secreted from the cell. The cleavage most likely takes place in which location

Insulin cleavage is most likely to occur in the endomembrane system, rather than the cytoplasm, because insulin is a secreted protein

" Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) is promoted by

Insulin in the liver

Glucokinase is promoted by

Insulin in the liver

example of enzyme linked receptor

Insulin receptor in skeletal muscle, linked to tyrosine kinase

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase is promoted by

Insulin, NADP+

Translation Ribosome binding sites

Mnemonic: APE "Meaning- the order of sites in the ribosome during translation: the A site, then the P site, then the E site. • ""A"" stands for amino-acyl; it is the first site, where tRNA brings in the amino acid • ""P"" stands for peptidyl; it is the second site, where the amino acids from the P and A site form a peptide bond • ""E"" stands for exit; it is the final site, where tRNA that was previously on the P site exits the ribosome."

Neuropathology Alzheimer's Disease

Mnemonic: Alzheimer's = affected acetylcholine "Meaning- damage to cholinergic receptors is associated with Alzheimer's Disease"

General Chemistry : Trends that occur in ALL Electrochemical Cells

Mnemonic: An Ox "Meaning- To remember which type of redox reaction occurs in which electrode in an electrochemical cell: • The Anode is the site of Oxidation • Reduction occurs at the Cathode."

General Chemistry Bohr Model

Mnemonic: As electrons jump from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, they get AHED "Meaning- • Absorb light • Higher potential • Excited • Distant (from the nucleus)"

Consciousness Sleep Waves Order

Mnemonic: BAT - D "Meaning- in order of descreasing frequency: Beta (awake; REM is mostly beta with dreams) Alpha (awake) Theta (stage 1-2) (stage 2 has sleep spindles and K-complexes) Delta (stage 3-4) (Deep sleep and Dreams) ""a BAT sleeps during the Day"""

immune T-Cells and MHC

Mnemonic: CD x MHC = 8 "Meaning- CD4 cells respond to MHC-II (4 x 2 = 8) and goes on to activate the rest of the immune system CD8 cells respond to MHC-I (4 x 1 = 8) and kills the infected cell then and there https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqI4skjr6lQ" "Helper T-cells (CD4) Cytotoxic T-cells (CD8)

" genetics DNA nitrogenous bases

Mnemonic: CUT the Pye "Meaning- C, U, and T are Pyrimidines. - Note that a pie only has ONE ring of crust, and likewise pyrimidines have only one ring in their structure"

Acetyl Coa pathway to cholesterol

acetyl coa -> hmg coa -> to lego building blocks of two forms of 5 carbon structure known as isoprenes, these isopreens can be activated with the phosphoheads to form together. The 5's can come together to form a 10, then a ten can add to a 5 to form 15. Then two 15's can form a thirty known as squalene. Squalene has free rotation to form lanosterol Lanosterol is like cholesterol but needs modifications then we reach cholesterol the basis for other things.

" Term: Social Interactionist Theory

acknowledges both the social and biological processes of language acquisition (e.g. language is learned by both biological and social factors) -----Also Related to: nature + nurture

what are microfilaments made of

actin

Term: Discrimination

action

Term: Social Action

actions and behaviors that we are conscious of and performing based on the certain people that are around. It is based on the idea that humans will behave in different ways depending on their social environment and how their behavior will affect/cause a reaction from those around them (e.g. our social action is different when we are with our college buddies vs. when we are during a medical school interview) -----Also Related to: Max Weber

Glucose transporter proteins in the liver do not require the presence of insulin to facilitate the uptake of glucose. However, insulin does stimulate the first step in the glycolytic pathway within the liver. Therefore, in liver cells, insulin

aids glucose uptake by decreasing the cellular concentration of glucose.

Term: role-taking

aids in the development of identity; seen when children experiment with other identifies by taking on the roles of others, such as when they play-pretend house or school. This practice enables a child to understand the perspectives and roles of others.

kinesins

aligns chromosomes during metaphase and depolymerizing microtubules during anaphase of mitosis; brings vesicles toward the positive end; brings vesicles of neurotransmitter to the positive end of the axonal microtubules (toward the synaptic terminal)

TERM: gene pool

all of the alleles in a population

selectins

allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the immune system

Term: ego-defensive function of attitude

allow us to protect our self-esteem or justify our actions that we know are wrong (e.g. people who are bad at math may develop a negative attitude towards the subject: "math is stupid and useless") -----Also Related to: Functional Attitudes Theory

Term: ego-expression function of attitude

allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity (e.g. if I identify as a Carolina Panthers Football Fan, I might wear a hat with a Panthers logo that helps me identify myself as a fan of that team) -----Also Related to: Functional Attitudes Theory

Term: Incentive Theory

explains that behavior is motivated by the desire either pursue rewards or avoid punishments (e.g. when a dog does a trick in order to receive a treat) -----Also Related to: positive reinforcement

true or false cytoskeleton is only supporting close to the membrane

false, the cytoskeleton filaments can be through out the cell for support but also other functions

What is the stroma composed of?

fibroblast-like reticular cells, collagenous fibers, and extracellular matrix

how to go from name to compound

find charge of elements then cross.

genetic leakage

flow of genes between species through hybrid offspring in some cases individuals from different but closely related species can produce hybrid offspring.

Term: Material Culture

includes the physical items one associaties with a given society, such as artifacts, artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools; often visibile during ceremonies, such as birthdays, weddings, and funerals. Examples of American material culture include barbecue, baseball, rock & roll, and the American flag.

vasodilation

increase in diameter of a blood vessel

What is the x-axis in a graph?

independent variable

Isovolumentric

indicates that no Pressure Volume work in ,Delta U equals Q-W, can be done. So any change in energy must be from heat. This is the instance in bomb calorimetry

" The Pancreas δ-cells Secretes Somatostatin To Cause__________

inhibits BOTH Glucagon and Insulin ----Note:"statin" means inhibitory

what type of membrane protein are cams

integral membrane

Term: Manifest Function

intended actions that benefits society (e.g. the intended purpose of institutions like schools is to educate students on subjects such as math, history, and science) -----Also Related to: Functionalism

whats in between cells

interstitial fluid and ECM, the amounts vary depending on what tissues or cells are in discussion

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- pH Relationship between [H3O+]

inverse-------- A p scale is defined as the negative logarithm of the number of items. Therefore, mathematically, low pH indicates a relative excess of hydrogen ions, and the solution is acidic; high pH (or low pOH) indicates a relative excess of hydroxide ions, and the solution is basic.

General Chemistry: Raoult's Law-------- concentration of(volatile) soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between evaporation rateof solvent(in ideal solutions)

inverse-------- Examining Raoult's Law on a molecular level, the presence of the solute molecules can block the evaporation of solvent molecules also.

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- pH Relationship between pOH

inverse-------- Given the fact that pH + pOH = 14, as pH increases, pOH decreases by the same amount.

Biochemistry: Enzyme Kinetics-------- Kd Relationship between binding affinity

inverse-------- Kd is the Dissociation constant, which is a measure of how easily the enzyme-substate complex dissociates (breaks apart). • A high Kd means that the enzyme-substrate complex dissociates easier (aka the binding affinity is weak).• A low Kd means that the enzyme-substrate complex does not readily dissociate (indicating that the binding affinity between the enzyme and substrate is STRONG).

Physics: Sound-------- age Relationship between frequency range of human hearing

inverse-------- On the MCAT, know that frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz are generally audible to healthy young adults. However, high frequency hearing generally declines with age. This explains why some elderly people can't hear high pitch ringing of cell phones.

Term: knowledge function of attitude

knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior (e.g. knowing that your friend cares strongly about politics would allow to you predict that they would vote in the upcoming presidential election) -----Also Related to: Functional Attitudes Theory

What is Behavioral Theory typically applied to?

language, behavior, personality

What is Biological Theory typically applied to?

language, behavior, personality attitudes and dreams

what are the main types of development

language, motor, cognitive, personality , psychosexual and moral

"What is Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach typically applied to?

language, personality and atttudes

mendels second law

law of independent assortment; My explanation: the body has many genes, for example an Aa Bb Cc Now mendels law basically says the assortment of A is independent of which allele from the other genes go. Thus A could go with B or b, or A could go with C or c. This is beneficial as it increases genetic diversity.

Term: vicarious learning

learning by observation "-----Also Related to: observational learning modeling mirror neurons

what type of channels are used in nerves

ligand gated and voltage gated

Physics: Nuclear Binding Energy-------- size of the nuclei Relationship between stability of the nucleus

normal bell-curve-------- In general, intermediate-sized nuclei are more stable than very small nuclei or very large nuclei. Because the binding energy per nucleon is greatest for intermediate-sized atoms (that is, intermediate-sized atoms are most stable), when small atoms combine or large atoms split, a great amount of energy is released.

Renin is inhibited by

normal or high blood pressure

RNA and the Genetic Code: Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes-------- TERM: E. Coli

normally uses glucose as its energy source as default. However if glucose is not available, E. Coli will metabolize lactose instead by expressing a gene we refer to as "the Lac Operon."

Term: Amphoteric

being able to act as either an acid OR base (e.g. Proline is amphoteric because it has the ability to accept a proton (thus acting as a base) or it can donate a proton (thus acting as an acid).

law of segregation analogy

big book divided into small book will have remnants of only from big book

binding proteins def, examples, and affinity

bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body or or transport like hemoglobin, dna binding proteins, calcium binding proteins km depends on for sequestering aka holding where the affinity will be very high, versus one that needs open and close will need varying affinities

places in the body where tight junctions are present

bladder, intestines, and the kidney

" Term: Ketogenic Amino Acids

can be directly degraded into Acetyl-CoA

Term: echopraxia

catatonic behavior that involves imitating another's actions -----Also Related to: disorganized behavior

Term: echolalia

catatonic behavior that involves repeating another's words -----Also Related to: disorganized behavior

Term: GABA

causes hyperpolarization (inhibitory neurotransmitter)

What are fibroblasts?

cells that secrete fibrous proteins like elastin and collagen

Intigrins

cellular signaling like for cell divison or cell regulation, or for clotting.

first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy)

change in energy is equal to also represented by U is equal to heat or the transfer of energy into the system minus the work done by the system or energy given to the surroundings.

relationship bw Hydrogen Bonding within a polypeptide chain (between amine and carbonyl groups) and secondary structure stabliziation

direct Secondary structure, which includes α-helices and β-pleated sheets, are stablized by hydrogen bonding between the amine and carbonyl groups of the component amino acids of a polypeptide chain.

relationship between presence of G-C pairs and DNA stability

direct; G-C pair have 3 h bonds > than A-T, which increases DNA stability

what are the three mode of natural selection

directional, stabilizing, or disruptive

three types of evolution

divergent, convergent, parallel

Carboxypeptidaseis produced by

duodenum

Dipeptidaseis produced by

duodenum

whats the inverse of ln

e

Physics: Electrostatics-------- distance between twoopposite charges Relationship between electical Potential Energy U

proportional-------- Due to the face that opposite charges experience attractive forces, if the two attractive charges are held close together (aka the distance between them shortens), then not much work is required to let them move toward each other because they are more stable being close to each other.. Hence, the potential energy (work required) is low.

Physics: Sound-------- temperature of air Relationship between speed of sound traveling

proportional-------- Sound travels faster in hot air than in cold air because in hot air is less dense. Based on the equation for the speed of sound, sound travels fastest through a medium if it is less dense.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yF4cvbAYjwI&index=130&list=PL1O_shUH1zgVfrG2lDsMWuicLdsxm-Dzz

role of lipids

structure: phospholipids, spingolipids, and waxes, cholesterol, can count saponification / formation of micelle to transport other lipids signaling: cholesterol precurosr for steroid and vitamin horomones. prostaglandins, and vitamins energy storage; tag adipocytes

Pyruvate Kinase is considered what type of phosphorylation

substrate-level phosphorylation

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Aldoses

sugars with ALDehydes as their most oxidized group ------ EXAMPLE: Glucose is a aldohexose (aka it is a 6-carbon sugar with an aldehyde group as its most oxidized group)

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Ketoses

sugars with KETOnes as their most oxidized group ------ EXAMPLE: Fructose is the ketose form of glucose (aka, it looks exactly the same as glucose except it has a ketone group at the end instead of an aldehyde

" Topic: Monosaccharides ------ Term: Deoxy Sugars

sugars with a -H replacing an -OH group (e.g. Deoxyribose is the deoxy form of the "normal" sugar Ribose, since it has an -H group on the 2' carbon instead of an -OH group. "De" "Oxy" literally means take away and Oxygen.) ------ EXAMPLE: https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-bfd3f152aeec7be9968ba3fc97ff87df

Term: situational approach

suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context -----Also Related to: Attribution Theory

Term: dispositional approach

suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by your own personality -----Also Related to: Attribution Theory

differentiate natural selection evolution and survival of the fittest

survival of the fittest = natural selection which both lead to evolution

process of an osteoblast maturing

synthesis inorganic and organic material that forms the bone matrix, then becomes osteocyte

Term: Anomic Aphasia

the inability of a person to produce correct words for a topic in which they'd like to speak; aka the inability to NAME something; "a" = without, "nom" = name; (e.g. a girl looking at an orange in front of her can describe that the shape is round and the color is around, but they still have trouble identifying that the object is indeed an orange) "-----Also Related to: dysnomia nominal aphasia amnesic aphasia

Term: Conduction Aphasia

the inability of a person to repeat what they hear. Caused by damage to the Arcuate Fasiculus, which is the connection between Broca's and Wernicke's Area

Term: ego-dystonic

the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome

Term: Intersectionality

the interplay between multiple demographic factors, especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression "-----Also Related to: Race Ethnicity Social class

Prokaryotic gene expression-------- TERM: Why might there be an initial lag in bacterial colony growth before increasing growth, after there is a change to their environment, such as the addition of a new polysaccharide?

the lag may to due to a period in which bacteria are regulating their gene expression (of enzymes). The regulation of gene expression is one method by which bacteria respond to changes in their environment, in this case the new addition of something that would aid in their growth. Before this addition, the bacteria lacked any enzymes to facilitate this growth because the genes for these enzymes were not yet expressed. However upon addition to a new polysaccharide to their environment, they increase gene expression of the necessary enzymes in order to use it as fuel. The growth of the colony occurs when these genes have been expressed and thus they are able to digest the polysaccharide for fuel.

genetic fitness

the likelihood that an organism's genes will survive either by the continued life of the organism or being passed through reproduction

Topic: Starches ------ Term: Amylose

the linear glucose unit that makes up starches; linked via α-1,4 glycosidic bonds ------ EXAMPLE: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fengwei_Xie/publication/274961277/figure/fig2/AS:294958704676867@1447335043832/Fig-2-Chemical-structures-of-amylose-and-amylopectin-molecules-of-starch.png ------ Also Related to: Starches

what does interstitial fluid allow

the movement of material into and out of cells from example, blood vessels

Powerstroke

the myosin pulls on the actin and the actin slides toward the middle of the sarcomere

Term: Sleeper Effect

the phenomena where persuasive propaganda that you originally disagree with becomes more agreeable over time because over time you forget the context of the propaganda given and accept it because it's in your memory (aka you sleep on it)

" Term: Glass Ceiling

the phenomenon that explains how women are less frequently promoted in the workpalce and may have more difficulty attaining top-level administrative positions within a company -----Also Related to: Feminist Theory

" Topic: Buffers ------ Term: Buffer Region

the portion of a titration curve in which the concentration of acid HA is approximately equal to that of its conjugate base A-; pH remains relatively constant through this region

Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: Mutarotation

the process in which one anomeric form of a cyclic sugar molecule shifts to another (aka shifting between α- or β- conformation)... with the straight-chain form as an intermediate ------ EXAMPLE: http://photobucket.com/gallery/http://s1005.photobucket.com/user/GaminiOC/media/mutarotation2.png.html

" TERM: Binary Fission

the process of cell replication by prokaryotes (bacteria such as E.coli) where the new copy of DNA is attacted to the cell membrane and then the cell splits in half between the two copies of DNA

" amino acids: Term: pI of Acidic amino acids

under 7

what are the three types of ion channels

ungated, voltage-gated, and ligand-gated

Term: Latent Function

unintended positive conssequences on other parts of society that result from manifest functions (e.g. an unstated or unrecognized latent function of schools is that it creates stronger interpersonal bonds among students and provide a sense of identity for an individual, this is known as the "hidden curriculum" of education) "-----Also Related to: Functionalism Hidden Curriculum

Genetics: DNA techniques-------- TERM: Taq polyermase

used in PCR

Genetics: DNA techniques-------- TERM: Southern Blot

used to analyze DNA

Genetics: Protein Isolation-------- TERM: Western Blot

used to analyze Proteins (and anything associated with proteins such as posttranslational modificaiton of proteins via histone acetylation)

Genetics: RNA techniques-------- TERM: Northern Blot

used to analyze RNA

Michaelis-Menten equation

v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S]); very stupid korny stuff

what is the overarching focus of Functional Theory

views parts of psychology/sociology like a human body: when indiviudal parts work cohesively together, the total whole is in equilibrium and harmony.

Viruses: Retroviruses-------- TERM: immature viruses

viruses that are missing their own envelope

" TERM: Organogenesis

weeks 4-9 of prenatal development where production and development of the organs begin. Chemical or radiation exposure during this time is more likely to cause abnormalities that compromise viability of the embryo

" RNA and the Genetic Code: Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes-------- TERM: How is the Lac Operon expressed?

when a lactose molecule (acting as the inducer) binds to the repressor protein (which is found on the Lac Operon's operator region), the repressor will then change shape and will come OFF the operator site. Now that the repressor is off, RNA Polymerase is not blocked and is free to transcribe the lac Z, Y, and A region in order for the necessary proteins to be made so that E. Coli to metabolize lactose. Also Related to------https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3i-OUb5z1k

" The Pancreas β-cells Secretes Insulin In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

when blood glucose levels are high (after a meal) ------ Blood ------ "↓ blood glucose via: ↑ conversion of glucose into its storage form, glycogen (aka glycogenesis) ↑ uptake of blood glucose into tissue

The HeartSecretes Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) In response to_______; To Cause__________

when blood pressure is too high ------ "decreases blood pressure when it is high via: ↓ Aldosterone ↑ urination (aka promotes water loss) ↓ water retention ↓ blood volume ↑ vasodilation" ----Note:antagonistic to Aldosterone

when can a dihybrid cross not work

when genes are linked

Viruses: Retroviruses-------- TERM: budding

when immature viruses without their envelope "bud" off of the host cell, and use the membrane of the host cell as their new envelope when they exit

describe an isolated system

when there is no heat or work, so the change internal energy must zero

what is adiabathic

when there is no heat transfer, thus any change in internal energy must be from the system either doing work or having work performed on it.

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time due to external pressures

whats an example of when you will need to use a 10^of x function

when you are given the ph and CB and Acid concentrations and want to find the Ka

purpose of transamination

when you eat protein it get broken down to amino acids. they will travel thorugh the blood stream to respective areas of need. However there can be excess. This is where the coupling of Transamination and GDH comes in Transamination takes an amino acid that ingested and turns it in to its keto acid form, while a plentiful keto acid we had in our body gets turned into its amino acid form. Typically this alpha keto acid is alpha keto gluturate, which is turned into glutamine, then the glutamine is used in GDH where the glutamine with NAD+ and water turn, the glutamine back into alpha keto gluterate and produce nadh and Ammonium. The different amino acids produce different keto acids that feed into the krebs cycle, thus the purpose of the initial stage of transamination, then the NADH is used in oxidative phosphorylation, and then the excess ammonium enters the UREA cycle

Thermodynamic Definition of Work

work is done by a system on its surroundings, also in other words work is the transfer of energy from this system to the surroundings

What is the action of Pepsinogen

zymogen (inactive) form of pepsin. It only becomes activated into pepsin at low pH

Sign conventions for mirrors

note: on the MCAT, for almost all problems involving mirrors, the object will be placed in front of the mirror. Thus, the object distance (o) is almost always positive

Term: Place Theory

posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane

what is k

pr

reticular cells

produce reticular fiber stroma that supports other cells in lymphoid organs

" What is the action of Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)

produces F-2,6-BP, which activates PFK-1

General Chemistry: Characteristicsof an Ideal Gas-------- temperatureof a gas Relationship between ideal gas behavior

proportional-------- As the temperature of a gas is decreased, the average speed of the gas molecules decreases and the attractive intermolecular forces become increasingly significant. By definition, an Ideal Gas is a gas that does NOT participate in any intermolecular interactions. For example, oxygen gas behaves more ideally at 500ºK than at 200ºK.

Biochemistry: Aerobic Metabolism-------- proton-motive force Relationship between energy available for generating ATP

proportional-------- Assuming no inhibition occurs, protons are pumped into the intermembrane space, thereby increasing the proton-motive force. The proton-motive force is directly proportional to the energy stored in the concentration gradient; therefore, the larger the proton-motive force is, the more energy available for generating ATP. Because NADH donates electrons to the ETC at Complex I and FADH2 donates electrons to the ETC at Complex II, this explains why NADH yields more ATP than FADH2. (2.5 vs. 1.5 ATP)

Behavioral Sciences: Psychology: Sensation-------- magnitude of a stimulus Relationship between just-noticeable difference(JND)

proportional-------- Based on Weber's Law:∆I / I = kIt states that the just-noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuliiFor example, if the just-noticeable difference (JND) of a 10 kg weight is 1 kg, then the JND of a 50 kg weight would be 5 kg.

"What is secreted from the Adrenal Medulla (aka the inner region of the adrenal gland)

" Epinepherine Norepinepherine

"What is secreted from the Liver Kidneys Lungs

" Renin-Aldosterone-Angiotensin System (RAAS) Angiotensin II

Topic: Phase Diagrams ------ "Term: critical point (also known as critical temperature)

" the temperature at which the liquid and gas phases become indistinguishable

What is the action of Glycogen Synthase

"Forms alpha-1,4 glycosidic bond for linear chains of glycogen. Rate-limiting enzyme in Glycogenesis

Amino Acids amino acids that are strictly Ketogenic

"Mnemonic: the two amino acids that begin with L can be converted into acetyL CoA." "Meaning- Ketogenic amino acids, by definition, are ones that can be degraded into Acetyl-CoA. Glucogenic amino acids are those that can be converted into Pyruvate, the by-product of Glucose. The two amino acids that are exclusively ketogenic (and can be converted into AcetyLLLL CoA) are the only two amino acids that begin with the letter L." Krebs Cycle

Carbohydrate Structure Structures of Common Monosaccharides

"Mnemonic: • Ribose is ALL RIGHT • ""**** you Glucose (middle finger)"" • Mannose looks like a man holding a gun (C-2 epimer) • Galactose is the C-4 epimer of glucose • Fructose is the ketose of glucose" "Meaning- watch the video at 7:40 for explanation --->" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5xnGyw2llY

Genetics: Term: Heterochromatin

"Tightly coiled DNA that in inaccessible to transcription. think ""dark, dense, and silent"" mnemonic; HeteroChromatin = Highly Condensed" ------Also related to: gene silencing

" Term: β-particle

"a high-energy, high-speed ELECTRON (β-) or POSITRON (β+) emitted in beta-decay loss of a β- particle results in: • mass number stays the same • atomic number increases by 1 loss of a β+ particle results in: • mass number stays the same • atomic number decreases by 1

Term: Achieved Status

"a person's social status that is gained strictly as result of one's efforts or choices. (e.g. being a valedictorian or a doctor)"

" Enzymes: Term: Apoenzymes

"an enzyme WITHOUT its cofactor (hint: the prefix ""a"" means without)

" Term: Exchange Theory

"an extension of the rational choice theory but applied to social interaction. posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments (e.g. a behavior that is met with approval by others will be reinforced and its continuation will be encouraged; conversely, behaviors that are met with disapproval by others or punishment will be discouraged)" "-----Also Related to: Operant Conditioning Rational Choice Theory Social Interaction

Term: α-particle

"consists of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a HELIUM nucleus loss of an alpha particle results in: • mass number decreases by 4 • atomic number decreases by 2

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) is involved with what process

"intermediate step between Glycolysis & the Citric Acid Cycle"

Term: Catalytic Efficiency

"is equal to (Kcat) / (KM) (to help remember the equation: ""the cat jumps on top of the mouse""

Term: Gemeinschaft

"means ""Community"" in German - groups that are unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, loyalty, or geography and have more direct bonds, like famililes or close neighborhoods" -----Also Related to: Fernidad Tonnies

Term: Gesellschaft

"means ""Society"" in German - groups formed due to mutual self-interests working together towards the same goal and have more indirect interactions, such as employees working under the same engineering company" -----Also Related to: Fernidad Tonnies

" Evolution-------- TERM: Divergent evolution

"two or more species diverge from a common ancestor (e.g. dog, wolf, and fox; elephant and whooly mammoth) - hint: to ""diverge"" means to separate from the same point

Associated names to know with Behavioral Theory

"• B.F. Skinner • Ivan Pavlov • Albert Bandura

" TERM: Gram-Positive Cell Walls

"• dyes purple • contain a THICK peptidoglycan layer

cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

-proteins found on surface of most cells -aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or to other cells

tunica interna (intima)

-smooth inner layer that repels blood cells and platelets -simple squamous endothelium overlying a basement membrane and layer of fibrous tissue

what is R

0.0821 atm L/mol K

what are the types of cell adhesion molecules

1. Cadherins 2. IgG superfamily 3. Selectins 4. Integrins

what is antilog?

10^

" The Adrenal Cortex Secretes Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Angiotensin II ------ "Kidneys (distal convoluted tubule; collecting duct) ------" " ↑ Na+ and water reabsorption in kidneys via sodium-potassium channels (Na first, then water follows b/c physics) ↑ blood volume ↑ blood pressure ↓ K+ and H+ (via excretion) does not change blood osmolality, unlike ADH

The Hypothalamus Secretes Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF). To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Anterior Pituitary ------ ↑ ACTH

The Hypothalamus Secretes Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Anterior Pituitary ------ ↑ GH

The Hypothalamus Secretes Thyroid-Releasing Hormone (TRH). To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Anterior Pituitary ------ ↑ TSH

Term: Social Construction Model

Assumes there is no biological basis for emotions, but emotions are based on experiences and situational context alone. One must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation.

What is secreted from the Heart

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Term: Impression Management

Attempt to influence how others perceive us. Also called Self-Presentation. -----Also Related to: Dramaturgical Approach

Term: Histrionic Personality Disorder

Attention seeker. Drama queen. May use seductive behavior to gain attention. -----Also Related to: Cluster B Personality Disorder

Term: Learning Theory of Attitude

Attitudes are developed through different forms of learning (observational, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, etc). E.g. attitude towards candy after tasting it and learning its sweet.

isothermic

Basically when temperature of the system is constant, the change in the internal kinetic energy of the system of the system must remain constant. Thus any heat energy added must be put out as work. Thus making energy and work equal. Example is combustion of a car making heat that is immediately used as work to make the pistons move.

" Term: Deindividuation

Being in the presence of a large group provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity, which can dramatically change behavior. May lead to antinormative behavior such as violence during a riot. "-----Also Related to: ""Mob mentality"" Riots

" Term: Culture

Beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. Learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, then adopting them.

What is the action of Dipeptidase

Breaks dipeptides into monopeptides (e.g. 2 ---> 1 and 1)

" What is the action of Debranching Enzyme

Breaks the first alpha-1,4, bond from the branch and moves to end of a linear chain, then hydrolyzes alpha-1,6 bond and releases a final glucose molecule... hence it has "2 activities"

isoprene

C5H8

" The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

CRF ------ Adrenal Cortex ------ ↑ glucocorticoids (like cortisol) ----Note:associated with stress

Vasa Recta

Capillaries that surround the loop of Henle as the second capillary be in the renal portal system (the first being the glomeruli)

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Epiglottis

Cartilaginous structure that folds down to cover larynx during swallowing, so food doesn't enter and lead to choking.

What do growth factors stimulate?

Cell growth

Term: Basic Model of Emotional Expression

Established by Charles Darwin. States that since emotions are expressed universally across all cultures, it is thus an evolutionary trait. -----Also Related to: Evolution

What is secreted from the Ovary/Placenta

Estrogen Progesterone

Term: Social Interaction

Explores the ways in which 2+ individuals can both shape each other's behavior.

Term: Stigma

Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society. (e.g. stigma against fat people or dwarfs as if they are placed in a different category than normal society)

Term: Avoidant Personality Disorder

Extreme shyness and fear of rejection. See oneself as socially inept and isolated. Intense desire for social affection and acceptance. Tend to stay in the same job, life situation, and relationships despite wanting to change -----Also Related to: Cluster C personality Disorder

what makes a shingosine

FA + serine

Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: White Fibers

Fast twitch fibers. Less myoglobin. Contract rapidly, but fatigue more quickly.

What is secreted from the Anterior Pituitary

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Prolactin Endorphins "Growth Hormone (GH) aka somatotropin

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Starling Forces

Forces that govern the movement of fluid into the Bowmen's Capsule from the Glomerulus. This is a result of the hydrostatic and oncotic forces of the Bowman's Space and Glomerulus capillaries.

" What is the action of Branching Enzyme

Forms alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds for branching chains of glycogen by breaking off an alpha-1,4 chain and transfering it to a alpha-1,6 bond in a different location.

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Hindbrain

Function: balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes Anatomy - contains the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation Also related to: brain stem

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Fornix

Function: communication within limbic system Anatomy - forebrain Also related to: limbic system

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Cerebral Cortex

Function: complex percetual, cognitive and behavior processes such as emotion and memory (e.g. a cerebral cortex is what separates the cognitive ability of humans from wild animals) Anatomy - outer layer of cerebrum Also related to: forebrain

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Forebrain

Function: complex percetual, cognitive and behavior processes such as emotion and memory (e.g. a developed forebrain is what separates the cognitive ability of humans from wild animals) Anatomy - contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbi system, and cerebral cortex Also related to: cerebral cortex

Hearing Function / Anatomy of: Saccule

Function: detect linear acceleration in the ear

Hearing Function / Anatomy of: Utricle

Function: detect linear acceleration in the ear Also related to: otolithic organs

Hearing Function / Anatomy of: Semicircular canals

Function: detect rotational acceleration in the ear Anatomy - inner ear

Vision Function / Anatomy of: Cones

Function: detects color Anatomy - fovea

Vision Function / Anatomy of: Rods

Function: detects light Anatomy - around the periphery of the retina

Hearing Function / Anatomy of: Cochlea

Function: detects sound Anatomy - inner ear

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Amygdala

Function: emotions (fear and agression) Anatomy - forebrain Also related to: limbic system

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Hypothalamus

Function: in charge of homeostasis (body temperature, endocrine) Anatomy - part of forebrain portions include anterior, superioir, medial and lateral

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Wernicke's Area

Function: language comprehension Anatomy - temporal lobe

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: "dominant" hemisphere

Function: language comprehension, motor function Anatomy - usually the left-hemisphere of the brain

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Hippocampus

Function: memory and learning Anatomy - forebrain Also related to: limbic system

Main psych theories

Functional Theory Biological Theory Behavioral Theory "Social Cognitive Theory/Interactionalist Approach" Psychoanalytic Theory Humanistic Theory

What is secreted from the G-cells

Gastrin

" Genetics: Fundamental Concepts-------- TERM: Mendel's First Law (Law of Segregation)

Genes exist in alleles, of which each person has two of (one from each parent). Gametes only carry one allele due to separation during meiosis of the alleles. Only one allele will be fully expressed if two alleles are different, while one is silent (except for codominance and incomplete dominance)

Linked genes

Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses. This is typical for genes that are close to one another, because during crossing over they won't be separated from one another to determine likelihood use a gene map. 1 map unit is a CENTimorgan and refers to 1% of recombination frequence (or likelihood they will be seperated or recombinant) As the percentage increases the less likely they will stay on the same chromosome thus less likely to be linked.

The Hypothalamus Secretes Orexin In Response to_______; To Cause__________

Ghrelin, hypoglycemia ------ "↑ appetite ↑ alertness" ----Note:lack of Orexin can result in cataplexy (Grrrr (Ghrelin) sound stomach makes) The people in the Orgy (alertness) were eating Oreos (Hunger)

Immune: TERM: Thymus

Gland that matures T-cells. Located between the lungs, just above the heart. Adults don't have

What is secreted from the Pancreas α-cells

Glucagon

Glycogen Phosphorylase is promoted by

Glucagon in the liver, AMP and epinephrine in skeletal muscles.

PEPCK is promoted by

Glucagon, cortisol

What processes occur in the cytoplasm AND mitochondria (in liver)

Gluconeogenesis

" Metabolism: Term: GLUT 2

Glucose transporter in the Liver and Pancreas cells. Senses glucose levels for insulin release.

What processes occur in the cytoplasm

Glycolysis Fermentation "intermediate step between Glycolysis & the Citric Acid Cycle Pentose Phosphate Pathway Fatty Acid Synthesis

" TERM: Intrinsic Factor

Glycoprotein secreted by the parietal cells in the gastric glands in the stomach. It is involved in the absorption of vitamin B12 Also Related to------Parietal Cells

The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

GnRH ------ Gonads ------ "↑ follicate maturation; ↑ egg and sperm production

" The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Luteinizing Hormone (LH) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

GnRH ------ Gonads ------ "↑ ovulation (when follicle releases the egg); ↑ testosterone

What is secreted from the Hypothalamus

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF) Thyroid-Releasing Hormone (TRH) "Prolactin-Inhibiting Factor (PIF) aka dopamine" Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

Term: Subcultures

Groups of people within a culture that distinguish temselves from the primary culture from which they belong. Can be formed based off of race, gener, ethnicity, sexuality, etc. Subcultures can be perceived as negative if they begin to disagree with the primary culture, which can lead to counterculture.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Bile Salts

Have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions to act as an emulsifier in the duodenum to allow fats and cholesterol to form micelles and giving access to pancreatic lipase digestion (a water soluble enzyme). The creation of micells increases surface area of fats for aided digestion by lipases. Formation of micelles is a form of mechanical digestion.

what makes a good indicator

Have intense colors - only a few drops for vivid color At low concentration do not affect the pH of the solution Color change only reflects acids and bases To visually detect when a titration is complete, an indicator that has an endpoint (color change) near the pH of the equivalence point can be added to the solution. Different indicators change color across a particular pH range (endpoint range). The best indicator for a given titration is one that has a pH range that corresponds most closely to the pH of the equivalence point.

How is Humanistic Theory applied to personality

Holistic View of personality. A person is not broken down into traits or specific parts, but should be approached from a holisting perspective. Look at past experiences of person, the sum of multiple influences such as environment.

where are osteoclasts found

Howship's lacunae

what is the overarching focus of Humanistic Theory

Humans are inherently good and strive towards self-actualization (reaching their full damn potential)

what inorganic minerals are stored by bone

HydroxyaPetitis ( calcium, phosphorus and water compound.) My boner P enis = potassium C ums = and Calcium in Her = Hydroxyapetitis

osmotic pressure equation

II=iMRT i: # of particles in solution M: molarity R: gas constant T: tempt in Kelvins

General Chemistry: Solubility Product Constants-------- ion product (IP) Relationship between solubility product Ksp

If IP < Ksp: unsaturatedIf IP = Ksp: saturatedIf Ksp < IP: supersaturated-------- • when IP < Ksp, the solution is unsaturated, and the solute will continue to dissolve• when IP = Ksp, the solution is saturated, and the solution is at equilibrium (ΔG = 0)• when IP > Ksp, the solution is supersaturated, and precipitation will occur similar to Q and K, when Q<K, forward reaction Q=K, eq Q>K, that means that too much product was formed and needs to be reversed.

Respiratory: TERM: Mast Cells

Immune cells in lungs covered with antibodies. Release inflammatory chemicals upon antigen binding to promote immune response. Responsible for respiratory allergic reactions due to reactions with things like pollen and molds. Also Related to------Immune System

Kohlberg development between birth and 2 years old include what happens and roughly when or order

Kohlberg has three phases each with two phases the first runs from birth to puberty Only Pre-Conventional Phase (selfish) Stage 1, Obedience: concerned with avoiding punishment Stage 2, Self-interest: concerned with rewards. Also called "instrumental relativist stage" based on concepts of "i'll scratch your back, you scratch mine"

Respiratory: TERM: Intercostal Muscles

Layers of muscles between the ribs

What is secreted from the Fat Cells (in stomach)

Leptin

Term: Illness Anxiety Disorder

Like Somatic Symptom Disorder, but without the symptoms. Individuals are consumed with the idea of having or developing a serious medical condition. Can obsessively check themselves for illness, or avoid medical appointments altogether.

Glucokinase is found in

Liver

" The Adrenal Medulla Secretes Epinepherine To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Liver, Muscle ------ "↑ glycogenolysis in liver ↑ blood glucose level ↑ heart rate

" The Adrenal Medulla Secretes Norepinepherine To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Liver, Muscle ------ "↑ glycogenolysis in liver ↑ blood glucose level ↑ heart rate" "----Note:Excess leads to mania. Deficiency leads to depression.

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase is inhibited by

Long Chain Fatty Acids, Glucagon

Musculoskeletal: Bones-------- TERM: Synovial Fluid

Lubricates the movements of structures in the joint space. Secreted by soft tissue called the synovium, which is enclosed inside of the joint cavity by the synovial capsule.

Term: Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Major Depressive Disorder with a seasonal onset (winter months). May be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and is often treated with bright light therapy, where patient is exposed to a bright light for a period of time each day. "-----Also Related to: Major Depressive Disorder Melatonin Bright Light Therapy

what are the types of cells in connective tissue

Mast cells, macrophages, fibroblasts, collagenous, elastic

When concentrated urine is being produced, in which of the following regions of the kidney will the glomerular filtrate reach its highest concentration?

Medullary portion of the collecting duct The collecting duct is the final structure in which water reabsorption occurs, which concentrates filtrate. The medullary portion of the collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur. In the portion of the tubule that follows, there will be no more reabsorption. Thus, the medullary portion of the collecting duct contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate that will correspond to the urine.

What is secreted from the Pineal Gland

Melatonin

hexokinase requires _____ for activity

Mg 2+

Physics: Optics-------- mirrors vs. lenses Relationship between positive or negative sign for focal length f

Mirrors:same side = +fopposite side = -fLenses:same side = -fopposite side = +f-------- If you think about "+" as meaning what you "expect" to happen, lenses and mirrors flip flop signs for f because:• for mirrors, you EXPECT the image to be on the SAME side as the object• for lenses, you EXPECT the image to be on the OPPOSITE side of the light sourcethink about how you expect a bathroom mirror vs. your eyeglasses to works.

General Chemistry Diatomic Elements

Mnemonic: BrINClHOF A quick way to remember the naturally occuring diatomic elements on the periodic table: they form the number 7 on the periodic table (except for H), there are 7 of them, and most of them are in Group VIIA (17): H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2"

"Meaning- " Physics Doppler Effect

Mnemonic: "Meaning- if you remember THIS particular format of the Dopper effect equation, then: • the upper sign should be used when the detector or source is moving toward the other object. • the lower sign should be used when teh dectoctor or source is moving away from the other object. Based on the sign convention above, then mathematically: • The perceived frequency ƒ' will be HIGHER than the actual frequency ƒ when the source and detector are moving TOWARD each other. • The perceived frequency ƒ' will be LOWER than the actual frequency ƒ when the source and detector are moving AWAY from each other. • The perceived frequency ƒ' can be higher, lower, or equal to the actual frequency ƒ when two objects are moving in the same direction, depending on their relative speeds vs and v0."

General Chemistry Paramagnetic Materials

Mnemonic: "Paramagnetic" means that a magnetic field will cause parallel spins in unpaired electrons and therefore cause an attraction to a para (pair of) magnets "Meaning- The presence of paired or unpaired electrons affects the chemical and magnetic properties of an atom or molecule. Materials composed of atoms with UNPAIRED electrons will orient their spins in alignment with a magnetic field, and the material will thus be weakly ATTRACTED to the magnetic field. These materials are considered paramagnetic. In contrast, diamagnetic materials have all of its electrons paired and experiences a repulsion to a magnetic field."

waves waves of increasing frequency (and thus energy)

Mnemonic: "Real Men In Violet Underwear... eXtremely Gorgeous" "Meaning- Radiowaves -> Microwaves -> Infrared -> Visible light -> UV -> X-rays -> Gamma-rays"

embryogenesis Endoderm

Mnemonic: linings of the "endernal" organs "Meaning- the digestive and respiratory tracts, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder) to these systems"

What is secreted from the hypothalamus

Orexin

Term: Cultural Diffusion

The spread of cultural norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

What is secreted from the Thymus

Thymosin

" Bioenergetics: Term: Hess's Law

Total Enthalpy change of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy change of each step of the reaction

Enzymes: Term: Dehydrogenase

Transfer a hydride ion (H-) to an electron acceptor such as NAD+ or FAD.

What are G-protein coupled receptors?

Transmembrane receptor proteins that bind to an alpha, beta, gamma complex of proteins on the inner membrane. When a ligand binds the transmembrane receptor, the receptor causes the alpha subunit to release GDP and bind GTP. The alpha, beta, and gamma proteins then disconnect from the receptor and act as second messengers to transmit the signal to other proteins in the signaling pathways.

" Viruses: 3 Ways Viruses can enter a Host Cell-------- TERM: Injection

Viruses: 3 Ways Viruses can enter a Host Cell-------- TERM: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis() Viruses: 3 Ways Viruses can enter a Host Cell-------- "TERM: Fusion (also known as non-receptor mediated endocytosis)()" Also Related to------HIV

on the mcat seX linked is

X linked

diamagnetism

a type of magnetism, associated with paired electrons, that causes a substance to be repelled from the inducing magnetic field

Term: Prejudice

behavior

What are osteoclasts derived from?

blood monocytes

" Topic: Common Disaccharides ------ Term: Lactose

composed of a galactose + glucose... connected a β-1,4 glycosidic bond ------ EXAMPLE: http://chemistry.berea.edu/~biochemistry/2008/ah/lactose.bmp "------ Also Related to: glucose galactose

what can multiple fibroblasts be considered

connective tissue

Term: sp2 bond angle

double bond; 120°

Aminopeptidaseis produced by

duodenum

" Term: Bonding orbital

formed by 2 in-phase orbitals

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- pOH Relationship between [OH-]

inverse-------- General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- Ka Relationship between acidity (dissociation) "strength"! proportional-------- The strongest acids, such as HCl, have high Ka's (and low Kb's)

General Chemistry: Characteristics of a Covalent Bond-------- bond length Relationship between bond energy

inverse-------- (explained by combining the two relationships above; e.g. triple bonds have the shortest bond legnth and greatest bond energy)

General Chemistry: Atmospheric Pressure-------- height above earth Relationship between mercurcy heightin a barometer column

inverse-------- A reading on a barometer can be obtained by measuring the height of the mercurcy column (in mm), which will be directly proportional to the incident (usually atmospheric) pressure being applied to the mercury. At the top of a mountain, atmospheric pressure is lower, causing the column to fall because mercury flows out of the column under its own weight. Under water, hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the barometer in addition to atmospheric pressure, causing the column to rise because more mercury is forced into the column.

Physics: Physics: Forces and Acceleration-------- height h above the earth Relationship between acceleration due to gravity g

inverse-------- Acceleration due to gravity, g, DECREASES as the height of the object above Earth INCREASES. And vice versa, acceleration increases the closer one gets to the Earth's center of mass. Near the Earth's surface, g = 10 m/s^2. (e.g. acceleration due to gravity is less up in mount everest than it is at sea level)

Physics: Pressure-------- altitude(aka height from the Earth's surface) Relationship between atmospheric pressure

inverse-------- As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases:• residents of Denver (5280 feet above sea level) experience atmostpheric pressure equal to 632 mmHg (0.83 atm)• travelers making their way through Death Valley (282 feet below sea level) experience atmospheric pressure equal to 767 mmHg (1.01 atm) As altitude increases, the amount of gas molecules in the air decreases—the air becomes less dense than air nearer to sea level. This is what meteorologists and mountaineers mean by "thin air." Thin air exerts less pressure than air at a lower altitude.

General Chemistry: Maxwell-BoltzmannDistribution Curve-------- molar massof a molecule Relationship between speedof the molecule

inverse-------- As shown in a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve and the equation for Root-Mean-Square Speed (urms):the larger a molecule is, the slower they move. For example, a Helium gas particle (which has a molar mass of 4 g/mol) will move faster than Xenon gas particle (which has a molar mass of 131.3 g/mol) because Helium is lighter in weight.http://www.entropy-book.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Fig.-3-graph-hot-cold-correct.jpg

Physics: Sound-------- distance between a moving source of sound (like a train) and the detector (listener) Relationship between perceived frequency f 'andperceieved pitch

inverse-------- Based on the Doppler Effect:As the sound source and detector move closer relative to each other, frequency of the sound detected increases. (e.g. Imagine how when you standing still at a subway station... when the train is far from you, the pitch starts off low. As the train gets closer, the pitch of the sound emitted gets higher, aka the frequency is higher)

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- # of passage ways in parallel Relationship between total resistance of fluid

inverse-------- During exhalation, the total resistance of the encountered airways increases as the air leaves the alveoli to escape out of the nose and mouth. This increase in total resistance is due to the fact that there are fewer airways in parallel with each other as air exits the respiratory system.

General Chemistry: Solutions-------- dissolution Relationship between ΔS of the SOLVENT

inverse-------- [2] (following up from the NaCl example from above) Unlike the solute during dissolution, the solvent (such as water) becomes more restricted in its movement because it is now interacting with the ions. Thus the number of energy microstates available to water (that is, the water molecules' ability to move around in different ways) is reduced, so the entropy of water decreases.

distance through which a force must be applied in order to do a given amount of work Relationship between amount of force required to accomplish that amount of work

inverse-------- based on one of the equations of mechanical Work:W = F • d Using simple machines to provide mechanical advantage (reducing the force needed to accomplish a given amount of work) does have a cost associated with it; the distance through which the smaller force must be applied in order to do the work must be increased. This is illustrated in inclined planes. For example, pushing a 100 N block up an incline over a distance of 20 m to a height of 10 m requires half as much force than trying to raise the block vertically 10 m. This is because the incline distributes the workload over a greater distance to perform the same amount of work.

General Chemistry: Collision Theoryof Chemical Kinetics-------- activation energy Ea Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

inverse-------- based on the Arrhenius equation, which is a sophisticated mathemetical representation of Collision Theory:k = Ae^(-Ea / RT)As the magnitude of the exponent gets smaller, it actually moves from a more negative value toward zero (because of the negative sign of the exponent in the equation. Thus, mathematically, as Ea decreases, the rate constant k also increases. This should make sense conceptually because a low activation energy means that the reacting molecules do not need to collide with as much energy, and thus the number of effective collisions and reaction rate increases.

Physics: Magnetism-------- distance from the current(r) Relationship between magnitude of the Magnetic Field B

inverse-------- based on the equation for Magnetic Field:B = (μ I) / (2 π r)Magnetic field is stronger closer to a current-carrying wire. For example, when you decrease the distance to a current-carrying wire by half, the magnitude of the magnetic field is greater by double.

Physics: First Law of Thermodynamics-------- amount of work done BY a system Relationship between internal energy of the system∆U

inverse-------- based on the equation for internal energy:ΔU = ± Q ± WThe first law of thermodynamics tells us that the total internal energy of a system will DECREASE when either (3) heat is lost/dissipated from the system or (4) work is being performed by the system. An example of this is when a Pogo stick bounces off of the driveway surface, it is doing work on the surface (aka its surrounding). Consequently, the internal energy of the Pogo stick is lost.

Physics: Refraction-------- index of refraction n Relationship between angle ϴ of refraction(measured from the normal)

inverse-------- demonstrated by Snell's Law:n1 (sin ϴ1) = n2 (sin ϴ2) as n1 increases, then sinϴ1 decreases, meaning that ϴ1 decreases.

Term: Fertility Rate

is measured as the number of children per woman during her lifetime

Topic: Titrations ------ Term: endpoint

is the point of a titration where the indicator reaches its final (hence, "end") color.

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)is produced by

lungs

Genetics: Mitosis-------- TERM: Open Mitosis

mitosis that occurs in the cytoplasm because the nuclear envelope has degraded

nonenzymatic protein function

motor, structural, cell adhesion molecules, ion channels, enzyme linked receptors, g protein coupled receptors

"3º and 4º Protein Structure: " Term: What is the primary motivation for hyrophobic residues in a polypeptide to move to the interior of the protein?

moving hydrophobic residues to the interior of a protein increases entropy by allowing water molecules on the protein's surface to have more possible positions and configurations. This positive ΔS makes ΔG more negative, stabilizing the protein

what are the motor proteins

myosin, kinesin, dynein

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) is inhibited by

normal or high blood pressure

chromosomal mutations vs nucleotide mutations

nucleotide mutation, is a smaller mutation. The chromosomal mutations are huge.

" Topic: UV Spectroscopy ------ Term: conjugation

occurs in molecules with unhyridized p-orbitals (π bonds). Conjugation shifts the absorption spectrum to higher maximum wavelengths (lower frequencies). ------ Also Related to: UV spectroscopy

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells-------- TERM: Transduction

occurs when a bacteriophage acquires genetic information from a host cell. Sometimes, when the new virions are assembled in a host cell, some of the genetic material from the host cell is packaged along with the viral genetic material. Then, the bacteriophage infects another bacterium, resulting in transfer of bacterial genetic material.

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells-------- TERM: Transformation

occurs when a bacterium acquires a piece of genetic material from the environment and integrates that piece of genetic material into the host cell genome. This is a common method by which antibiotic resistance can be acquired Also Related to------antibiotic resistance

Term: neologisms

occurs when a person with schizophrenia invents new words -----Also Related to: disorganized thought

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: shielding of protons

occurs when electron-donating gorups allow electron density to be focused toward the nucleus, "shielding" it from a magnetic field and allowing the nucleus to not be as affected by the magnetic field. Shielding moves a peak upfield (to the right).

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: deshielding of protons

occurs when electron-withdrawing groups pull electorn density AWAY from the nucleus, allowing it to be more easily affected by the magnetic field. Deshielding moves a peak further downfield (to the left).

Hardy-Weingberg Equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

The initial filtration step in the glomerulus of the mammalian kidney occurs primarily by:

passive flow due to a pressure difference. There are three pressures that work together to regulate filtration in the glomerulus: glomerular capillary pressure, capsular hydrostatic pressure, and blood colloid osmotic pressure. The glomerular capillary pressure will force filtrate from a capillary into Bowman's capsule; the other two forces promote movement of the filtrate in the opposite direction.

What is Humanistic Theory typically applied to?

personality

What is Psychoanalytic Theory typically applied to?

personality and dreams

What makes up blood?

plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other nutrients traveling like proteins, horomones, salts.

" TERM: Pentose Phosphate Pathway

primary purpose is to regenerate NADPH, which is used as a reducing equivalent with glutathione for biosynthesis. Occurs in the cytoplasm. Rate limiting enzyme is glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which is inactivated by NADP+ and insulin. Inhibited by sufficient levels of NADPH of course

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- number of electrons exchanged during a redox reaction Relationship between chemical change inducedin an electrolytic (+ΔG) cell

proporitonal-------- Michael Faraday's laws state that the liberation of gas and deposition of elements on electrodes is directly proportional to the number of moles of electrons being transferred during the oxidation-reduction reaction. Here, normality or game equivalent weights is used. These observations are proxy measurements of the amount of current flowing in a circuit.

Physics: Sound-------- amplitude Aof a sound wave Relationship between intensity Iof the sound wave

proportional(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- Intensity of a sound wave and its intensity are related to each other: intensity is proportional the SQUARE of the amplitude. Therefore, doubling the amplitude produces a sound wave that has four times the intensity (aka, for times the energy transfer per area).

Physics: Kinetic Energy-------- speed of an object Relationship between kinetic energy

proportional(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- based on the Kinetic Energy Equation:K = (1/2)mv^2we see that the kinetic energy is a function of the square of the speed. If the speed doubles, then the kinetic energy will quadruple (assuming mass is constant). Also note that the kinetic energy is related to speed, not velocity. An object has the same kinetic energy REGARDLESS of the direction of its velocity vector.

General Chemistry: Chemical Kinetics-------- substrate concentration Relationship between enzyme turnover rate

proportional(until a max rate is reached)-------- High substrate conditions saturate the active sites of the enzyme, leading to maximal turnover.

Physics: Kinematics-------- area of contact Relationship between frictional forces f

proportional--------

Organic Chemistry: Organic Reactions-------- ring strain Relationship between reactivity

proportional-------- 4-membered ring structures (like Beta Lactams in penicillin) are more reactive than 6-ring structures due to ring strain.

Physics: Exponential Decay-------- the RATE at which a radioactive nuclei decays in a sample(Δn / Δt) Relationship between the number of radioactive nuclei n that REMAINS(aka the number that has not yet decayed)

proportional-------- Demonstrated by the Rate of Nuclear Decay Equation and Exponential Decay Equation/Curves:Δn / Δt = - λ n and N(t) = N0 e^ -λtThe rate at which radioactive nuclei decay, Δn / Δt, is proportional to the number that remain, "-n". In other words, the rate of exponential decay slows down when there is less sample remaining. This relationship is also illustrated in a typical exponential decay curve http://schoolbag.info/physics/physics_math/physics_math.files/image653.jpg ; notice how at points on the curve where the slope (aka the rate of change) is the steeper, the percentage of sample remaining is higher.

General Chemistry: Entropy-------- energy distributedinto a system at a given temperature Relationship between entropy ΔSof the system

proportional-------- Entropy is a measure of the degree to which energy has een spread out throughout a system or between its surroundings. When energy is distributed INTO a system at a given temperature, its entropy increases. When energy is distributed OUT of a system at a given temperature, its entropy decreases.

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- number of ionspresent in solution(total # of cations + anions after dissociation) Relationship between electrical conductivity(electrolyte strength)

proportional-------- In comparing MgCl2 and HNO3, since MgCl2 dissociates into 3 ions total in solution (one Mg2+ and two Cl- ions), and HNO3 dissociates into 2 ions total (one H+ and one NO3- ion), MgCl2 is said to have a higher electrical conductivity and is a better electrolyte.

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- proximinity to the centerof a closed pipe Relationship between linear speed of fluid

proportional-------- Laminar flow is the movement of a fluid characterized by the smooth and orderly flow lines of a fluid that flow parallel to each other. However, the layers will not necessarily have the same linear speed; the layer closest to the wall of a pipe flows more slowly than the more interior layers of fluid because of the friction-like forces against the wall that oppose the movement of fluid.

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- Kb Relationship between basicity (dissociation) "strength"

proportional-------- The strongest bases, such as NaOH, have high Kb's (and low Ka's)

Organic Chemistry: Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy-------- wavenumber Relationship between frequency

proportional-------- Wavenumber (defined as 1/λ) is inversely proportional to wavelength, and directly proportional to frequency (c/λ).

General Chemistry: Collision Theoryof Chemical Kinetics-------- frequency factor A Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

proportional-------- based on the Arrhenius equation, which is a sophisticated mathemetical representation of Collision Theory:k = Ae^(-Ea / RT)As the frequency factor A, a measure of how often molecules in a certain reaction collide, increases... the rate constant of the reaction also increaces in a direct relationship.

Organic Chemistry: OrganicChemistry: Spectroscopy-------- strength of bond(single < double < triple) Relationship between vibration frequency

proportional-------- due to combining the concept that bonds are like springs with Hooke's Lawhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETdNsO7mKXM

Biology: Diffusion-------- • concentration gradient,• surface area,• kinetic energy (aka temperature) Relationship between rate of diffusion

proportional-------- ex: Demyelination of the axon is a major concern for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients. The scavenging of myelin on the axon results in a greater surface area of the neuron exposed for interaction. Thus, there is increased diffusion of electrolytes down their neural concentration gradient. The higher the concentration gradient (aka, the greater the difference in concentration between the high-concentration area vs. low-concentration area), the greater the rate of diffusion).

General Chemistry: Spectroscopy-------- wavelength absorption of a sunscreen Relationship between ability of the sunscreen to block UV light

proportional-------- in a wavelength vs. absorption plot, the area under the curve represents the amount of UV light a sunscreen can absorb. For a given sunscreen, more area under the curve = more effective sunscreen

General Chemistry: Ideal Gas Law-------- Temperature T(in Kelvin) Relationship between Volume Vthat a gas occupies

proportional-------- shown by Charles' Law and the Ideal Gas Law:(V1) / (T1) = constant = (V2) / (T2)

General Chemistry: Ideal Gas Law-------- Pressure P Relationship between Temperature T(in Kelvin)

proportional-------- shown by Gay-Lussac's Law and the Ideal Gas Law:(P1) / (T1) = constant = (P2) / (T2)

Biochemistry: Ion exchange chromatography-------- Overall positive chargeon a protein Relationship between binding affinity to cation-exchange column

proportional-------- • Proteins with an overall positive charge will bind better to cation-exchange columns. More positive charge = tighter binding to the cation exchange column.• Oppositely, proteins with an overall negative charge will bind better to anion-exchange columns, and weaker to a cation-exchange column. More negative charge = tighter binding to the anion exchange column.

What is elastin?

protein base similar to collagen that forms elastic tissue

what are the filaments

protein molecules used in microfilaments and microtubules

The Hypothalamus Secretes Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

puberty ------ Anterior Pituitary ------ ↑ FSH and LH

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: upfield

refer to lower chemical shifts, located to the RIGHT on the x-axis in NMR spectra ------ Also Related to: Shielding

Topic: Covalent Bond Notation ------ Term: bonding electrons

refers to the valence electrons that are involved in a covalent bond

Term: Heuristic

simplified principles used to make decisions; also known as "rules of thumb". Can often lead us to a correct decision, but not always.

Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: What is the direction of current flow in ALL types of electrochemical cells?

since current is defined as the flow of positive charge, the direction of current (I) in electrochemical cells is from the cathode to the anode.

Term: sp3 bond angle

single bond; 109.5°

where would you find desmosomes

skin and heart, even the intestines( so the intestinal cells can have desmosomes and tight junctions throughout)

what are lacunae

small cavities that contain osteocytes

what muscles have gap junctions

smooth and cardiac

what does functional theory apply to

society and attitudes

" Term: Instinct Theory

states that people perform certain behaviors because of instincts that are evolutionary programmed (e.g. ducks migrating for the winter; bears hibernating)

Term: Trait Theory

states that personality traits describe overall personality and describe it as a pattern of behavior

Phosphoglycerate Kinase is considered what type of phosphorylation

substrate-level phosphorylation

" Term: Spreading Activation

the phenomenon by which one concept within a semantic network becoming active subconsciously activates related and semantically-linked concepts (e.g. a 3-year-old girl trying to remember the name of a fruit, such as apple, is better at recalling it when she is first presented with other red objects, such as a stop sign or a fire truck)

gene mapping

the process of determining the locus for a particular biological trait.

Term: Symbolic Interactionism

theoretial framework that studies social interaction and communication through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols (e.g. sign language, "thumbs-up", "the middle finger", facial expressions, hugs, body language) -----Also Related to: Social Interaction

Term: Stereotype

thought

what can cholesterol form

with modification can go different pathways for different functions

" The G-cells Secretes Gastrin To Cause__________

"↑ HCl secretion ↑ gastric motility to mix contents

" "what is the overarching focus of Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach

" "NATURE + NUTURE (both play a role; both need to be examined)

What is the action of Hexokinase

"Irreversibly phosphorylates glucose, facilitated by Mg 2+; this ""traps"" the glucose and prevents it from exiting the cell. • consumes 1 ATP

" The parathyroid Secretes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) To Cause__________

"↑ blood calcium level by promoting reabsorbtion of calcium into blood from the bones. activates Vitamin D and osteoclasts.

" The thyroid Secretes Calcitonin To Cause__________

"↓ blood calcium level "" tones down [blood Ca] ""

Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: Pyranose

6 membered carbohydrate ring ------ EXAMPLE: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Haworth_Projection.png

pyranose

6 membered ring

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Hexose

6-carbon sugars

The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Endorphins To Cause__________

"↓ the perception of pain in the brain; ↑ euphoria" ----Note:the "runner's high" experienced after intense aerobic exercise is the result of increased release of endorphins

Bioenergetics: Term: Gibbs Free Energy Equation

"∆G = ∆H - T∆S. A reaction proceeds spontaneously if ∆G is negative remember the mnemonic: ""Goldfish (are) Horrible (without) TartarSauce.""

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Triose

3-carbon sugars

Cognition "Schemas: Assimilation vs. Accommodation

" "Mnemonic: • Assimilation has two s's • Accommodation has two c's." "Meaning- • Assimilation refers to taking in new information from your environment and adding it to the "Same Schema". (two s's = same schema) • Accommodation refers to taking in new information from your environment, but since it doesn't match an existing schema you have in your head, you have to "Change your existing schema or Create a new schema (two c's = change and create)." https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/processing-the-environment/cognition/v/schemas-assimilation-and-accommodation-2

Chemistry General Chemistry "Atomic Mass vs. Atomic Weight

" "Mnemonic: • Atomic MASS is nearly synonymous with MASS number. • Atomic WEIGHT is a WEIGHTED average of naturally occuring isotopes of that element." "Meaning- The atomic mass of an atom (in amu) is nearly equal to its mass number, the sum of its protons and neutrons. In nature, almost all elements exist as two or more isotopes, and these isotopes are usually present in the same proportions in any sample of naturally occuring element. The weighted average of these different isotopes is refered to as the atomic weight and is the number reported on the periodic table."

"How is Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach applied to language

" "BOTH biological AND social factors have to interact. Children's desire to communicate with others, such as adults in their life, motivates them to learn language. Believe that children develop language through social interaction with adults who already know the language. Only through the interaction do children learn to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn.

"TERM: Exonuclease activity (""exo"" means on the end)

" "DNA repair that occurs at the END of a DNA strand. Performed by DNA Polymerase III in which there was an accidentally mismatched nucleotide (such as a Thymine with a Guanine) but the DNA Polymerase III detects this mistake and corrects it (pairing the Thymine with an Adenosine). • Occurs in 3' to 5', aka backwards. Performed by DNA Polyermase I when it removes the RNA primer." "Also Related to------DNA Polymerase III DNA Polymerase I

"The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Growth Hormone (GH) aka somatotropin In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

" "GHRH (also peaks during slow-wave sleep) ------" "Muscles and Bones ------" "↑ bone and muscle growth; ↑ lipolysis

Protein Analysis "Isoelectric Focusing (electrolytic cell)

" "Mnemonic: In isoelectric focusing, Anode gets an ""A+""" "Meaning- Anode has Acidic (H+ rich) gel and a (+) charge in isoelectric focusing. (remember that anodes traditionally are designated (-) in spontaneous, galvanic (-ΔG) cells, BUT Isoelectric Focusing uses an nonspontaneous, electroyltic (+ΔG) cell, so the sign designation is reversed)" Proteins

"How is Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach applied to attitudes

" "People learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. Three factors: Behavioral, environmental, and personal. All reciprocate and affect one another to develop attitude. For example: Work ethic (behavior) is affected by collegues work ethic and their previous attitudes towards work (personal) as well as the systems and infrastructure of the company (environmental). Reciprically, this behavior may change the employee's attitude towards work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)

Bioenergetics: "Term: Respiratory Quotient (also called Respiratory Exchange Ratio, or RER)

" "RQ = (CO2 produced) ÷ (O2 consumed) If RQ = 1.0, this means that carbohydrates is the fuel source being used. If RQ = 0.7, this means that fats is the fuel source being used. If RQ = 0.85, this means that 50% carbs and 50% fats is being used. (Amino Acid Metabolism has RQ of 0.8-0.9.)

"Term: Behavioral Component of Attitude

" "The way a person ACTS with respect to something. ""I RUN AWAY when I see a snake. I SCREAM when I see snakes. I THROW ROCKS at snakes to make them go away."""

"Term: Affective Component of Attitude

" "The way a person FEELS towards something. Emotional component of attitude. ""I am SCARED of snakes. I HATE snakes. I have a NEGATIVE FEELINGS about snakes."""

"Term: Cognitive Component of Attitude

" "The way a person THINKS about something. Often a justification for the other two components. ""I KNOW that snakes are poisonous. I KNOW that snakes can bite. I KNOW that it can be dangerous to be near a snake."" Thus, this *cognitive thinking* about snakes provides a reason for a me to be afraid (affective component) and avoid them (behavioral component)."

Immune: "TERM: Plasma Cells (Effector B-Cells)

" "antibody creating factories" Immune: Innate Immune System-------- TERM: Langerhans cells() Special macrophages that reside within the stratum spinosum of the epidermis. Capable of presenting antigens to T-cells to activate the immune system. Immune: Phagocytosis-------- TERM: Phagolysosome() when a macrophage ingest a foreign material, the material initially becomes trapped in a phagosome. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. Inside the phagolysosome, enzymes digest the foreign object. "Also Related to------lysosome macrophage

Topic: Kinetic Molecular Theory ------ "Term: Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

" "attempts to explain the behavior of gas particles. It makes 5 assumptions about gas particles: • gas particles have negligible volume • gas particles DO NOT have intermolecular attractions or repulsions • gas particles undergo random collisions with each other and the walls of the container that they are held in • collisions between gas particles (and with the walls of its container) are elastic • the average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to its temperature.

"Term: Representative Heuristic

" "categorizing something on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the catagory; may or may not always be acccurate. (e.g. when we see a person driving a shiny 2018 Porcshe, we are likely to categorize them as rich because we associate fancy cars with wealth)" -----Also Related to: Heuristics

" Topic: Real Gases ------ "Term: Van der Waals equation of state

" "is an equation derived from the Ideal Gas Law that is used to correct/mathematically adjust the ideal gas law when accounting for real gases that do engage in intermolecular attractions (a) and occupy molecular volume (b). Conceptually, this equation just explains how real gases differ from ideal gases because real gases occupy more volume and have less pressure. Note that when the real gas variables-a and b-equal zero, then van der Waals equation of state just simplifies to the Ideal Gas Law.

" Topic: Electromotive Force ------ "Term: Electromotive Force (aka emf or Eºcell)

" "is the difference in potential (voltage) between 2 half-cells under standard conditions. It is calculated by subtracting the reduction potential of the anode by the reduction potential of the cathode: Eºcell = Ered, cathode - Ered, anode intepreting emf: • if +Eºcell, then it is a Galvanic Cell • if -Eºcell, then it is an Electrolytic Cell

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ "Term: splitting (also called spin-spin coupling)

" "occurs when two protons (hydrogens) are on adjacent atoms, causing them to interfere with each other's magnetic environment. A proton's (or group of protons') peak is split into n + 1 subpeaks, where n is the number of protons that are three bonds away from the proton of interest (aka, when they are on adjacent atoms). Splitting patterns include: • doublets • triplets • multiplets

Topic: Quantum Numbers ------ "Term: Magnetic quantum number (ml)

" "orbital ml describes the orbital that an electron is in The value of ml ranges from (-l, +l), where l represents the Azimuthal value

" Topic: Quantum Numbers ------ "Term: Principal quantum number (n)

" "shell n describes the energy level (and therefore radius/size) of the electron's orbit; n can be any number greater than zero The range values of n is any integer

" Topic: Quantum Numbers ------ "Term: Spin quantum number (ms)

" "spin ms gives the spin of an electron The value of ms can only be either -1/2 or +1/2 only

"Term: Monoamine/ Catecholamine Theory of Depression

" "states that: • too much norepinephrine & serotinin in the synapse leads to Mania • too little norepinephrine & serotonin in the synapse leads to Depression." "-----Also Related to: mania depression

" Topic: Quantum Numbers ------ "Term: Azimuthal quantum number (l)

" "subshell l describes the electron's subshell and gives info about shape, where: 0 --> s 1 --> p 2 --> d 3 --> f The value of l ranges from [0, n-1]" ------ EXAMPLE: "azimuthal" refers to angular momentum

Viruses: Retroviruses-------- "TERM: reverse transcriptase of viruses

" "used by retroviruses can create a copy of cDNA from RNA and even other single stranded cDNA • because reverse transcriptase is known for having poor proofreading activity, the mutations that often occur due to reverse transcriptase can sometimes be beneficial to viruses because it gives them drug-resistance and increases virulence. • a hallmark of reverse transcriptase is that it challenges the central dogma of genetics, as it can produce DNA from RNA

" Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ "Term: things that STAY CONSTANT REGARDLESS of which type of electrochemical cell (galvanic, electrolytic, concentration)

" "• Anode is always the site of Oxidation (""An Ox"") • Cathode is always the site of Reduction (""Red Cat"") • the spontaneous direction of Electron flow is always from the anode TO the cathode • the spontaneous direction of Current (positive charge flow) is always from the cathode TO the anode • Cations always migrate towards the Cathode • Anions always migrate towards the Anode

" amino acids: "Term: Negatively charged / Acidic amino acids (2)

" "• aspartic acid (D) • glutamic acid (E)

amino acids: "Term: Nonpolar, nonaromatic amino acids (7)

" "• glycine • alanine • valine • leucine • isoleucine • methionine • proline

" amino acids: "Term: Positively charged / Basic amino acids (3)

" "• lysine (K) • arginine (R) • histidine (H)

" amino acids: "Term: Aromatic amino acids (3)

" "• phenylalanine • tryptophan • tyrosine

" amino acids: "Term: Polar amino acids (5)

" "• serine • threonine • cysteine • asparagine • glutamine

" Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ "Term: things that CHANGE depending on the type of electrochemical cell (galvanic, electrolytic, concentration)

" "• sign designation (- vs. +) on the cathode ---> galvanic has a (+) cathode designation • sign designation (- vs. +) on the anode ---> electrolytic has a (-) cathode designation

"The Hypothalamus Secretes Prolactin-Inhibiting Factor (PIF) aka dopamine In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

" Always ------ Anterior Pituitary ------ ↓ prolactin secretion

" "What is secreted from the Posterior pituitary [produced by the hypothalamus but stored here]

" Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH / vasopressin) Oxytocin

Topic: Ideal Gases ------ "Term: How much Volume does 1 mole of an ideal gas occupy at STP?

" At STP (1 atm and 273º K), 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 L

"What is secreted from the Adrenal Cortex (aka the outer region of the adrenal gland)

" Cortisol (glucocorticoid) Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid)

" "TERM: Endonuclease activity (""endo"" means in the middle)

" DNA repair that occurs at the MIDDLE of a DNA strand. Performed by DNA Polymerase III in which there was an accidentally mismatched nucleotide (such as a Thymine with a Guanine) but the DNA Polymerase III detects this mistake and corrects it (pairing the Thymine with an Adenosine).

"How is Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach applied to personality

" Interactions with environment dictate personality. Locus of control is considered very influential: does a person feel in control of his or her environment or not? Past behavior in similar situations is a strong predictor of future behavior.

Theories of Identity "Erik Erikon's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

" Mnemonic: (if you know how to play the Drinking Card Game "Circle of Death" or "King's Cup", use the card numbers to associate Erikson's 8 stages with the corresponding card using the PEGWORD system; be imaginative and think of something that works for you) "Meaning- 2 is You. 3 is Me. 4 is Floor. 5 is Guys. 6 is Chicks. 7 is Heaven. 8 is Date. (ex: Erikson's stage 4 is Industry vs. Inferiority. 4 in Circle of Death is 'Floor', so I associate stage 4 with the Bottom Floor of a big Industry building) "

General Chemistry "Lewis definitions of Acids and Bases

" Mnemonic: A Lewis Acid is an Acceptor of electron pairs "Meaning- Unlike Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases-which focus on the transfer of protons-Lewis definitions of acids and bases focus on the transfer of electrons. A Lewis acid is defined as an electron pair acceptor, and a Lewis baseis defined as an electron pair donor."

optics "Concave Mirrors (converging systems)

" Mnemonic: Behind the RIM "Meaning- An object BEHIND the focal point F of a concave mirror (but still in front of the center of curvature C) ALWAYS produces an image that is: Real, Inverted, Magnified"

optics "Convex Mirrors (diverging systems)

" Mnemonic: ConVex mirrors are VURy useful for convenience store security cameras "Meaning- A single convex mirror (aka a diverging mirror) forms ONLY a Virtual, Upright, and Reduced image, REGARDLESS of the position of the object. The further away the object, the smaller the image will be. To quickly remember these rules, recall a convenience store security mirror, which are convex (diverging) mirrors. No matter how far you stand from these security mirrors, the image of yourself that forms from those mirrors makes you look smaller, the images are upright, and they are virtual because the light rays converge behind the mirror."

prokaryotes "Distinguishing between gram-positive vs. gram-negative bacteria

" Mnemonic: Gram-NEGATIVE :( "Meaning- Unlike gram-positive :) bacteria... gram-negative :( bacteria can set off an immune response due to the presence of lipopolysaccharides in its peptidoglycan wall. (immune responses are NEGATIVE b/c I hate getting sick). Gram-positive bacteria DO NOT have lipopolysaccharides in its peptidoglycan wall, and thus do not set off an immune response, which is a positive thing!"

optics "Concave Mirrors (converging systems)

" Mnemonic: MUV in front "Meaning- An object IN FRONT of the focal point F of a concave mirror ALWAYS produces an image that is: Magnified, Upright, Virtual"

Theories of Identity "Sigmund Freud's 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

" Mnemonic: Old Age Pedophiles Love Genitals "Meaning- Oral (0-1 years) Anal (1-3 years) Phalic (3-5 years) Latency (5 years - puberty) Gential (puberty - adulthood)"

nervous "Myelin-producing cells (CNS vs. PNS)

" Mnemonic: Schwann has a Penis "Meaning- To help remember which myelin-producing cell is found in the Central Nervous System (CNS) or the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), remember the mnemonic that ""Schwann has a PNS', meaning that myelin in the PNS are formed by Schwann Cells. Therfore, the other type of myelin-producing cell, the Oligodendrocyte, produces myelin in the CNS."

"Term: Availability Heuristic

" a shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject. (e.g. after watching the movie Jaws, a person is more likely to fear the probability of a shark attack even though statistically it is much more uncommon... this is because the vivid image of a shark attack is still readily accessible in their mind, and they're relying on that image as a shortcut to make an inference rather than relying on factual statistics) -----Also Related to: Heuristics

"What is the action of Enteropeptidase (formerly enterokinase)

" activates other digestive enzymes from the accessory organs of digestion: Activates trypsinogen to form trypsin. Also Activates procarboxypeptidases A and B into active forms.

" "2º Protein Structure: " "Term: α-helices and β-pleated sheets

" are the two main types of secondary structures of a protein, which are both stablized by hydrogen bonds "------Also related to: • α-helices: found in keratin • β-pleated sheet: found in fibroin/silk

" """The Liver Kidneys[Line break]Lungs""Secretes Angiotensin II In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

" being converted from Angiotensin I via ACE ------ "adrenal cortex posterior pituitary ------" "increases blood pressure when it is low via: ↑ Aldosterone ↑ ADH ↑ sympthetic activity ↑ vasoconstriction"

"What is the action of Triose Phosphate Isomerase (TPI)

" converts DHAP into GAP

"Enteropeptidase (formerly enterokinase)is produced by

" duodenum

amino acids: "Term: Where do hydrophilic / polar amino acids tend to reside within a protein?

" exterior (on the surface), in contact with water

" amino acids: "Term: Where do hydrophobic / NONpolar amino acids tend to reside within a protein?

" interior, away from water

Topic: Redox Reactions ------ "Term: Disproportionation (also called dismutation)

" is a specific type of redox reaction in which the same element undergoes both oxidation and reduction simultaneously in producing its products. "------ EXAMPLE: Cl2 + H2O --> HOCl + Cl- + H+ in this reaction, Cl undergoes disproportionation because it gets both oxidized and reducted (0 --> +1 and 0 --> -1)" ------ Also Related to: biological enzymes (catalase)

Topic: Rechargable Cells ------ "Term: Rechargable cell (also known as rechargable battery)

" is an electrochemical cell that can function as both a galvanic (-ΔG) and electrolytic (+ΔG) cell. It acts as a galvanic (spontaneous) circuit while discharging and as an electrolytic (nonspontaneous) circuit while charging. Rechargable cells will accept electrons from an outside source (aka, the recharging station) while charging, and will stop accepting electrons when its electrodes are fully recharged. "------ EXAMPLE: • lead-acid batteries • nickel-cadmium batteries

" "What is the action of Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDH)

" produces NADH

"Term: Biological Perspective (nature)

" states that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain. Biological theorists believe that many personality traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy.

"Term: Behaviorist Perspective (nuture)

" states that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time; therefore any therapy should focus on learnign skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques "-----Also Related to: B.F. Skinner operant conditioning

" "Term: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

" states that the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms surrounding a central atom is determined by the repulsions between bonding and nonbonding electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom. These electron pairs arrange themselves as FAR APART as possible, thereby minimizing repulsive forces. Shown below is the five most common electronic configurations (electronic geometry) of molecules:

"Term: Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (also known as the Whorfian Hypothesis)

" suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of our language; basically, it is LANGUAGE that affects the way we think, rather than the other way around. (e.g. the Inuit tribe's language has many different words for the different types of snow, while English language has very few. Thus, the Inuit culture has a greater understanding of the concept of snow) -----Also Related to: Whorfian Hypothesis

"Term: Social Cognitive Perspective (nature + nurture)

" takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our personality, but also how we interact with that environment. According to social cognitive theorists, the best predictor of someone's future behavior is their past behavior in similar situations. "-----Also Related to: Albert Bandura reciprocal determinism locus of control

"""The Liver Kidneys[Line break]Lungs""Secretes Renin-Aldosterone-Angiotensin System (RAAS) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

" when the kidney detects a drop in blood pressure ------ blood pressure homeostasis ------ basically... the liver is constantly secreting a protein called Angiotensinogen. When the kidneys detect a drop in blood pressure, it secretes the enzyme Renin, which catalyzes a reaction that converts Angiotensinogen to Angiotensin I. Angiotensin I then travels throughout the circulatory system and when it reaches the lungs, it encounters an enzyme called ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme). ACE's job is to convert Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II, which is the more potent hormone that brings blood pressure back up by various ways in order to restore homeostasis "----Note:this involves a system (RAAS itself is not a single hormone) People with high blood pressure are prescribed ""ACE inhibitors"" to prevent ACE from converting Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II, which helps to keep their high blood pressure low.

" "Associated names to know with Social Cognitive Theory/ Interactionalist Approach

" • Vygotsky

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: D-sugars

"(in a Fischer projection) sugars with their highest-numbered chiral carbon with the -OH group on the RIGHT *naturally occuring sugars are only found as D isomers, not L*" ------ EXAMPLE: https://illuminolist.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/d-and-l-configurations-of-glucose.png?w=300&h=209 "------ Also Related to: enantiomers Fischer projections

Term: Major Depressive EPISODE

"APES & CIGS. At least 5 of the following symptoms must be met for at least 2 WEEKS - Appetite disturbances, massive weight gain or loss - Psychomotor Symptoms, feeling ""slowed down"" - Energy, low energy, always feeling tired - Sleep disturbances - Concentration difficulty - Interest loss. ""Anhedonia"": formerly enjoyable things are no longer interesting - Guilty and worthless feelings - Suicidal thoughts or actions" -----Also Related to: Major Depressive Disorder

Lactate Dehydrogenase is promoted by

"Absence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism)

" "Transcription (in eukaryotes):" "3 Post- Transcriptional Modifications done to pre-mRNA in Eukaryotes--------" TERM: mRNA 5' G Cap

"After splicing occurs, a Guanine is added on the 5' end of the pre-mRNA. Now, the ""pre-mRNA"" is finished with any post-transcriptional modifications and is refered to as mature ""mRNA"". • This protects the mRNA from degrative enzymes as it travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm." Also Related to------https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing

"Transcription (in eukaryotes):" "3 Post- Transcriptional Modifications done to pre-mRNA in Eukaryotes--------" TERM: mRNA 3' poly-A tail

"After splicing occurs, a shit load (200+) of Adenosines are added on the 3' end of the pre-mRNA. (hence that's why it's called poly-A) ; Now, the ""pre-mRNA"" is finished with any post-transcriptional modifications and is refered to as mature ""mRNA"". • This protects the mRNA from degrative enzymes as it travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm." Also Related to------https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing

" Topic: Aqueous Solutions ------ Term: Important Solubility Rules for the MCAT

"Although there are several solubility rules, memorizing them all may be a little excessive; familiarity with them will suffice. However, there are 2 solubiity rules to memorize FOR SURE: 1. All salts containing Ammonium (NH4+) and Group 1 cations ARE soluble in water. 2. All salts containing Nitrate (NO3-) and Acetate (CH3COO-) anions ARE soluble in water.

Term: Cluster B personality disorders

"Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic. Overly dramatic and emotional behavior. ""Wild."""

Topic: Absolute Configuration ------ Term: (R) configuration

"At a stereocenter, after putting the lowest-priority group in the back and drawing a circle from group 1 to 2 to 3 in descending priority... the circle is CLOCKWISE (a sure fire way to remember this is that when most people write the letter ""R"", they draw that curved shape in a clockwise direction... unless you're just some sick freak who writes his R's from the bottom up)" ------ Also Related to: stereocenters

Topic: Absolute Configuration ------ Term: (S) configuration

"At a stereocenter, after putting the lowest-priority group in the back and drawing a circle from group 1 to 2 to 3 in descending priority... the circle is COUNTER-CLOCKWISE (a sure fire way to remember this is that when most people write the letter ""S"", they start drawing the top curve of the letter in a counterclockwise direction" ------ Also Related to: stereocenters

Term: Major Depressive DISORDER

"At least one major depressive episode which causes significant distress or impairment of functioning. Biological Markers: - High glucose metabolism in the amygdala, aka the emotional center of the brain - hippocampal atrophy - high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) - decreased noreptinepherine, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression)" -----Also Related to: Major Depressive Episode

Functional Theory applied to attitudes

"Attitudes serve four functions: • Knowledge • ego expression • adaptation • ego defense. "

Term: Cluster C personality disorders

"Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive. Anxious or fearful behavior. ""Worried"""

Term: Important wavenumbers to memorize for IR Spectrum

"C-O: ~1100 cm^-1 C=O: ~1750 cm^-1 O-H in carboxylic acids: 3000 cm^-1 O-H in alcohols: 3300 cm^-1 broad amines: 3300 cm^-1 sharp" ------ EXAMPLE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALLSsIDhFdU

What is the action of Amylase

"Class of enzymes that hydrolyze starch into sugars aka they digest carbohydrates found as salivary amylase or pancreatic amylase

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Bowman's Capsule

"Cuplike structure around glomerulus that leads to the proximal convoluted tubule. • It is the pressure difference in Bowman's Capsule that causes intitial filtration in the kidneys

Term: Manic Episodes

"DIG FAST. At least 3 of the following symptoms must be met for at least one week along with a persistently elevated mood. - Distracted easily - Insomnia - Grandiosity - Flight of Ideas (racing thoughts, fast thinkings) - Agitated easily - Speech (Pressured, increased talkativeness) - Thoughtlessness, or high risk behavior"

Term: Parkinson's Disease

"Damage to dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra for proper stimulation of the basal ganglia. Symptoms: - Slow Movement - Resting Tremor - Pill-rolling tremor (rolling fingers and thumbs together like you're making a tiny booger) - mask-like facial expressions - Shuffling gait - Cogwheel rigitiy (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement)" -----Also Related to: low dopamine

Term: Alzheimer's Disease

"Dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and tendency to misplace things. Late stages include changes in mood, personality, poor judgement, loss of initiative, loss of procedural memory. Genetically linked. Biological Markers: - Diffuse Atrophy in brain CT/MRI - Flattened Sulci in cerebral cortex - Enlarged cerebral ventricles - Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes - Low Acetylcholine levels - Low choline acetyltransferase enzyme - Low metabolism in temporal and parietal lobs - B-amyloid plaques (senile plaques) - Neurofibrillar Tangles or hyperphosphorylated tau protein" -----Also Related to: low acetylcholine

How is Psychoanalytic Theory applied to dreams

"Dreams are our unconsious thoughts and desires that need to be intepreted in order to help us understand what our unconscious is trying to tell us. • Manifest content - what actually happens in the dream (scary monster chasing you) • Latent content - what the hidden meaning is (your job pushing you out) Contrasts the Activation Synthesis Hypothesis, which states that the frontal cortex tries to interpret random brain activity during sleep anyway even though the activity is random and has no meaning

" Term: Identity Shift Effect

"Explains the mechanism of Peer Pressure: when an individual's state of harmony is threatened by social rejection, the individual will conform to norms of the group. This causes the individual to experience internal conflict, so he/she will undergo an identity shift where he adopts the standards of the group as his own to elimiate cognitive dissonance. (this is seen many times on TV episodes where the main character pretends to be somebody they're not, in order to ""fit in"" or impress sombody. They are threatened by social rejection, so they conform to the norms of the other character's group.)" "-----Also Related to: Peer Pressure Cognitive Dissonance Solomon Asch Experiment Drive Reduction Theory

Bioenergetics: Term: Postabsorptive State

"Fasting state" where catabolism dominates and glucagon and cortisol are very active vs insulin in the postprandial state.

Topic: IR Spectroscopy ------ Term: What needs to occur in order for IR absoption to be recorded?

"For an absorption to be recorded, the vibration must result in a change in the bond dipole moment. This means that molecules that do not experience a change in dipole moment, such as those composed of atoms with the same electronegativity or molecules that are symmetrical, do NOT exhibit absoprtion. • for example, we cannot get an absorption from O2 or Br2, but we can from HCl or CO because these molecules would have a net change in dipole movement. • symmetric bonds, such as the triple bond in acetylne (C2H2), will also be silent.

" Topic: IR Spectroscopy ------ Term: Characteristic Absorptions that you need to memorize for the MCAT

"For the MCAT, you only need to memorize a few absorptions. The first is the hydroxyl group, O-H, which absorbs a broad (wide) peak at around one of two frequencies: 3300 cm-1 for Alcohols and 3000 cm-1 for Carboxylic Acids. The reason the wavenumber is slightly lower for carboxylic acid is that the carbonyl of the carboxylic acid pulls some of the electron density out of the O-H bond, shifting the absorption to a lower wavenumber. The second is the carbonyl group, which absorbs a sharp (deep) peak around 1700 cm-1. The last is the amine group, N-H, which absorbs in the same region as O-H bonds (around 3300 cm-1), but have a sharp peak instead of a broad one. Recap: Infrared spectroscopy is best used for identification of functional groups. The most important peaks to know are: • O-H (broad around 3300 cm-1) • N-H (sharp around 3300 cm-1) • C=O (sharp around 1750 cm-1)

Digestive Function / Anatomy of: Liver

"Function: creates bile detoxifies drugs

Digestive Function / Anatomy of: Small Intestines

"Function: duodenum - most digestion, The jejunum where most of the nutrients from your food are absorbed before emptying into the large intestine. illium does some important absorption at the end as well" Anatomy - duodenum, illium, jejunum

amino acids: Term: Trick to remembering the 20 Amino Acids

"GCMP AVLI FWYH NDSK QETR" "------Also related to: method explained in this YouTube video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83QfdAW_BAs

" The Posterior Pituitary Secretes Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH / vasopressin) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

"High Blood Osmolarity (aka high salt concentration) ------" Kidneys ------ "↑ water reabsorption in the kidneys via ↑ permeability in the collecting duct via aquaporins ↑ blood pressure ↓ blood osmolarity due to ↑ blood volume ↓ urination (aka less water loss)" ----Note:ADH release is inhibited by diuretics such as alcohol and caffeine. This is why you pee a lot (lose water volume) when consuming alcohol and caffeine.

Term: Bipolar II Disorder

"Hypomania WITH Major Depressive Episodes (mnemonic: bipolar 2 is blue (requires a major depressive episode)"

Term: Self-Disclosure

"Impression management strategy. Giving information about oneself to establish an identity" -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Alter-Casting

"Impression management strategy. Imposing an identity onto another person. (e.g. when a friend says to you ""a good friend would let me borrow his bike"". This imposes the identity of a ""bad friend"" upon you if you don't lend him your bike.)" -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Aligning Actions

"Impression management strategy. Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses. (e.g. providing an excuse for a poor performance or laughing off an inappropriate comment as a joke)" -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Ingratiation

"Impression management strategy. Using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over. (e.g. ""sweet talking"")" -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Managing Appearances

"Impression management strategy. Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image." -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Bystander Effect

"Individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. The more people who are standing by, the less likely someone is to help. (This is attributed to social cues. If no one seems alarmed of emergency, then individual is less likely to think that there is an emergency.) In low danger scenarios, bystanders less likely to intervene. In high danger scenarios, bystanders are more likely to intervene. A group made up of strangers has a slower response to emergency than a group of friends or well acquainted individuals."

Glycogen Synthase is promoted by

"Insulin glucose 6-phosphate

" What is the action of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH)

"Irreversibly converts Pyruvate into acetyl-CoA • occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

What is the action of Pyruvate Kinase

"Irreversibly converts phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) into pyruvate • produces 2 ATP

" Genetics: Fundamental Concepts-------- TERM: Expressivity

"Is the degree to which a certain penetrant gene is expressed. Different manifestations of the same genotype across the population. Constant expressivity means all individuals with a given genotype experience same phenotype. • ex: Constant expressivity means that if your genes for being smart manages to penetrate (show up as a trait), then your IQ is 120. Variable expressivity means that your IQ doesn't have to be 120, it could be somewhat lower or somewhat higher.

How is Biological Theory applied to language

"Language is innate. Born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that is active during the ""critical period"" from birth to age 8-9 years old. LAD specializes for your language once you start using it. States that all languages share a universal grammar with basic elements like nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. • Nativist theory of language: language is innate

Genetics: Term: Euchromatin

"Loosely coiled DNA that allows transcription machinery access. think ""light, unconsensed, and expressed"" mnemonic: Euchromatin is Expressed" ------Also related to: gene expression

Term: Bipolar I Disorder

"Manic Episodes with or WITHOUT Major Depressive Episodes (mnemonic: bipolar 1 is run (because a maniac runs wild)"

Lab Techniques Different kinds of Blots

"Mnemonic: ""snow drop"" S D N R O O W P" "Meaning- Southern blot = DNA Northern blot = RNA (O) (O) Western blot = Proteins"

Mnemonic: Red Cat "General Chemistry" Trends that occur in ALL Electrochemical Cells

"Mnemonic: Electron flow in an electrochemical cell: A → C (alphabetical order)" "Meaning- Electrons flow from Anode to Cathode in all types of electrochemical cells. (even without the mnemonic, this concept should make sense intuitively: since anodes (-) are negatively charged and cathodes are positively charged (+), electrons would be repelled away from the negative-charge electrode and move towards the positive-charge electrode because ""like charges repel"" and ""opposite charges attract""; also recall that current is defined as the flow of positive charge, thus, current would flow in the opposite direction of electrons, towards the anode."

Organic Chemistry Enantiomers vs diasteromers

"Mnemonic: Enantiomers - Every Diastereomers - Don't" "Meaning- • Enatiomers differ at Every single chiral carbon. • Diasteromers Don't (because they differ at only some chiral carbons, but not all)"

skeletal Bone

"Mnemonic: OsteoBlasts Build bone OsteoClasts Cleave bone" "Meaning- Osteoblast cells are responsible for building bones using high calcium concentration in the blood to deposit onto bones, stimulated by calcitonin. Osteoclasts promote resorbtion of calcium from bones into the blood stream, stimulated by Vitamin D and Parathyroid Hormone. Vitamin D is also activated by Parathyroid Hormone. "

Physics Magnetic Force

"Mnemonic: Parts of the right-hand rule for determining the direction of Magnetic Force vectors: • Thumb-velocity (indicates direction of the moving charge, like moving hitchhiker's thumb) • Fingers-field lines (fingers are parallel like the uniform magnetic field lines) • Palm-force on a POSITIVE charge (you might give a ""high five"" to a positive person) • Backhand-force on a NEGATIVE charge (you might give a backhand slap to a negative person)" "Meaning- To determine the direction of the magnetic force that acts on a moving test charge: 1) position you right thumb in the direction of the velocity vector of the test charge 2) then, point your fingers in the direction of the magnetic field lines 3a) your palm will point in the direction of the force vector for a positive test charge, such as a proton 3b) oppositely, your backhand will point in the direction of the vector vector for a negative test charge, such as an electron"

prokaryotes Shape of bacteria

"Mnemonic: SPIRilli COCCI (they're thicc) Bacilli" "Meaning- • spirili are spiral-shaped bacteria • Cocci are spherical shaped (the letters C and O are round letters) • bacilli are rode shaped (the letter l looks like a rod)"

Translation Stop codons

"Mnemonic: STOP, U Are Annoying! U Go Away! U Are Gone!" "Meaning- The three stop codons are: • UAA • UGA • UAG"

Physics Electrical Potential

"Mnemonic: The ""plus"" end of a battery is the high-potential end. (high potential to move) The ""minus"" end of a battery is the low-potential end." "Meaning- Test charges will move spontaneously in whichever direction results in a decrease in their potential energy because these positions offer more stability. • A positive charge moves from ""+"" end of a battery to the ""-"" end (the definition of current), while negative charges (the electrons) move from - to +. • In other words, positive charges will spontaneously move in the direction that decreases their electrical potential (negative voltage), whereas negative charges will spontaneously move in the direction that increases their electrical potential (positive voltage). In both cases, the electrical potential energy is decreasing."

"General Chemistry" Electrolytic (+ΔG) cells

"Mnemonic: The equation for calculating moles of Metal, It is Not Fun" "Meaning- The Electro-Deposition Equation is used to calculate the number of moles of metal that is deposited on a plate in an electrolytic cell, and it is given by the following equation, where mol M is the amount of metal ion being deposited at the specific electrode, I is the current, t is the time in seconds, n is the number of electron equivalents for a specific metal ion, and F is the Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol e-). mol M = It / nF "

Organic Chemistry Anhydride Formation

"Mnemonic: The prefix an- means not or without. The prefix hydro- means water." "Meaning- Because hydro- is a prefix meaning water and an- is a prefix meaning not or without, we can remember that anhydrides have had water molecules removed during a formation. In other words, anhydrides are synthesized via a dehydration reaction of two carboxylic acids."

muscular Sarcomere parts

"Mnemonic: Z is at the end of the alphabet M = ""middle"" I is a thin letter H is a thick letter A = ""all""" "Meaning- • the Z-lines are found at both ends of a sarcomere • the M-line is the middle of the myosin filaments (and sarcomere) • the I-band consists of thin filaments only; light also has the letter i • the H-zone consists of thick filaments only • the A-band consists of all of the thick filament, whether or not it is overlapping with the thin filament; dArk also has the letter A"

General Chemistry Van der Waals equation of state

"Mnemonic: a = ""attractive forces"" b = ""big particles""" "Meaning- In the van der Waals equation of state: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xW6E6QK7430/TdTr_DHrV2I/AAAAAAAAAKs/Z9bHAAM71Ws/s1600/Van+Der+Waals+Equation.jpg • the variable a represents the van der Waals term for the attractive forces • the variable b represents the van der Waals term for big particles. Note that if a and b are both zero, then the van der Waals equation of state simplifies to the Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT"

Psychological Disorders Personality Disorder Clusters

"Mnemonic: the three W's (in alphabetical order) A) wEird B) wIld C) wOrried" "Meaning- just like how the Clusters A-C are listed in alphabetical order, ""wEird, wild, and wOrried"" are also listed in alphabetical order and correspond to those clusters A, B, and C respectively. • Cluster A personality types have symptoms you normally associate with as being weird: paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid. • Cluster B personality types have symptoms you normally associate with as being wild: antisoscial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic. • Cluster C personality types have symptoms you normally associate with as being worried: avoidant, dependent, OCPD."

"General Chemistry" Trends that occur in ALL Electrochemical Cells

"Mnemonic: • An ♥ 's An • Cat ♥ 's Cat " "Meaning- Because electrons always flow toward the Cathode, which causes negative charge to accumulate on it... positively charged Cations are ALWAYS attracted to the Cathode. Likewise, because positive charge (aka current) flows toward the Anode, positive charge will build up on it, and thus negatively charged Anions are ALWAYS attracted to the Anode. This phenomenon is always true, REGARDLESS of the type of cell in question (galvanic, electrolytic, or concentration)."

Vitamins Fat-Soluble Vitamins

"Mnemonic: • Carrotene/vitamin A --> vision • Vitamin D --> milk --> calcium. • Vitamin K --> Koagulation" "Meaning- • one way to remember Carotene (another name for vitamin A) is to remember that carrots are high in Vitamin A, which is why eating carrots is colloquilly suggested to improve vision. • to remember that Vitamin D regulates calcium, remember that it is frequently added to milk in order to aid in the absorption of calcium. • Vitamin K is for Koagulation (as it is vital in the formation of clotting factors in blood)."

vision Cones and Rods

"Mnemonic: • Cones are for color vision; The fovea contains only cones. (both have the long ""o"" sound) • Rods function best in ""roduced"" lighting. Rods are found more on the peRiphery." "Meaning- Cones are used for color vision and to sense fine details; they are most effective in bright light. However in reduced illumination, rods are more functional and only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin. Rods have low sensitivity to details and are not involved in color vision, but permit ""night"" vision. The fovea is the part of the retina that contains a high density of cones for daytime vision, whereas the periphery of the retina contains a high density of rods which are more photosenstitive and can detect dim light."

genetics DNA Splicing

"Mnemonic: • EXons are EXpressed • INtrons go IN the trash" "Meaning- • Exons fragments of pre-mRNA are are kept and later on translated in the cytoplasm. • Intron fragments of pre-mRNA are spliced out and are not translated; they are kept in the nucleus."

sensation Vision and Sound

"Mnemonic: • Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is for Light; • Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) is for Music." "Meaning- The Lateral geniculate nucleus conveys info from the visual cortex. The Medial geniculate nucleus conveys info from the auditory cortex."

General Chemistry Ionic Bonds

"Mnemonic: • MeTals lose electrons to become caTions = posiTive (+) ions • Nonmetals gain electrons to become aNions = Negative (-) ions" "Meaning- Ionic bonds form between atoms that have significantly different electronegativies. The atom that loses the electrons becomes a cation, and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion. The ionic bond is the result of an electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges of these ions."

cardiovascular Atrioventricular Valves

"Mnemonic: • RAT • LAMB" "Meaning- • Right Atrium = Tricuspid valve • Left Atrium = Mitral/Bicuspid valve"

Organic Chemistry Isomers

"Mnemonic: • Z = zame side • E = epposite side" "Meaning- (E) and (Z) nomenclature is used for compounds with polysubstituted double bonds. The alkene is named (Z) if the two highest-priority substituents on each carbon are on the same side of the double bond and (E) if they are on opposite sides."

Carbohydrate Metabolism Glycogenesis Enzymes

"Mnemonic: • α-1,4 keeps the same branch moving ""4ward"" • α-1,6 puts a branch in the mix" "Meaning- • Glycogen Synthase (synthase = building more glycogen), which creates α-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules, is activated by insulin in the liver and muscles. Links only occur at the 1,4 position. • Branching Enzyme, which moves a block of oligoglucose from one chain and connects it as a branch using an α-1,6, glycosidic link. Branches only occur at the 1,6 position. "

" Topic: Quantum Numbers ------ Term: Quantum numbers

"Modern atomic theory postulates that any electron in an atom can be completely described by four quantum numbers: n, l, ml and ms. The value of n limits the values of l, which in turn limit the values of ml. In other words, for a given value of n, only particular values of l are permissible; given a value of l, only particular vlues of ml are permissible. The values of the quantum numbers QUALITATIVELY give information abotu the size, shape, and orientation of the orbitals. Hint: Think of the quantum numbers as becoming more specific as one goes from n to l to ml to ms. This is like an address: one lives in a particular state (n), in a particular city (l), on a particular street (ml), at a particular house number (ms).

Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: Myosin

"Motor protein in muscles. Binds to Actin filaments in the cocked position, with ADP + Pi bound. This happens only when actin filaments have exposed myosin binding sites after Ca2+ is bound to troponin. After myosin-actin binding, ADP + Pi dissociate from myosin, causing the power stroke. This contracts the sarcomere. ATP then binds to myosin, freeing it from actin. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi, recocking the myosin (which is unbound from actin). " Also Related to------Rigor Mortis

Term: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

"Occurs after experiencing or witnessing traumatic event. Consists of following symptoms for at least one month (else called Acute Stress Disorder) Intrusion: Reliving events including flashbacks or nightmares Avoidance: Deliberate attempt to avoid people, places, objects, or actions associated with trauma Negative Cognitive: Inability to recall key features of the event, moody, distant, negative view of world Arousal: Easily startled, irritable, anxious, reckless behavior, insomnia" -----Also Related to: Acute Stress Disorder

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Osmotic vs Oncotic Pressure

"Osmotic Pressure = ""Sucking"" pressure that draws water into blood Oncotic Pressure = Osmotic Pressure specifically caused by Proteins

Term: Cluster A personality disorders

"Paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid disorders. Considered odd or eccentric behavior. ""Weird."" "

Term: Primary Groups vs Secondary Groups

"Primary Groups: Direct interactions with close bonds that tend to last long periods of time, such as family or best friends. Secondary Groups: Interactions are superficial with few emotional bonds. Form and dissolve with out any special significance (e.g. classmates working on a group project)."

Term: Assimilation

"Process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. In terms of migrant assimilation, there are four primary factors to assess completeness of assimilation: socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage"

Term: Socialization

"Process of developing, inheriting, and spreading social norms, customs, and beliefs. 1) Primary Socialization: During childhood, when we initially learn the societal norms, primarily through our parents. 2) Secondary Socialization: Learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society, outside the home. (e.g. learning how to act at school, in the workplace, etc.)"

"Transcription (in prokaryotes):" Prokaryotic gene expression-------- TERM: What is the difference between prokaryotic mRNA and eukaryotic mRNA, regarding post-transcriptional modification?

"Prokaryotic mRNA requires NO additional processing, unlike eukarotic mRNA (aka, splicing, addition of 5' Guanine Cap, and addition of 3' PolyAdenosine Tail do NOT occur in prokaryotes). Because transcription in prokaryotes occurs in the cytoplasm (as opposed to in the nucleus for eukaryotes), the prokaryotic ribosomes are allowed to bind to the mRNA and begin translation even before transcription is complete.

" "2º Protein Structure: " Term: What role does Proline serve in Secondary Structure?

"Proline's rigid cyclic structure causes it to introduce: • kinks in α-helices • turns in β-pleated sheets

What is the action of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase

"Rate limiting step in Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) which irreversibly turns glucose 6-phosphate into 6-phosphogluconate while reducing NADP+ to NADPH Rate-limiting enzyme in Pentose Phosphate Pathway

What is the action of Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

"Rate limiting step in gluconeogenesis that replaces PFK-1. Converts Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into Fructose-6-Phosphate Rate-limiting enzyme in Gluconeogenesis

" What is the action of Isocitrate Dehydrogenase

"Rate limiting step of the Citric Acid Cycle. reduces NAD+ to produce NADH Isocitrate becomes oxidized to oxalosuccinate (Reducing NAD+ to NADH in the process), which is decarboxylated to produce alpha-ketoglutarate and CO2.

Term: SN1 vs. SN2 reactions cat analogy

"SN1: • patient cat gets his seat in 2 steps; waits for the leaving group to leave first. Doesn't attack unless the carbocation (the cat seat) is stable. SN2 • impatient cat gets his seat in 1 step, forces off the leaving group and sits simultaneously

Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: Pancreatic Enzymes

"Secreated by Acinar Cells. Pancreatic Amylase: Digests carbohydrates. Trypsinogen: Activated by Enteropeptidase (produced in Duodenum) to form trypsin, which then activates chymotrypsinogen. Procarboxypeptidases A and B to protein digestion. Pacreatic Lipase: Breaks down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol" Also Related to------Acinar Cells

Bioenergetics: Term: Prolonged Fasting

"Starvation" where glucagon and epinephrine are very high. Rapid degredation of glycogen stores in liver. Brain adapts to use Ketones for energy, muscles rely on fatty acids. Rapid lipolysis, excess acetyl-CoA production.

Term: Irving Janis

"Studied effects of extreme stress on group cohesiveness including disastrous American foreign policy decisions. Examined 8 factors indicitive of groupthink: - Illusion of invulnerability, optimistic and encouraging risk taking - Collective Rationalization, ignoring warnings against idea of the group - Illusion of morality, belief the group's decisions are morally correct - Excessive stereotyping, construction of stereotypes against outside opinions - Pressure for conformity, viewing opposing arguments as disloyal to the group - Self-censorship, the withholding of opposing views - Illusion of unanimity, false sense of agreement within the group - Mindguards, appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views" "-----Also Related to: Groupthink Famous psych experiments

RNA and the Genetic Code: Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes-------- TERM: What determines which genes are specifically expressed in DNA?

"Thanks to the Jacob-Monod model of the Operon, we can observe the Lac Operon in E.Coli to examine this phenonmenon. The Lac Operon is a segment of DNA (aka a gene) found in E.Coli. The lac operon contains 3 genes that helps E. Coli break down lactose for energy only when glucose is not available; these 3 genes are refered to as ""Lac Z"", ""Lac Y"", and ""Lac A. The lac operon is expressed when E. Coli's normal fuel source, glucose, is not readily available. Therefore, the E.Coli needs a way to get glucose, and it does this by activating the Lac Operon so that it can transcribe the necessary mRNA to provide it with the resources it needs to break Lacose (a disaccharide) into Glucose (monosaccharide) and Galactose (monosaccharide). The Lac Operon's 3 regions you need to know: 1) Lac Z codes for β-Galactosidase, which is the enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose + galactose 2) Lac Y codes for Lactose Permease, which is the enzyme that helps E.Coli bring lactose into the cell (""permits lactose to enter the cell"") 3) Lac A codes for other enzymes that aid in lactose metabolism (though not important for the MCAT" "Also Related to------• transcription • regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3i-OUb5z1k

" Genetics: Fundamental Concepts-------- TERM: Penetrance

"The proportion of individuals in the populations carrying an allele who actually express the phenotype. • ex: 100% penetrance means that if you have the genes for being smart, then you'll definitely be smart! Less than 100% penetrance means that you may have the genes for being smart, but you may not actually be smart.

" Genetics: Translation-------- TERM: Start Codons

"The ribosome begins translation at the RNA sequence containing AUG (which codes for the amino acid Methionine) mnemonic: the classroom met in AUGust" Also Related to------amino acids

Cardiovascular: TERM: Portal Systems

"Transport systems where blood traveling through these systems goes through two capillary beds in series before returning to the heart. The three portal systems are the: 1) Hepatic (gut --> liver) 2) Hypophyseal (hyopthalamus --> anterior pituitary) 3) Renal (glomerulus -> vasa recta)

Genetics: Translation-------- TERM: Stop Codons

"When the ribosome encounters any of these 3 RNA sequences during translation, it falls off the mRNA and translation ends. • UAA • UGA • UAG mnemonic: U Are Annoying U Go Away U Are Gone" Also Related to------amino acids

Term: Tactical Self

"Who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us. similar to the Ought Self." -----Also Related to: Impression Management

" Term: γ-particle

"a high-energy PHOTON emitted in gamma-decay - γ-particles can damage tissue due to the high energy carried by gamme rays • gamma decay does not affect mass number nor atomic number

" Term: Ascribed Status

"a person's social status that is given involuntarily. (e.g. race, ethnicity, sex, background, etc.)"

Topic: Buffers ------ Term: Indicator

"a substance used in low concentrations during a titration that changes color over either: • a certain pH range for acid-base titrations • a certain emf voltage for redox titrations The final color change of an indicator occurs at the endpoint of a titration

" Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: Anomers

"a subtype of Epimers that differ specifically in the arrangement around the C-1 carbon, called the anomeric carbon (hint: ""A"" is the 1st letter of the alphabet and Anomers only affect the C-1 (1st priority) carbon)" ------ EXAMPLE: http://mcat-review.org/anomers.gif "------ Also Related to: diasteromers epimers

Enzymes: Term: Zymogens

"an inactive form of an enzyme that is secreted and are activated by cleavage. Most zymogens have the suffix -ogen. (e.g. the digestive enzyme trypsin is secreted in its inactive zymogen form trypsinogen because this enzyme would be particularly dangerous if it is activity is not tightly controlled. If trypsin was released as the active form from the pancreas in an uncontrolled manner, it would digest the organ itself.)

Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: the "Anomeric" Carbon

"another name for the C-1 carbon in a carbohydrate. - In straight-chain form, it is the carbon containing the carbonyl. - In cyclic form that occurs after ring closure, it is the new chiral center formed." ------ EXAMPLE: http://www.chem.ucla.edu/~harding/IGOC/A/anomeric_carbon01.png "------ Also Related to: diastereomers epimers anomers

Viruses: Viruses-------- TERM: Viruses

"are extremely small, acellular structures made up of double- or single- stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat called a capsid. Viruses are NOT living cells, and as such, they do not have organelles. They rely entirely on host cell machinery for energy and replication. Viral nucleic acid is either single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), or double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). It would NOT have both DNA and RNA, as its size would not allow them to carry that much genetic information.

" TERM: Obligate Anaerobes

"are killed in the presence of oxygen • ""obligated to be only anaerobic""

Topic: Monosaccharides ------ Term: Monosaccharides

"are single carbohydrate units and can undergo three main reactions: - oxidation-reduction - esterfication - glycoside formation

" "Topic: Configurational Isomers ------" Term: Enantiomers

"have opposite sterochemistry at Every chiral carbon. - two enantiomers will have similar chemical and physical properties, except for rotation of plane-polarized light and reactions in a chiral environment. (e.g. D- and L- forms of the same sugar are enantiomers because they are non-superimposable mirror images, similar to how your left and right hand are to each other)" ------ EXAMPLE: https://illuminolist.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/d-and-l-configurations-of-glucose.png?w=300&h=209

Term: Peptide Bonds

"are the primary covalent bond between the amino acids that make up proteins. They involve a condensation reaction (specifically, dehydration reaction, meaning that H2O is RELEASED when peptide bonds form) between the amino group of one acid and the carboxyl group of an adjacent amino acid. The peptide bond has a partial double bond character because the double bond can resonate beween the C=O and C=N and thus, exhibits limited rotation. Peptide bonds are cleaved via hyrolysis reactions when the amide bond is broken apart by adding a H to the amide nitrogen and an OH to the carbonyl carbon.

" Topic: Kinetic Molecular Theory ------ Term: Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve

"basically shows that: • the higher the temperature, the faster the gas molecules move • the larger the gas molecules, the slower they move.

What is the action of Glycogen Phosphorylase

"breaks the alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds Rate-limiting enzyme in Glycogenolysis

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/mutagens-and-carcinogens Genetic Mutations: Mutagens & Carcinogens-------- TERM: Carcinogen

"can be mutagens, but not always. Carcinogens lead to cancers (tumors) by unregulated cell division • they act as mutagens when they cause a mutation, leading to unregulated cell division • they are not mutagens when they just cause unregulated cell division WITHOUT causing a mutation" "Also Related to------• tobacco • esbestos • UV radiation

" TERM: Aerotolerant Anaerobes

"can live without oxygen and ignore oxygen regarless whether it is present or not • ""anaerobics that can tolerate oyxgen""

Topic: Redox Reactions ------ Term: Oxidizing Agent

"causes other atom to get oxidized, although they themselves get reduced • they often contain Oxygens or a similar very electronegative element" ------ EXAMPLE: Strong oxidizing agents, like KMnO4, tend to have oxygen or a similarly electronegative element

Topic: Redox Reactions ------ Term: Reducing Agent

"causes other atom to get reduced, although they themselves get oxidized • they often contain metal ions or hydrides (H-)" ------ EXAMPLE: Strong reducing agents, like LiAlH4, tend to have metals or hydrides (H-)

TERM: NAD

"composed of two nucleotides joined by their phosphate groups (similar to nucleic acids) - the oxidized form is NAD+ (which is an oxidizing agent) - the reduced form is NADH (which is a reducing agent) (can break disulfide bonds)

What is the action of Phosphoglycerate Kinase

"converts 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate • produces 2 ATP

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: 2 causes of Frameshift Mutations-------- TERM: deletion

"deleting a base of the DNA sequence, which shifts the reading frame of RNA • (ex: normal: GTG GTG GTG deletion: GTG TGG GT (the first G of the second codon was deleted)

Topic: Real Gases ------ Term: real gas

"deviate from ideal gas behavior under high pressure (low) volume and low temperature conditions. • at moderately high pressures, low volumes, or low temperatures, real gases will occupy LESS volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles have intermolecular attractions • at extremely high pressures, low volumes, or low temperatures, real gases will occupy MORE volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles occupy physical space

" TERM: Facultative Anaerobes

"do not necessarily need oxygen, but they can grow better if oxygen is present • ""anaerobics but life is facilitated by being aerobic""

Term: Basic amino acids

"each contribute a +1 charge to a peptide at physiological pH 7.4 (except Histidine) 1) Lysine / Lys / K 2) Arginine / Arg / R 3) Histidine / His / H (histidine only contributes a +1 charge when pH < 6) mnemonic, His Lys (lies) Are BASIC

" amino acids: Term: Acidic amino acids

"each contribute a -1 charge to a peptide at physiological pH 7.4 1) Aspartic acid / Asp / D 2) Glutamic acid / Glu / E

Term: Maslow's Hierchy of Needs

"explains behavior based on satisfying needs. Maslow prioritized these ""needs"" into five categories (of decreasing importance): - physiological needs (highest priority) - safety and security - love and belonging - self-esteem - self-actualization (lowest priority) "

Term: Opponent-Process Theory

"explains motivation of drug use, tolerance to drugs, and dependency on drugs; this theory states explains how our body changes its physiology to counteract a drug, leading to you needing more of that substance in order to cause the same amount of effect as it used to (e.g. a habitual coffee drinker will need more cups of coffee to produce the amount of same effect as was caused when he first started drinking coffee. This is because, overtime, his body has physiologically become more tolerant and less sensitive to caffeine)"

Term: Hawk-Dove Game Theory

"explains reasons for actions in an environment of pure competition between individuals centered upon the struggle for a limited food resource; it includes: - altruism - spite - cooperation - selfishness"

Term: Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon

"explains that you are more likely to be persuaded to perform a big task for someone when asked to perform a small task FIRST ex: if getting a random girl's phone number is considered a large task then: without foot-in-door technique: ""hey can I get your phone number?"" ""no"" with foot-in-door technique: ""would you like to go out for coffee?"" ""okay"" ""sounds like a plan, can I get your number first?"" ""sure"""

Term: Rational Choice Theory

"focuses on decicion-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual; in this theory, an individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ratio (e.g. making a mental pros and cons list before deciding what to spend your money on). This theory is contradicted by the concept of altruism." "-----Also Related to: Operant Conditioning Exchange Theory Altruism

what is the overarching focus of Biological Theory

"• genetics • evolution (associated with NATURE)

Topic: Cell Potentials ------ Term: Reduction Potentials

"is a measure of the tendency of a species to gain electrons and get reduced. Therefore, a species with a HIGHER, MORE POSITIVE reduction potential is more likely to be reduced, and is therefore more likely to be the cathode in a (-ΔG) Galvanic Cell and more likely to be the anode in an (+ΔG) Electrolytic Cell While we may have to multiply half-reactions by some factor to balance electrons to get the overall balanced equation, the actual value for the reduction potentials DOES NOT change, so you do not multiply reduction potentials by any factor when trying to calculate Eºcell. Remember that the standard reduction potential is an intrinsic property that is determined by the chemical identity of the electrode, NOT the amount of it present.

Topic: Formal Charge ------ Term: Formal Charge

"is defined as the difference between the number of electrons assigned to an atom in a Lewis structure and the number of electrons normally found in that atom's valence shell in its neutral state ... (aka, how many electrons the atom SHOULD have - how many electrons it actually has in the lewis structure). The charge of an ion or compound is equal to the sum of the formal charges of the individual atoms comprising the atom or compound. It is calculated by the following equation, where you substract the ""normal"" number of electrons in the atom's valence shell by the sum of number of lone-pair/nonbonding electrons and 1/2 the number of bonding electrons (double the number of bonds because each bond has two electrons). A shortcut is below: count the number of valence electrons the atom SHOULD have... then substract by the number it HAS, which are ""dots + sticks"" in a Lewis diagram.

" "3º Protein Structure: " Term: Tertiary protein structure

"is the 3D shape of a protein that is primarily the result of moving hydrophobic amino acid side chains into the interior of the protein; tertiary structure includes hydrophobic interactions, acid-base/salt bridges, and disulfide links. These are all stabilized by: • van der Waals forces • hydrogen bonds • ionic bonds • covalent bonds.

" Topic: UV Spectroscopy ------ Term: Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy

"measures absorption of ultraviolet light, which causes movement of electrons between molecular ORBITALS. UV spectroscopy is most useful for studying compounds containing double bonds and/or heteroatoms with lone pairs that create conjugated systems. UV spectra are generally plotted as percent transmittance or absorbance vs. wavelength. To appear on a UV spectrum, a molecule must have a small enough energy difference between its highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) to permit an electron to move from one orbital to the other. • the smaller the difference between HOMO and LUMO, the longer the wavelength a molecule can absorb." "------ Also Related to: • conjugated systems • molecular orbital theory

Topic: Spectroscopy ------ Term: Spectroscopy

"measures the energy differences between the possible states of a molecular system by determining the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by the molecules. The three main types of spectroscopy that you need to be familiar with on the MCAT are: • IR spectroscopy • UV spectroscopy • NMR spectroscopy

amino acids: Term: How many different peptides can be formed from the combination of n number of amino acids?

"n factorial (n!) (ex: How many possibile tripeptides can be formed using Alanine, Valine, and Leucine? 3! = 3*2*1 = 6)

TERM: Obligate Aerobes

"need oxygen in order to live • ""obligated to be only aerobic""

"Transcription (in eukaryotes):" "3 Post- Transcriptional Modifications done to pre-mRNA in Eukaryotes--------" TERM: Splicing

"occurs ONLY in eukaryotes. Splicing is the 1st of the 3 post-transciptional modifications that occur to the pre-mRNA before it becomes mature mRNA to exit the nucleus. During splicing, introns are removed and the remaining pieces (exons) are joined together to form the mature mRNA from the pre-mRNA that was initially transcribed from the DNA; this process is done by Spliceosomes." "Also Related to------https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing • introns • exons

" Natural Selection-------- TERM: Disruptive Selection

"occurs when individuals with either extreme variation of a trait have greater fitness than the individual with the average form of the trait (e.g. small fish and large fish have better fit than medium sized fish because small are faster to run away and large are better fighters)

Natural Selection-------- TERM: Directional Selection

"occurs when individuals with only a certain more extreme form of a trait has greater fitness than an individual with an average form of the trait (e.g. dark color moths have better advantage because of camoflauge than light color moths and are thus more fit for survival)

" Natural Selection-------- TERM: Stablizing Selection

"occurs when individuals with the average form of a trait have the highest fitness (e.g. when laying a medium number of eggs is better than: laying too little eggs--not enough to ensure survival of generations, or too many eggs---too many offpsring to feed with scarce resources)

Term: Door-In-The-Face Phenomenon

"opposite of Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon; large favor is asked first, and then smaller favor second hey mom, can I have a new car? ""no."" well then can I have 5 bucks? ""okay fine.."""

Lactate Dehydrogenase is inhibited by

"oxygen (aerobic metabolism)

Term: Positive vs. Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia

"positive symptoms: (what schizophrenics DO HAVE, but healthy people don't) • hallucinations • delusions • disorganized thought and behavior negative symptoms: (what schizophrenics LACK but healthy people have) • disturbance of affect • avolition"

What is the action of Lactate Dehydrogenase

"reduces pyruvate to produce Lactate oxidizes NADH to produce NAD+ - this replenishes NAD+ for GAPDH to function. Rate-limiting enzyme in Fermentation

Lab Techniques-------- TERM: What kind of DNA is better for PCR?

"stable DNA (aka DNA that has more G-C bonds) • note that human DNA could not effectively be used for PCR because the high heat would cause it to denature. However, DNA of some bacteria that thrive in high temp. environments, like Thermus aquaticus, would be able to withstand the harsh conditions used in PCR and still be able to carry out replication.

" TERM: MHC II

"• only present non-self antigens • they are found on only Antigen-Presenting Cells (APC's) • bind to CD4 Cells, aka helper T cells

" Topic: Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion ------ Term: Graham's Law of Effusion

"states that the relative rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and pressure are given by the inverse ratio of the square roots of the masses of the gas particles. http://calistry.org/New/sites/all/libraries/ckeditor//plugins/ckeditor_wiris/integration/showimage.php?formula=1438280f8dd04fbb50fb403bfabc7b1f.png In other words, a gas with a lower molar mass will travel/leak faster than a gas with a higher molar mass because it is lighter." "------ EXAMPLE: Both neon and oxygen gasess will effuse at slower rates than helium because they both have more mass than helium. (Ne: 20.2 g/mol O2: 32.0 g/mol He: 4.0 g/mol)" ------ Also Related to: • diffusion

Term: Cannon-Bard Theory

"stimulus ---> both physiological + emotional response simultaneously ""I see a ghost. My heart is beating fast AND I'm scared AT THE SAME DAMN TIME"" (e.g. a person with a severed sympathetic nerve fiber can still feel scared)"

Term: James-Lange Theory

"stimulus ---> physiological response ---> emotional response ""I see a ghost. My heart has started to beat fast. I feel threatened because my heart is racing."""

Term: Schachter-Singer Theory

"stimulus ---> physiological response and identifying reason of the stimulus ---> emotional response ""I see a ghost. My heart is beating fast. I think to myself, is this situation a stressful situation (appraisal)? If yes, then I must be threatened by the ghost's presence."" • Thefore, when your heart continues to race and you still feel nervous DESPITE telling yourself that taking the MCAT isn't a stressful situation, this contradicts the Schachter-Singer Theory."

Term: Looking-glass Self

"suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive/think that other people are viewing us. (e.g. before going out with a group of friends, Jessica tries on many different outfits; with each wardrobe change, she is thinking about how others will perceive her appearance, thus her sell-concept is dependent on how SHE THINKS that others see her)" "-----Also Related to: Identity Reference Group

---- TERM: Transition

"swapping out a purine for a purine, or swapping out a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine • A --> G https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: 3 causes of Point Mutations----

" ---- TERM: Transversion

"swapping out a purine for a pyrimidine, or vice versa • A ---> C https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: 3 causes of Point Mutations----

Term: Expectancy-Value Theory

"the amount of motivation needed to achieve a goal depends on what you expect the outcome to be and how valuable you view its success. (e.g. you are more likely to be motivated to something either easy to accomplish, or something that you see as valuable to accomplish)"

Topic: Polysaccharides ------ Term: Cellulose

"the main structural component of plant cell walls; main source of fiber in the human diet; composed by beta-1,4 links of glucose" ------ Also Related to: Cell Wall

" Isoelectric point (pI)

"the pI of an amino acid is the pH at which the molecule has an electrically neutral charge; in isoelectric focusing, a protein stops moving when pH = pI. • acidic amino acids have low pI's • basic amino acids have high pI's

" Term: reference group

"the people in which we compare ourselves to that then determines our own self-concept. (e.g. even though the average salary of doctors is about 200,000 a year, which is almost QUADRUPLE that of the national median, 89% of doctors still claim that they are not ""rich"". This may be due to the fact that doctors often live in rich neighborhoods and their responses are biased since they have a different reference group comprised of millionaires)"

Term: Ksp

"the solubility product; it is found by the mathematical product of the dissolved ion concentrations raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients (aka, like all K constants, it is calculated by [products]÷[reactants], where pure solids and liquids are excluded from the expression) • like ALL equilibrium constants, IT IS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE ONLY

" TERM: Heterozygote Advantage

"the tendency for a carrier of a dangerous condition to have a survival advantage (e.g. heterozygotes for sickle cell anemia are protected against malaria)

Term: Social Cognition

"the ways in which we think about others and how these ideas impact our behavior. Our attitudes about a certain person, aka the way in which we perceive them, impacts the ways we behave toward them (e.g. if you know that your sister's new boyfriend has cheated on her many times behind her back, you would have a negative opinion of him. So when your sister introduces you to him for the first time, you might behave differently toward him than you would with another stranger and be rude to him)"

Term: Functional Attitudes Theory

"this theory states that attitudes serve four functions: Knowledge, Ego-Expression, Adaptation, and Ego-Defense. 1) Knowledge: knowing attitudes of others help you predict their behavior - (e.g. I know my mom has a bad attitude about me staying out late, so I predict that she will yell at me if I come home at 3 AM) 2) Ego-Expression: allows you to communicate and express feelings to solidify self-identity - (e.g. I want to identify as being open-minded, so I will need to keep positive attitudes about different people's opinions) 3) Adaptive: to be accepted socially, you must have the right attitudes about the right things - (e.g. a girl who is trying to get a guy to like her might try to adapt her attitude on sports and starts rooting for the team he likes) 4) Ego-Defensive: allows you to justify actions that you know are wrong - (e.g. developing bad attitude towards math because you aren't good at it)"

" Evolution-------- TERM: Convergent evolution

"two or more species share traits but are NOT due to a common ancester. (e.g. birds, bats, and butterflys share the similar trait of wings but they do not share a common ancestor) - hint: things that ""converge"" mean that they are coming closer together even though they never touch

Analytical Approaches in Genetics-------- TERM: Hardy-Weinberg Equations

"• p + q = 1 • p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 Equations show the frequency of alleles in a population and also the frequency of a given genotype or in the population. There will always be twice as many alleles as individuals in a population.

Term: Base Rate Fallacy

"using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information as a shortcut to make decisions. (e.g. a volunteer at a stroke center might state that he thinks that the prevalance rate for stroke among perople 65 years or older is probably 40%, even though actual data indicates it is actually signifantly lower; this error may be due to since he works at a stroke center, he encounters more stroke patients on a daily basis, and his experiences affects his perception of how common stroke is in the general population, resulting in base rate fallacy)" -----Also Related to: Representative Heuristic

Bioenergetics: Term: Postprandial State

"well-fed state" occurs after eating. Greater anabolism than catabolism. Lasts 3-5 hours after a meal

KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-effects-of-mutations Genetic Mutations: The Effects of Mutations-------- TERM: "Good or Bad" Mutations

"when a mutation can be both beneficial and harmful to the organism • Sickle Cell disease can be beneficial for humans because it provides us resistance against malaria, but it is bad because it makes hemoglobin harder to carry oxygen in the body" Also Related to------sickle cell disease

KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-effects-of-mutations Genetic Mutations: The Effects of Mutations-------- TERM: "Good" Mutations

"when a mutation is beneficial to the organism • penicillin resistance is a good mutation for bacteria because it allows them to survive against antibiotics that normally kill them (note, it is good for THEM; bad for humans)" Also Related to------penicillin resistance

KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-effects-of-mutations Genetic Mutations: The Effects of Mutations-------- TERM: "Bad" Mutations

"when a mutation is harmful to the organism • cystic fibrosis is a bad mutation for humans because it makes mucus in our lungs thick and harder for us to breathe" Also Related to------cystic fibrosis

KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/the-causes-of-genetic-mutations Genetic Mutations: The Effects of Mutations-------- TERM: NON-conservative Mutation

"when an amino acid is replaced with another amino acid that has different biochemical properties; usually more harmful • (ex: swapping out a small nonpolar amino acid Alanine for a large basic polar amino acid Arginine)" Also Related to------sickle cell disease

" The Pancreas α-cells Secretes Glucagon In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

"when blood glucose levels are low (during fasting) ------" Blood ------ "↑ blood glucose via: ↑ glycogenolysis in the liver ↑ gluconeogensis ↑ lipolysis

TERM: Incomplete Dominance

"when there is a mixing (or in between) of two phenotypes • ex: red flower + white flower = pink flower • ex: tall + short = medium height" Also Related to------skin color

TERM: Co-dominance

"when two phenotypes are simultaneously expressed • ex: blood type antigens: Type AB blood expresses both the A and B receptors simulataneously and is thus an example of codominance" Also Related to------blood types

" amino acids: Term: What is the stereochemistry of the chiral amino acids that appear in eukaryotic proteins?

"• All chiral eukaryotic amino acids are L. • All chiral eukaryotic amino acids are (S), with the exception of cysteine (R), because cysteine is the only amino acid with an R group that has a higher priority than a carboxylic acid)

" Associated names to know with Humanistic Theory

"• Gesalt • Maslow • George Kelly • Carl Rogers

Denaturation: Term: What are the two main causes of protein denaturation?

"• Heat denatures proteins by increasing their average kinetic energy, thus providing enough energy to overcome and disrupt hydrophobic interactions that hold a protein together. • Solutes denatures proteins by interfering with the forces that hold the protein together, such as breaking disulfide bridges, overcoming hydrogen bonds that hold α-helices and β-pleated sheets together, and solubilize proteins to disrupt non-covalent bonds.

Cardiovascular:: TERM: "LAMB RAT"

"• Left Atrium = (Mitral) Bicuspid Valve, • Right Atrium, Tricuspid Valve

" what is the overarching focus of Behavioral Theory

"• Operant Conditioning • Classical Conditioning • Observational Learning (associated with NURTURE)

Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: Liver

"• Regulates blood sugar via glyogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the storage and release of fats. • Converts Ammonia (waste product of amino acid metabolism) into Urea • Detoxifies chemicals such as drugs and alcohol • Produces Bile • Synthesizes albumin and clotting factors" Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: bilirubin() Major pigment in Bile, which is the byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin. Inability to process or excrete bilirubin results in Jaundice. Also Related to------Jaundice

Associated names to know with Psychoanalytic Theory

"• Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung • Karen Horney • Myers-Briggs

The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Prolactin In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

"• a decrease in dopamine • suckling ------" Breasts ------ ↑ milk production and secretion ----Note:inhibited by dopamine

" TERM: MHC I

"• can present self OR non-self antigens • they are found in every cell of the body EXCEPT for red blood cells. • bind to CD8 Cells, aka cytotoxic T cells

Topic: Buffers ------ Term: Buffers

"• consists of a mixture of a weak acid and its salt (which is composed of its conjugate base and a cation) or a mixture of a weak base and its salt (which is composed of its conjugate acid and an anion) • their purpose is to resist pH change because the dissociated buffer reacts with H+ or OH- equivalents of strong acids/strong bases to form more weak acids/bases, which does not dramatically alter pH" "------ EXAMPLE: • Acetic Acid + its salt • Ammonia + its salt

" TERM: Gram-Negative Cell Walls

"• dyes pink • contain a thinner peptidoglycan layer • has a lipopolysaccharide layer, that can can set off an immune response" Also Related to------immune system

Immune: TERM: Major Histocompatibility Complex

(MHC) binds to pathogenic peptides (antigens) and carries it to cell surface where it can be recognized by other immune cells. Produced by virally infected cells via interferons. Also produced by macrophages. MHC-1 is produced by all cells except RBC's and carries many proteins to cell surface; platelets also have MHC-1. When foreign proteins are presented, immune cells know that the presenting cell is infected and needs to be destroyed. Called endogenous pathway. MHC-2 are mainly displayed by professional antigen presenting cells like macrophages, dendritic cells, and some B-cells. Takes antigens from environment, processes them inside the cell, then displays them to activate the rest of the immune system. Called exogenous pathway.

Immune: TERM: Pattern recognition receptors

(PRR) able to recognize category of invaders (bateria, virus, fungus, parasite) in order to initiate appropriate cytokine response. These receptors are presented on macrophages and dendritic cells.

Longitudinal study

(a study that is conducted over a long period of time, usually uses a specific cohort of people. One example is to study incidence of heart disease in people over time, while monitoring things like their diet or smoking habits)

Prospective study

(a study where we follow groups of people and see how their behavior in that time influence future outcomes. This kind of study is looking into the future, while retrospective studies are looking into the past. One popular example of this kind of study is by following nurses to determine long term health outcomes by looking at factors like stress, smoking, and level of exercise.)

Experimental study

(a study where we test to prove a causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups or levels of the independent variable. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs are common experimental studies)

Mixed-method research design

(a study where you use both qualitative and quantitative measures to conduct your study. One example would be using quantitative measures like how would you report your like for this product on a scale of 1 through 10, and then later following up with people who answered either negatively or poorly and asking them for their qualitative opinion.)

Term: Symbolic Culture

(also called nonmaterial culture) focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people; these may be encoded in mottos, songs, or catch-phrases. Examples of American symbolic culture include phrases like free enterprise and life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Within-subjects design

(also known as repeated-measures design, it is when a participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable. Gives you higher power because you are using more "subjects" in your study by using the same person in multiple conditions, and that you decrease individual difference effects seen in between-subjects designs.)

Retrospective study

(an observational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend between events in the past and current outcomes. One example would be conducting an experiment on people who suffer from Alzheimer's disease and looking back at their medical records to set up a relation between factors in the past and the current outcome. This type of study helps to develop and find potential risk factors for disease.)

" Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: L-sugars

(in a Fischer projection) sugars with their highest-numbered chiral carbon with the -OH group on the LEFT ------ EXAMPLE: https://illuminolist.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/d-and-l-configurations-of-glucose.png?w=300&h=209 "------ Also Related to: enantiomers Fischer projections

Between-subjects design

(participants are randomly assigned to to an experimental group in the study, such that a participant only participates in one group),

Correlational study

(study that attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables. The predictor variable is the correlational studies analog to an independent variable, while the criterion variable is an analog to a dependent variable. These are observational studies that do not prove causation between variables, while experimental research design does)

Where a stromal surface meets the epithelium

, the fibroblasts interact with epithelial cells to form a basal lamina.

Term: emotional vs. analytical vs. creative vs. interpersonal intelligence

- emotionally intelligent people are self-aware and can delay gratification in the pursuit of long-term rewards, rather than being overtaken by immediate impulses.

" Term: keto- vs. enol- form of Acetone

- the keto- form (more substituted alkene) is more stable and more predominant than the less stable enol-form

Term: Ketone Bodies

------Also related to: Krebs Cycle

types of ligands

-Neurotransmitters -Hormones

types of cell receptors

-Receptors that bind hydrophilic ligands are located in the cell membrane example: G protein-coupled receptors -Receptors that bind hydrophobic ligands are located in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the cell. example: Steroid receptors

Summary UV spectroscopy

-Useful for determining complexes of transition metals + highly conjugated systems -increase in wavelength -> increase in conjugation -UV absorption results in white/colorless -(800nm) ROYGBV (400nm); if absorb red then color appears green

role of microtubules

-maintain cell shape -intracellular transport -mitosis ciliary and flagellar movement

how to determine main idea of a passage in cars

1) 1st and Last Paragraph good indication 2) tone 3)Determine structure -claim/evidence = discussion in behavioral science -point/counter point = political science - chronological - historical discussion 4) No generalizations only information from passage.

How do receptor tyrosine kinases work?

1. Before the signaling molecule binds, RTKs exist as individual units (monomers). Each monomer has an extracellular ligand-binding site, an alpha helix spanning the membrane, and an intracellular tail containing multiple tyrosines 2. Binding of a signaling molecules (such as a growth factor) causes two receptor monomers to associate closely with each other, forming a dimer (process is called dimerization) 3. Dimerization activates the tyrosine kinase region of each monomer; each tyrosine kinase adds a phosphate from an ATP molecule to a tyrosine that is part of the tail of the other monomer 4. Receptor is fully activated, it is recognized by specific relay proteins inside the cell. Each such protein binds to a specific phosphorylated tyrosine, undergoing a resulting structural change that activates the bound relay protein. Each activated protein triggers a transduction pathway, leading to a cellular response typically gene transcription which impacts proteins

3 classes of lipids

1. Triglycerides 2. Phospholipids 3. Sterols

parts of the nephron

1. afferent arteriole 2. glomerulus 3. efferent arteriole- includes cells and proteins Bowman's capsule 1. proximal convoluted tubule- water and solute reabsorption 2. loop of Henle- countercurrent multiplier, descending limb reabsorbs water, ascending limb reabsorbs ions to medulla, allows for better water reabsorption in collecting duct 3. distal convoluted tubule- more regulated reabsorption, secretion of toxins into urine 4. collecting duct- secretion of toxins into urine 5. calyces peritubular capillaries- reabsorption via active transport, drain back to renal vein vasa recta- countercurrent to loop of Henle, brings reabsorbed water back to blood

" Term: Density of Water

1000 kg m^-3

density of water

1000 kg/m^3 or 1 g/cm^3 or 1 g/ml

1 atm is equal to

101 kPa, 760 torr, and 760 mmHg

Piaget Development after 2 years old include what happens and roughly when or order

2-roughly 6 is Pre-operational 6- puberty is Concrete operational Puberty is last stage Formal operational

" Topic: Stereochemistry ------ Term: How to find the number of stereoisomers of a given compound:

2^n, where n is the number of chiral centers in the molecule

What are the wavelengths of visible light?

400-700 nm

Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: Furanose

5 membered carbohydrate ring (hint: Furanose = Five) ------ EXAMPLE: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Beta-D-Fructofuranose.svg/1200px-Beta-D-Fructofuranose.svg.png

furanose

5 membered ring sugar

Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Pentose

5-carbon sugars

" Term: L.L. Thurnstone's Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

7 factor theory of intelligence; factors all depend on each other -----Also Related to: L.L. Thurnstone

Term: Garner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence

7-9 INDEPENDENT intelligences (they do NOT affect one another) -----Also Related to: Howard Gardner

genetic drift

A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance more pronounced in small populations an example would be if a small population becomes isolated due to physical barriers referred to as a bottleneck since the population available for breeding significantly decreased.

what is collagen

A fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptide coiled like a rope

F-actin

A fibrous protein made of a long chain of G actin molecules twisted into a helix; main protein of the thin myofilament

actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.

proteoglycans

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells, rich in carbohydrate

Microtubules

A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.

what is gamma decay

A nucleus emits the surplus energy from alpha or beta radiation as very high frequency electromagnetic radiation. Only energy is emitted (A PHOTON) , so the type of atom doesn't change.

Troponin

A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction

myosin

A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of thick filament

motor proteins

A protein that interacts with cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell.

glycoprotein

A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.

Term: Counterculture

A subculture that directly opposes the majority culture and deliberately opposes primary cultural norms. (e.g. a biker gang that sells a shit ton of illegal drugs, breaks the law, and lives by their own laws) -----Also Related to: Subculture

" Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) is inhibited by

Acetyl-CoA

Pyruvate carboxylase is promoted by

Acetyl-CoA

What is secreted from the presynaptic & postsynaptic synapses of the parasympathetic nervous system

Acetylcholine

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Chyme

Acidic, semifuild mixture in the stomach resulting from the digestion of solid food.

Term: Front Stage Self

Actor is in front of the audience, performing according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see. -----Also Related to: Dramaturgical Approach

Term: Back Stage Self

Actor is not being observed and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image. -----Also Related to: Dramaturgical Approach

Topic: Amino Acids ------ Term: L Amino Acids

All amino acids are L, except for Glycine ------ Also Related to: isomers

Topic: Amino Acids ------ Term: S Amino Acids

All amino acids are S, except for Cysteine. ------ Also Related to: isomers

Topic: Amino Acids ------ Term: Chiral Amino Acids

All amino acids are chiral, except for Glycine ------ Also Related to: isomers

Enzymes: Term: Allosteric activators vs. Allosteric inhibitors

Allosteric activators are molecules that bind to an allosteric site on an enzyme, causing a conformational shift in the protein that makes the active site more available to binding for the substrate, whereas an inhibtior will make it less available.

Name the glycerol backbone lipids

Also remember that the phosphogroup can get an alcohol containing compound to form other compounds to serve other functions

" Genetics: Term: Acetylation of Histone

Decreases positive charge of lysines, unbinding DNA, results in increased transcription

" The Duodenum Secretes Cholecystokinin (CCK) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Amino Acids and Fat in Chyme as it enters duodenum ------ Pancreous, Brain ------ "↑ release of bile ↑ release of pancreatic enzymes ↑ satiety

Term: Dissociative Amnesia

Amnesia not due to a neurological disorder but often times trauma. It is characterized by an inability to recall past experiences

Hearing Anatomy of: Auditory Pathway

Anatomy - cochlea ---> vestibulocochlear nerve ---> medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus ---> auditory cortex

Vision Anatomy of: Visual Pathway

Anatomy - retina ---> optic nerve ---> optic chiasm ---> optic tracts ---> lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus ---> visual radiations ---> visual cortex

Functional Theory applied to society

Deviance from norms is necessary to establish firm boundaries within a society, promote unity, or even social change.

Term: derealization

Individuals feel detached from their surroundings. (e.g. feeling like they're in a dream and the world is not theirs; their possessions are not truly theirs; their surroundings are not one they can help to be in)

What is the action of PEPCK

Converts oxaloacetate into phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). Bypasses pyruvate kinase.

What is the action of Pyruvate carboxylase

Converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate

What is secreted from the Adrenal Cortex

Cortisol

what are tight junctions

Creates a nearly water tight barrier between cells. Barrier to lateral movement of membrane proteins. (Beer 6pack with plastic rings)

types of cell membrane receptors

Cell-surface receptors come in three main types: ligand ion channel receptors, GPCRs, and enzyme-linked receptors

what makes up connective tissue

Cells and extracellular materials .

TERM: G-Cells

Cells in the pyloric glands of the stomach that secrete Gastrin "Also Related to------Pyloric Glands Gastrin aids in digestion

Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: Acinar Cells

Cells that make up the bulk of the pancreas and participate in its exocrine functions. Produce pancreatic juices. Also Related to------Pancreatic Juices

Pepsinogenis produced by

Chief cells

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase is promoted by

Citrate (allosterically), Insulin

" What processes occur in the mitochondrial matrix

Citric Acid Cycle Glycogenesis Glycogenolysis

gene pool

Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population

Term: Multiculturalism

Communities or societies containing multiple cultures. "Cultural Mosaic" compared to assimilation being a "melting pot".

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Bile

Complex fluid of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol. Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder before secretion into the small intestine.

" Cardiovascular: TERM: Intercalated Discs

Connect muscle cells in the myocardium of the heart. Contain many gap junctions to connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and allowing for quicker signal propogation and coordinated ventricular contraction.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Stomach Anatomy

Consists of the Fundus (top), Body (middle), Pylorus (bottom), and Antrum (exit). Lesser curvature is the inside curve, Greater Curvature is the outside curve. Rugae is the internal, folded lining of the stomach.

Term: Paranoid Personality Disorder

Constant distrust of others. Constantly suspicious of other's motives. May be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia. -----Also Related to: Cluster A Personality Disorder

Musculoskeletal: Bones-------- TERM: Flat Bones

Contains red bone marrow, indicating that high RBC production occurs here; usually provide protective functions and are found in areas associated with little movement, such as skull bones, ribs, and vertebrae.

Musculoskeletal: Bones-------- TERM: Long Bones

Contains yellow bone marrow, indicating that low RBC production occurs here; found in areas associated with physical movement such as the arms, legs, hands, and feet.

" What is the action of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase

Converts Acetyl-CoA to Malonyl-CoA by adding a carboxylic acid to the acetyl end. It achieves this via ATP converting to ADP and a CO2 molecule. This is the rate limiting step of Fatty Acid Synthesis.

" Term: Dysthymia

Depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet criteria for a Major Depressive Episode. -----Also Related to: Major Depressive Episode

Term: Normative Conformity

Desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection (e.g. pretending to like Justin Bieber because your friends all love him and you dont want to be a social outcast, even though you secretly think he's a moron)

Term: Schizoid Personality Disorder

Detachment from social relationships, restricted emotional expression. Little desire for socializing. Don't have close friends, poor social skills. -----Also Related to: Cluster A Personality Disorder

Immune: TERM: Natural Killer Cells

Detect and destroy cells with downregulated MHC; they basically poke holes in the cell's membrane, which prevents that cell from keeping a stable membrane potential and therefore it dies. Includes cancer cells and some virally infected cells

Respiratory: TERM: Surfactant

Detergeny covering alveoli to reduce surface tension and prevent alveolus from collapsing on itself. Premature babies do not have surfactant.

convergent evolution

Different species in the same environment that are similar in looks/behavior evolving together

" Aminopeptidase is involved with what process

Digestion

"Enteropeptidase (formerly enterokinase) is involved with what process

Digestion

Amylase is involved with what process

Digestion

Carboxypeptidase is involved with what process

Digestion

Dipeptidase is involved with what process

Digestion

Lipase is involved with what process

Digestion

Pepsin is involved with what process

Digestion

Pepsinogen is involved with what process

Digestion

Trypsin is involved with what process

Digestion

Term: Philip Zimbardo

Directed the Stanford Prison Experiment to study conformity. Prisoners and Guards both conformed to roles of being submissive and abusive, respectively. When interviewed afterwards, they were shocked at their behavior. -----Also Related to: Famous psych experiments

Term: Antisocial Personality Disorder

Disregard for rights of others. Repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for bad actions. More common in males than females. (e.g. showing no guilt for serious crime such as murder) -----Also Related to: Cluster B Personality Disorder

Immune: TERM: Humoral Immunity

Division of adaptive immunity that includes antibodies and B-cells which act within the blood rather than within cells.

what are the types of viruses

Dna = brings dna into the nucleus, where the host dna polymerase / rna polymerase can directly transcribe the information. RNA (+) = cell machinery directly translates Rna (-) = virus must carry an rna replicase which takes the rna strand forms the complementary which then the cell machinery can directly translate Retrovirus - reverse transcriptase and integraded into host genome.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Pyloric Glands

Dominant glands in the Antrum and Pylorus sections of the stomach. Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin. Also Related to------G-Cells

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Gastric Glands

Dominant glands in the Fundus and Body. Stimulated by the Vagus Nerve of the Parasympathetic Nervous System. Contain three main cell types: Mucous Cells, Chief Cells, and Parietal Cells. Also Related to------Mucous Cells, Chief Cells, Parietal Cells

" How is Biological Theory applied to dreams

Dreams act as threat simulation to help you prepare for real world dangers and possibilities. Dreams act as simulations to help you to problem solve

Term: Role Exit

Dropping of one role in favor of another, usually due to role conflict. (after graduation, exiting the role of a college kid and adopting a role of a young professional)

Fibroblasts

In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.

How many stages / phases for Erik Erikson Freud Kolhberg Piaget

EE-8 stages Freud - 5 Kohlberg 3 phases 2 stages Piaget - 4

Term: Hypomania

Energetic and optimistic, but typically doesn't impair functioning or have psychotic features

Immune: TERM: Lysozyme

Enzyme able to attack petidoglycan walls of gram positive bacteria. Found in nasal cavity, tears, and saliva

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Salivary Amylase (ptyalin)

Enzyme in saliva capable of hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Lipase

Enzyme in saliva that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Pepsin

Enzyme produced from pepsinogen being cleaved by hydrogen ions in the stomach. Cleaves peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids, resulting in short, peptide fragments. Uniquely most active at low pH. Also Related to------Chief Cells

Genetics: Term: Peptidyl Transferase

Enzyme that forms peptide bond in ribosome between incoming amino acid in A-site with polypeptide chain in P-site

enzyme linked receptors

Enzyme-Linked Receptors • have intrinsic enzymatic activity or are associated with an enzyme (usually a kinase) • play a role in apoptosis, cell differentiation, cell division, cell growth, immune response, inflammation, and tissue repair.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Brush Border Enzymes

Enzymes present on the inside surface of cells lining the duodenum that are released in the presence of chyme. These enymes break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers. Include disaccharidases and peptidases

What is secreted from the sympathetic nervous system

Epinephrine

Term: Dramaturgical Approach

Erving Goffman's description of impression management through the use of the metaphor that individuals are actors in a theatrical performance and creating images for themselves in various situations. -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase is involved with what process

Fatty Acid Synthesis

Lactate Dehydrogenase is involved with what process

Fermentation

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Collecting Duct

Final concentration of urine largely dependent on permability of collecting duct, which is affected by ADH and Aldosterone to increase water absorption and concentrate urine output. Water travels to Vasa Recta, where it reenters blood stream. Also Related to------Aldosterone, ADH

Term: ego-syntonic

Individual precieves their abnormal behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with goals. (e.g. thinking everyone else is wrong when they say you have a problem)

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Brocca's Area

Function: motor production of speech - boca Anatomy - frontal lobe

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Septal Nuclei

Function: pleasure-seeking Anatomy - forebrain Also related to: limbic system

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Cerebellum

Function: posture, balance, motor coordination - ring a bell Anatomy - BELow the cerebrum Also related to: hindbrain

" Digestive Function / Anatomy of: Stomach

Function: protein digestion via proteases that work in acidic pH

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Thalamus

Function: relay station for sensory information Anatomy - forebrain

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Pituitary

Function: secretes hormones Anatomy - anterior / posterior

Digestive Function / Anatomy of: Pancreas

Function: secretes insulin and glucagon

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: "nondominant" hemisphere

Function: sense of direction Anatomy - usually the right-hemisphere of the brain, even for left handed people

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Midbrain

Function: sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli Anatomy - contains the inferior and superior colliculi; gives rise to some cranial nerves Also related to: brain stem

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Pons

Function: sleep Anatomy - brainstem

Digestive Function / Anatomy of: Gallbladder

Function: stores bile

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Medulla Oblongata

Function: vital functions (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure) Anatomy - brainstem

Function / Anatomy of: Large intestine

Function: water absorption ; The purpose of the large intestine is to absorb water and salts from the material that has not been digested as food Anatomy - ascending colon, transvere colon, descending then anus

Term: Group conformity

Individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal. Conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group. -----Also Related to: Groupthink

Term: depersonalization

Individuals feel detached from their own mind and body. (e.g. an "out of body experience"; they feel like they feel like they're watching themselves in a dream or behind a movie screen)

Dyneins

In cilia and flagella, a large motor protein extending from one microtubule doublet to the adjacent doublet. ATP hydrolysis drives changes in dynein shape that lead to bending of cilia and flagella.

" What is the action of bisphosphoglycerate mutase

In red blood cells. Transforms 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) into 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG), which decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen. Shifts oxygen dissociation curve right. Does not bind well to fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which is why HbF has higher affinity for oxygen than HbA.

Term: Somatic Sympton Disorder

Individual is experiencing symptoms and is disproportionately concerned about it, devotes a ton of time and energy to it, or is overly anxious about it. Symptoms may or may not be related to underlying medical condition

Term: Blueberry Phenomenon

Interdependent individuals bring out the worst in each other.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Lack of Digestive Enzyme

Intestines can't cleave disaccharaide for digestion. This increases osmolarity and pulls water into the intestines to form diarrhea. Bacteria in the small intestine are able to break down disaccharides, but result in methane gas as a biproduct, resulting in farts. Also Related to------Lactose Intolerance (Lactase deficiency)

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Peristalsis

Involuntary, rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle that propels food down digestive tract. Can be reversed during emesis (vomiting) to move contents from the stomach, out the mouth.

" Term: Kinsey Scale

Kinky Scale "scores sexuality from a scale of 0-6, with 0 being completely heterosexual and 6 being completely homosexual Note: a Kinsey Scale score of 3 would equate to bisexuality. (a young man claims to have had sexual relationships with mostly other men, although he occasionally has been attracted to women at times. Thus this man would likely score a 4 or 5 on the KInsey Scale)" -----Also Related to: Sexuality

who are the main contributors to development theories and what is their corresponding viewpoint

Kohlberg - Moral (a cold world); Piaget - cognitive; Erik Eriksons stages of personality; Freud - psychosexual

embryogenesis Mesoderm

Mnemonic: "means"oderm "Meaning- the means of getting around as an organism, such as bones and muscle the means of getting around within the body, such as the circulatory system and kidney the means of ""getting around ;)"" such as the testes and ovaries"

" Evolution-------- TERM: Inclusive Fitness

Measure of an organism's success in the population. Based on number of offspring, ability to support offspring, and ability of the offspring to support others. Promotes altruism since sacrificing oneself, commonly for offspring, can ensure passing of genes to future generations Also Related to------Altruism

Organic Chemistry Absolute Configuration

Mnemonic: (R) vs. (S) stereochemistry is like driving a car. "Meaning- A clockwise arrangement is turning a steering wheel clockwise, with makes a car turn Right-so the chirality at that center is (R). Therefore, counterclockwise arrangement is represented by (S)."

Respiratory: TERM: Bicarbonate Buffer System

Mechanism where respiratory system controls blood pH via controlling carbon dioxide concentrations. Less CO2 in blood = More Basic = Body responds with slower breathing to retain CO2. More CO2 in blood = More Acidic = Body increases breathing rate to remove CO2. Hyperventilation decreases CO2 levels in blood, making blood more basic. Body responds with trying to slow breathing rate. Also Related to------pH Homeostasis

digestive Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Mnemonic: "ADEK" "Meaning- Vitamins A, D, E, and K are the 4 fat-soluble vitamins. These vitamins will be absorbed into the lympatic system instead of the circulatory system."

Carbohydrate Metabolism Irreversible Steps of Glycolysis

Mnemonic: "How Glycolysis Pushes Forward the Process: Kinases." "Meaning- Hexokinase Glucokinase PFK-1 Pyruvate Kinase"

optics types of images

Mnemonic: "IR" and "UV" "Meaning- ALL Inverted images always are Real ALL Upright images always are Virtual (aka if you see answer choices that pair Inverted w/ Virtual, or Upright w/ Real... then they are WRONG)"

State functions

Mnemonic: "When I'm under pressure and in a dense state, all I want to do is watch T.V. and get H.U.G.S." "Meaning- The 8 State Functions include: pressure (P), density (ρ), temperature (T), volume (V), enthalpy (H), internal energy (U), Gibbs free energy (G), and entropy (S). When the state of a system changes from one equilibrium to another, one or more of these state functions will change. In addition, while state functions are independent of the path (process) taken, they are not necessarily independent of one another. For example, Gibbs free energy is related to enthalpy, temperature, and entropy."

genetics Patterns of Inheritance

Mnemonic: "X-linked is sex linked" "Meaning- X-linked traits have no male-to-male transmission, and more males are affected." "• color blindness • hemophilia A • male-pattern baldness

embryogenesis Ectoderm

Mnemonic: "attract"oderm "Meaning- The things that arise from the ectoderm are things that attract us to others, such as cosmetic features and ""smarts"" - our nervous system, epidermis (skin), lens of eye, inner ear, mouth"

endocrine Peptide Hormones

Mnemonic: "in" the know "Meaning- • if a hormone ends with ""in"" then it is likely a peptide hormone, with the exception of glucagon (insulin, oxytocin, prolactin, vasopressin, somatostatin) • hormones that end in ""-one"" or ""-ol"" are steroid hormones, with the exception of estrogen (testosterone, progesterone, estrodiol)"

Biology / Biochemistry anatomical terms Pronation vs. Supination

Mnemonic: You can hold SOUP in the palm of your hand when the flexed forearm is supinated, but are PRONE to spill it if the forearm is pronated. "Meaning- Pronation rotates the radius medically so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly and its dorsum faces anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed, pronation moves the hand so that the palm faces inferiorly (e.g. placing the palms flat on a table). Supination is the opposite rotational movement, rotating the radius laterally and uncrossing it from the ulna, returning the pronated forearm to the anatomical position. When the elbow joint is flexed, supination moves the hand so that the palm faces superiorly. "

Biological Membranes Osmosis

Mnemonic: hypOtonic "Meaning- To remember that water flows into a cell placed in a hypOtonic solution, imagine the cell swelling to form a giant letter O. Hypotonic also means less concentrated because there is more water present. For example, after drinking a large up of coffee, the activity of ADH is blocked, and the urine will be more clear, indicative of its low concentration and hypotonic status, relative to the blood."

Emotion Brain Structures involved in the Limbic System

Mnemonic: imagine a Hippo wearing a H.A.T. "Meaning- The four brain structures associated with the Limbic System: • Hippocampus • Hypothalamus • Amygdala • Thalamus"

endocrine Corticosteroids functions

Mnemonic: the 3 S's "Meaning- Salt (mineralcorticoids) Sugar (glucocorticoids) Sex (cortical sex hormones)"

Enzymes Equation for Catalytic Efficiency

Mnemonic: the Cat pounces on top of the Mouse "Meaning- Catalytic Efficiency of an Enzyme = (Kcat) / (Km) Kcat goes on the top (numerator), while KM goes on the bottom (denominator)"

Translation Start codon

Mnemonic: the class MET in AUGust "Meaning- school starts in august and the start codon for translation is AUG (which codes for methionine)"

Physics Physics Thermal Expansion

Mnemonic: when the temperature of an object changes, its length changes A LOT "Meaning- the equation for Thermal Expansion is ΔL = αLΔT where ΔL is the change in length, α is the coefficient of linear expansion (which is a constant that characterizes how specific a material's length changes as temperature changes; provided on Test Day), L is the original length, and ΔT is the change in temperature."

Immune: TERM: Neutrophils

Most abundant type of white blood cells in the body. They are quicker to respond than macrophages because they "come in hot with guns-a-blazing and ask questions later". Short lived (5 days). Dead neutrophils are responsible for formation of pus. Follow bacteria via chemotaxis and phagocytize them. Can also destroy opsonized cells. Also Related to------Granulocyte

Hexokinase is found in

Most cells

TERM: Vagus Nerve

Mostly Parasympathetic Nerve that slows down heart rate when activated. Originates in Medulla Oblongata.

Term: Dissociative Identity Disorder

Multiple personality disorder, where 2+ personalities recurrently take control of a person's behavior. Usually results from severe abuse as a child (e.g. as portrayed in the movie Split)

" Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Detrusor Muscle

Muscular lining of the bladder which contracts after stimulation from the parasympathetic nervous system.

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase is inhibited by

NADPH

slope of aLineweaver-Burke plot

NO EFFECT in slope, but the entire line shifts to the left-------- Biochemistry: Enzymes-------- charge on an amino acid's sidechain Relationship between ligand affinity/stabilization ! proportional(if the ligand has an opposite charge to the sidechain)-------- Ligands that have a negatively charged group, such as phosphate groups, would have a high binding affinity to an enzyme active site that contains positively charged side chains on an enzyme, such as His, Lys, and Arg. (aka ionic interactions; "opposites attract")

General Chemistry: Raoult's Law-------- concentration of(volatile) soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between condensation rateof the solvent

NONE-------- The condensation rate of a solvent is unaffected by the presence of solute particles in solution.

Term: Dependent Personality Disorder

Need continuous reassurance. Emotionally dependent on one specific person, such as parent or significant other -----Also Related to: Cluster C personality Disorder

General Chemistry: Atomic Structure-------- isotope number Relationship between magnetic moment

ODD isotope # = ↑ magnetic momentEVEN isotope # = none-------- Isotopes that have a magnetic moment (and can thus be imaged by an MRI) are ones with an ODD atomic mass number. This is because an odd atomic mass number indicates an odd number of neutrons + protons, resulting in the nucleus having a nonzero spin and magnetic moment, thus becoming affected when placed in a magnetic field.(e.g. Carbon-13 and Fluorine-19 can be used in MRI because their atomic mass numbers are odd; Phosphorus-32 and Carbon-12 have mass numbers that are even, and they cannot be used in MRI because they will not be influenced by a magnetic field)

Term: Stanley Milgram

Obedience experiment with the teacher and learner, and electricuting the learner. The teachers would increasingly shock the patients and hurt them, even at their screams in agony and requests to stop the experiment, because the person running the experiment told them to with demanding language. Milgram was surprised at the level of obedience that was shown. Were able to get 65% of participants to administer maximum shocks of 450 V. Repeated tests have shown at least 60% of people will obey even if they do not wish to continue. -----Also Related to: Famous psych experiments

TERM: Mismatch repair mechanism

Occurs after replication when a mutation as occured. This mechanism is composed of a number of proteins that recognize if there is a mismatch in DNA (aka a mutation). They mark the mismatch area with a "cut". Then an exonuclease removes the incorrect nucleotide. Then DNA Polymerase fixes it by inserting the correct nucleotide pair. Then DNA Ligase connects the new nucleotides, "sealing the deal". Also Related to------Mutations

Term: Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Odd or eccentric thinking. Have ideas of reference (everything is directed towards them...everything has a meaning in their own life somehow. There are no coincidences) as well as magical thinking -----Also Related to: Cluster A Personality Disorder

presence of proteins relationship with oncotic pressure

Oncotic pressure defined as a form of osmotic pressure, exerted by proteins. For example, low albumin levels in the blood (due to liver damage because albumin is made in the liver) would cause a low oncotic pressure.

" TERM: Gastrin

Peptide Hormone that induces the parietal cells in the stomach to secrete more HCl and also signals the stomach to contract. Secreted by G-cells Also Related to------G-Cells

How is Behavioral Theory applied to behavior

Operant Conditioning (your actions are shaped by reinforcements and punishments you've received and learned from)

" The Fat Cells (in stomach) Secretes Leptin To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Orexin ------ "↓ appetite ↓ Orexin

" Term: Alcohol myopia

Oscohol Morales the inability to think logically about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication (e.g. "drunk texting" your ex; jumping down a staircase when drunk rather than down because you aren't forseeing the possibilty of a bad landing)

Term: Internalization

Outwardly agreeing to conform while also inwardly agreeing with the ideas of the group

Term: Identification

Outwardly agreeing to conform while not personally accepting the ideas.

Term: Silica Gel

POLAR AS ****. When silica gel is used as the stationary phase in TLC, compounds that migrate LESS are more polar than compounds that migrate farther

Skeletal endocrine control hormones

PTH, Calcitonin, ViT D

TERM: Islets of Langerhans

Pancreatic bundles of cells that release hormones. Include alpha, beta, and delta cells, which release glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin respectively. -------- Endocrine: Pancreas

" The Duodenum Secretes Secretin To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Pancreous ------ "↑ Pancreatic Enzyme release into Duodenum ↓ motility through digestive tract to allow digestive enzymes to act on chyme; regulates pH by: ↓ HCl secretion from parietal cells ↑ bicarbonate secreation from pancreas

What is secreted from the Parathyroids

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

explain expressivity versus penetrance

Penetrance is the probability that someone with a genotype for a disease will actually express the phenotype for the disease. So for example someone may be heterozygote for an autosomal dominant disease, but they won't actually experience any disease symptoms. Examples of not 100% penetrance are mutations in the BRCA1 gene that lead to familial breast cancer. I think it's like around 65-80% penetrance which basically means that there's a chance that even if you have the alleles for breast cancer, you may not get breast cancer. Another example is retinoblastoma which has a penetrance of about 90%. Variable expressivity on the other hand is basically what severity of the disease you have. While penetrance is do you have the disease or not, variable expressivity is what "level" of the disease do you have. Marfan syndrome and neurofibromatosis both have 100% penetrance. This means that if you have the disease allele, you WILL express the disease for sure. But since they also have variable expressivity, you may have a more or less severe form. Individuals have the same phenotype, but the severity of the disease is different.

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase is involved with what process

Pentose Phosphate pathway

Term: Social Cognitive Theory of Attitude

People learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behavior of others, influences of personal factors, AND the environment. These three factors are related and constantly affecting each other. Supported by Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment "-----Also Related to: Bandura's Bobo doll Nature + Nurture

Pepsin is promoted by

Pepsin is promoted by low pH due to HCl secreted by Parietal Cells

Term: Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

Perfectionistic and inflexible. Likes rules and order. Stubborn, routine, no desire to change. NOT SYNONYMOUS TO OCD. OCD is ego-dystonic (Must wash hands because of germs) while OCPD is ego-syntonic (I like rules and order). OCPD is lifelong. -----Also Related to: Cluster C personality Disorder

" Term: Solomon Asch Conformity Experiment

Performed by Soloman Asch to show that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by a group. Participants were placed in a group with confederates and were given a card with a line on it along with a reference card with three lines of different sizes. They had to to unanimously decide which line A, B, or C matched the length of the first card. Confederates were secretly told to respond correctly or incorrectly. The results showed that the participants would sometimes provide answers they knew to be untrue if it avoided going against the group: the urge toward conformity could outweight the desire to provide the correct answer. -----Also Related to: Peer Pressure

How is Behavioral Theory applied to personality

Personality is learned through Operant Conditioning. The environment influences behavior. Token economies act as a good therapy to change personality.

How is Biological Theory applied to personality

Personality traits are related to genes and genetics.

Term: Groupthink

Phenomenon where desire for harmony or conformity results in a group coming to an incorrect or poor decision. This desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking. (e.g. unity of the group > evaluating decisions for better alternatives, leading to possible errors) -----Also Related to: Irving Janis

Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: Troponin

Protein on tropomyosin. Has a Ca2+ binding site. When activated by calcium binding, troponin causes tropomyosin to undergo conformational change, exposing myosin binding sites

" Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Hepatic Portal System

Portal system in which blood first travels through capillaries in the villi of the small intestine to absorb nutrients, then again through the capillaries in the liver for nutrients to be processed and for toxins to be removed. Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Chylomicrons() Packaged triglycerides and esterified cholesterol that gets transferred from the mucosal cells of the villi of the small intestine into the lacteal for insertion into the lymphatic system Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Fat Soluble Vitamins() Vitamins A, D, E, and K. Easily dissolve into chylomicrons to enter body. Failure to digest or absorb fat may lead to deficiencies in fat soluble vitamins. Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Water Soluble Vitamins() Vitamin B complexes and C. Absorb directly from small intestine into blood plasma. Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Cecum() Outpocketing of the Large Intestine that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve and is the site of attachment of the appendix. Home to many aerobic bacteria that produce a symbiotic relationship that helps produce vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7). Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Appendix() Originally thought to be vestigial, but now thought to aid in warding off bacterial infections and repopulating the large intestine with normal flora after diarrhea. Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Colon() A part of the large intestine that's main function is to absorb water and salts from indigested material left over from the small intestine. Absorbs less water than the small intestine, but still aids in formation of feces. Too much or too little absorption causes constipation or diarrhea respectively. Also Related to------Large Intestine

Metabolism: Term: GLUT 4

Present in Adipose and Muscle tissue ONLY. Increase in expression on cell surface in presence of insulin, promoting more glucose transport into cells.

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Proceeds the Bowmans Capsule. Amino Acids, Salts, Glucose, Water Soluble Vitamins reabsorbed into the Vasa Recta along with water. About 70% of the filtered sodium is reabsorbed here. H+, Urea, NH3,and K+ (aka "HUNK") are all secreted here.

Term: Anticipatory Socialization

Process by which a person prepares for future changes (occupations, living situations, relationships)

" Metabolism: Term: Glycolysis

Process in which glucose is broken down, 2 ATP molecules are consumed, 4 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules are produced along with 2 pyruvate molecules. Facilitated by Insulin. Limited by PFK-1 activity, which is inhibited by ATP and Citrate and stimulated by AMP.

Musculoskeletal: Bones-------- TERM: Endochondral Ossification

Process of hardening cartilage into bone. Responsible for formation of most of the long bones of the body.

Metabolism: Term: Gluconeogenesis

Production of glucose in Liver and Kidneys to raise blood sugar. Promoted by glucagon and epinepherine. Inhibited by insulin. "------Also related to: insulin glucagon epinephrine liver

differences between prk and euk

Prokaryotes:- have a cell wall and a plasma membrane- no nucleus - lack membrane bound organells (no mitochondria) - produce their ATP is generated in the plasma membrane (oxidative phosphorylation) - Unicellular (except cyanobacteria may be multi) - Include Bacteria and Archaea - Smaller ribosome(70s) - have Operons, meaning Prokaryotes have the ability to transcribe and translate multiple genes on a single chromosome at once - many prokaryotic mRNAs encode multiple polypeptides that are synthesized independently from distinct initiation sites (for example, the E. coli lac operon consists of three genes that are translated from the same mRNA) - reproduce by binary fission - circular chromosomes (Prokaryotic cells are haploid)- one origin of replication - no spliceosome complex (precisely removes introns from pre-mRNA to generate mature messages (mRNA), a process referred to as pre-mRNA splicing. The spliceosome is essential for cell function and defective pre-- mRNA splicing causes disease)- no telomeres, or centromeres Eukaryotes- Has a membrane-bound nucleus - Has membrane-bound organelles - Multicellular- Histones are present - Larger ribosomes- plasma membrane only in vertebrates (plants have cell wall) - linear chromosomes - multiple origins of replicaiton - spliceosomes (cut out the introns in pre-mRNA --> mRNA)- telomeres (repeating TTAGGG heterochromatin), also centromeres

Immune: TERM: Interferon

Proteins produced by cell upon viral infection to block cellular and viral protein production. Decrease permeability of cell membrane and upregulate MHC class 1 and class 2 molecules on cell surface to signal immune system. Responsible for malaise, tiredness, muscle soreness, and fever during viral infections.

Complement

Proteins that nonspecifically will punch holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, making them osmotically unstable. Can use the classical pathway which requires antibody binding, or alternative pathway which doesn't) "I think you need to know it's innate immunity and thus non-specific."

TERM: Adaptive Radiation

Rapid rise of a number of different species from a common anscestor. These species differ as a result of geographic differences in habitat.

Term: Bureaucracy

Rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. Usually slow to change and less efficient than other organizations. Setup is basically like every corporation in America in that it includes salary, promotions, etc. (such as the FBI)

describe a cell receptor

Receptors are a special class of proteins that function by binding a specific ligand molecule. When a ligand binds to its receptor, the receptor can change conformation, transmitting a signal into the ce

vasoconstriction

Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.

" Term: McDonaldization

Refers to a shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.

Immune: TERM: Eosinophils

Release large amounts of histamine upon activation for inflammation. Contain bright, red-orange ganules in a typical histological stain. Also Related to------Granulocyte

Immune: TERM: Histamine

Released by Eosinophils and Basophils. Cause inflammation by inducing vasodilation and increased leakiness of blood vessels so additional immune cells can enter tissue. Immune: TERM: Basophils() Have large, purple granules in a typical histological stain. Least populus leukocyte. Produce large amount of histamine in response to allergens. Closely related to mast cells. Also Related to------Granulocyte

personality clusters names and types mnemonic

Remember the three clusters a, b,c as weird, wild, and worried Cluster A - Weird (Genetic association with Schizophrenia) Accusatory: Paranoid (Suspicious) Aloof: Schizoid (Voluntary social withdrawal) Awkward: Schizotypal (Schizoid + Magical thinking) Cluster B - Wild (Genetic association with mood disorders and substance abuse) Bad: Antisocial (>/=18 years with a history of Conduct Disorder, Sociopath and Manipulative) Borderline: Borderline (Unstable and afraid of abandonment) flamBoyant: Histrionic (Attention-seeking and excessive emotionality) Best: Narcisstic (Grandiosity, reacts to criticism) Cluster C - Worried (Genetic association with Anxiety disorders) Cowardly: Avoidant (Seeks social relationship but avoids social situation; hypersensitive to rejection) Compulsive: Obsessive-compulsive (Inflexible but inefficient)Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Ego-syntonic (happy with how they are)Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Ego-dystoni (wishes they could stop) Clingy: Dependent (Submissive)

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Distal Convoluted Tubule

Responds to Aldosterone, which promotes sodium reabsorption. Water will follow the sodium, concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume. Waste products are also secreted here. Also Related to------Aldosterone

Term: Iron Law of Oligarchy

States that democratic and bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group. "-----Also Related to: Bureaucracy Conflict Theory

Term: Strain Theory

Says that deviance is a natural reaction to the inability to achieve a normative social goal while staying within a limiting social structure. Therefore, deviance is a behavior that aims at achieving a socially desirable goal using antinormative behavior.

Term: Appraisal Model

Says there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but there is a cognitive precursor to emotional expression.

Cardiovascular: TERM: Hematopoietic Stem Cell

Stem cell which can differentiate to create Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets.

Term: Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Sense of grandeur, preoccupied with fantasies of own success, need for constant attention and admiration. Entitled. Very fragile self esteem and concerned with how others fiew them. -----Also Related to: Cluster B Personality Disorder

Term: Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude

Separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information from those that think deeply about a situation (Central Route Processing) to those who focus on superficial details such as appearance or catchphrases (Peripheral Route Processing). Where they fall on the continuum dictates how they will approach new information and the possibility of it to cause an attitude change. Going through Central Route Processing leads to greater solidification of attitude, if accepted.

Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Internal and External Anal Sphincters

Seperate the rectum from the outside. Internal sphincter is involuntary. External is voluntary.

Term: Cultural Syndrome

Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. Influece display rules.

" Term: Cognitive Dissonance

Simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. Usually leads to internal discomfort which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion. "-----Also Related to: Peer Pressure Identify Shift Effect Solomon Asch Experiment

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Duodenum

Site of chemical digestion in the small intestine. Releases tons of enzymes such as brush border enzymes, secretin, and cholecystokinin.

Term: Ethnic Enclaves

Slow assimilation. Locations with high concentrations of a specific ethnicity (Chinatown, Little Italy)

" Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: Red Fibers

Slow twitch fibers, high myoglobin content and derive energy aerobically. Lots of Mitochondria

What are gap junctions

Small tunnels that connect cells, facilitating the movement of small molecules and ions between the cells.

UV spectroscopy reading: a low wavelength was absorbed

So . . . If you have a bigger energy jump, you will absorb light with a higher frequency - which is the same as saying that you will absorb light with a lower wavelength.

Term: Folkways

Social behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions; common manners (e.g. saying thanks to someone who held the elevator door open for you)

Term: Taboo

Socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible (e.g. incest or cannabalism)

What is secreted from the Pancreas δ-cells

Somatostatin

TERM: Punctuated Equilibrium

Some species have "Explosions" of evolutionary change that occur in rapid bursts, rather than slowly over a long period of time.

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Pyloric Sphincter

Sphincter that controls movement of chyme from the stomach to duodenum

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Cardiac Sphincter

Sphincter that controls the movement of the bolus from the esophagus into the stomach

spongy vs compact bone

Spongy is porous, vascular, has trabeculae & is deep to Compact Compact is hard, dense external portion consisting of osteons

Digestive: Accessory Organs of Digestion-------- TERM: Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates bile. CCK stimulates the gallbladder to contract and push bile into the billiary tree, which merges with the pancreatic duct before entering the duodenum via the duodenal papillae. Gallbladder stones made of cholesterol or bilirubin can cause inflammation of the gallbladder and blockage of both the biliary tree and pancreatic ducts. Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Villi() Small, fingerlike projections from the epithelial lining of the small intestine. Each villus is covered in microvilli. This greatly increases surface area for absorption. Each villus contains a capillary bed for absorption of water soluble nutrients and small fatty acids into the blood and a lacteal to transport fats into the lymphatic system Digestive: Absorption and Defecation-------- TERM: Lacteal() Lymphatic channel that takes up fats in the form of milky fluid chylomicron for transport into the lymphatic system. Located in the Villi. "Also Related to------villi fats absoprtion

" The Adrenal Cortex Secretes Cortisol (glucocorticoid) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Stress (exercise, cold, emotional, "flight-or-flight" response) ------ Blood ------ " ↑ blood glucose level via gluconeogenesis ↓ inflammatory response ↓ immune function ↓ protein synthesis ↑ wakefulness

Musculoskeletal: Bones-------- TERM: Harversion Systems

Structural Unit of Bone, also called Osteons. Have Harversian and Volkmann's Canals (longitudinal and transverse canals) that allow blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels to maintain bone health.

How is Psychoanalytic Theory applied to personality

Subconscious dominates personality with the id, ego, and superego (according to Freud).

Term: Schizophrenia

Suffer from delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and/or negative symptoms for more than 6 months. Thought to be related to excess DOPAMINE in the brain. Active symptoms generally preceded by Prodromal Phase, or phase of clearly deteriorating behavior with passive symptoms. Partially genetically inherited. -----Also Related to: excess dopamine

Term: Persistent Depressive Disorder

Suffering from Dysthymia for a long period of time, generally for at least 2 YEARS. May have occasional major depressive episodes. -----Also Related to: Dysthymia, Major Depressive Episodes

: TERM: Rh Factor

Surface Protein expressed in red blood cells in the presence of allele called D. Leads to (+) or (-) blood type classifications. Dominant allele.

The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

TRH ------ Thyroid ------ ↑ thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) ----Note:associated with basal metabolic rate

The thyroid Secretes Triiodothyronine (T3) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

TSH ------ "Small Intestine; Blood ------" "↑ metabolic activity; (rapid, shorter duration effects on metabolism. Derived from T4 via deiodonases. Clears cholesterol from plasma and ↑ glucose absorption from small intestine)

" The thyroid Secretes Thyroxine (T4) In Response to_______; To Act on_______; To Cause__________

TSH ------ "Small Intestine; Blood ------" "↑ metabolic activity; (slower, longer lasting effects on metabolism. Clears cholesterol from plasma and ↑ glucose absorption from small intestine)

Term: Group Polarization

Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. Also called "Choice Shift".

What is secreted from the Testes

Testosterone

Term: Resocialization

Where one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change. E.g. Training military personel to obey orders

Topic: Atomic and Molecular Orbitals ------ Term: bonding orbital

are formed as a result of the overlap of two atomic orbitals that have the SAME signs

basal lamina (basement membrane)

noncellular, adhesive supporting sheet consisting largely of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial cells

Term: Characteristic Institution

The basic organization of society, today is found in Bureaucracy. -----Also Related to: Bureaucracy

what are the majority of the active enzyme domains in enzyme linked receptors

The majority of the "active enzyme" domains are receptor ( tyrosine) kinases that phosphorylate the amino acids serine, threonine and tyrosine of proteins.

Term: Differential Association Theory

The degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs ideals that go against them. Says that spending time with people who do deviant things leads to you learning those behaviors and being deviant too. "I wanna do hood rat shit with my friends". (e.g. if you grow up with a family that views cussing as deviant, you don't cuss. However when you go off to college and ALL your roommates cuss all the time, you're likely to adopt their deviant before and cuss too because you spend a lot of time with them)

homologous pairing

Two chromosomes that are alike in structure and size and that carry genetic information for the same set of hereditary characteristics. One chromosome of a homologous pair is inherited from the male parent and the other is inherited from the female parent.

concentration in distal convoluted tube

The distal tubule contains relatively dilute glomerular filtrate. Water reabsorption can take place in the collecting duct, which concentrates the filtrate.

what is heat of fusion vs heat of vaporization

The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat needed to cause a phase change between solid and liquid. The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat needed to cause a phase change between liquid and gas.

difference between epithelial and connective tissue

The main difference between epithelial and connective tissue is that epithelial tissue lines the cavity and the surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout the animal body whereas connective tissue supports, connects and separates different types of tissues and organs in the body.

what is temperature

The measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules.

tunica media

The middle and thickest layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall, composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle cells that allow the vessel to expand or contract in response to changes in blood pressure and tissue demand.

what is statistical significance

The most numerical analysis you'll need to know is that in a general a p-value less than 0.05 will be significant in most studies. But this is usually also described or marked in the passage or at least very obvious.

Term: Ventromedial hypothalamus

The nucleus of the hypothalamus; responsible for feelings of fullness (e.g. if you damage a rat's ventromedial hypothalamus, the rat would eat excessive amounts of food to the point of severe obesity because it would never feel full)

tunica adventitia

The outer layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall, composed of elastic and fibrous connective tissue.

penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

What is oncotic pressure?

The pressure exerted specifically by protein molecules in a compartment. It correlates with osmolality, and is also known as colloidal osmotic pressure. Remember, concentration calls!

TERM: Nucleotide Excision Repair

The process of fixing damaged and broken double stranded DNA that resulted from exposure to things such as UV rays, reactive oxygen species, gamma rays, etc. First, an endonuclease removes the pyramidine dimer. Then a DNA Polymerase brings the correct nucleotides. Then DNA Ligase connects those correct nucleotides together and seals the deal. Failure of the nucleotide excision repair system may result in uncontrolled cell division and cancer. Also Related to------Damaged DNA

concentration in proximal convoluted tube

The proxymal convoluted tubule is the first tubule where the glomerular filtrate passes through. About 65% of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal collecting tubule. Thus, this is not the region where the glomerular filtrate is the most concentrated.

Term: Peer Pressure

The social influence placed on an individual by others who are considered equals (peers) than can modify or continue certain behavior, attitudes, or beliefs "-----Also Related to: Identify Shift Effect Adolescence

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Countercurrent Multiplier System

The system in which the Vasa Recta and Nephron flow in opposite directions, allowing more hypertonic blood (high osmolarity) to be exposed to the loop of Henle, allowing for maximum water absorption.

why does temperature remain constant during a phase change

The temperature remains constant during the change of state because the heat energy which is supplied to change the state of matter is used in breaking the intermolecular forces and other attractive forces.

Term: Social Loafing

The tendency of an individual to put in less effort when in a group setting than they would individually. (e.g. putting in less effort in group powerpoint projects than you would if the project was to be completed individually)

Term: Labeling Theory

Theory that labels given to people affect how others respond to that person as well as their own self-image. This can lead to behavior conforming with society, or deviating from it.

How do growth factors work?

They bind to receptors that activate specific genes in the nucleus to trigger cell growth

" Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Diluting Segment

Thicker portion of the ascending loop of Henle with larger cells due to more mitochondria in these cells to facilitate active transport. These cells are pushing out salts against their concentration gradient, since the fluid inside the loop of Henle has become hypotonic compared to the interstitium. This is the only portion of the nephron that can produce urine more dilute than blood.

Describe the ECM, cytoskeleton and interstitial fluid.

Think of this island as a cell, can't work w/o support, the ground are cytoskeleton, like microfilaments, to aid in supporting. Then in tissues there are multiple cells or islands. Now for these "island" to communicate with other people they need items to and attach for support and communicate. This brings in the ECM which are protein / carbs. A membrane protein will attach a form of ECM like a protein of collagen or glycoprotein. or a saccharide of some sort. Between these "islands" or cells there is water aka interstitial fluid. This works to bring in nutrients and oxygen to cells from things such as capillaries.

What is the action of Nucleosidediphosphate kinase

Transfers a phosphate from GTP to ADP in order to produce ATP. This is the only time in Citric Acid Cycle that ATP is created.

" What is the action of Succinyl-CoA Synthetase

Transforms Succinyl-CoA to Succinate with energy input from turning GDP into GTP

What is secreted from the Thyroids

Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine (T4) Calcitonin

parallel evolution

Two related species that have made similar evolutionary adaptations after their divergence from a common ancestor

" what is the overarching focus of Psychoanalytic Theory

UNCONSCIOUS thoughts, urges, and desires

Term: Conversion Disorder

Unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions, usually after traumatic event. (e.g. claming to become blind as a result of seeing a traumatic event, yet there is no evidence of true neurological damagge)

What are desmosomes?

Usually occur with tight junctions. A structure by which two adjacent cells are attached, formed from protein plaques in the cell membranes linked by cytoskelatal filaments. not water tight, but still have a form of adhesion between them to act as stability for mechanical stress induction

The Posterior Pituitary Secretes Oxytocin. To Act on_______; To Cause__________

Uterus ------ "↑ uterine contractions during childbirth; ↑ pleasure feelings (bonding); ↑ milk secretion during lactation" ----Note:under positive feedback with itself

Term: Deviance

Violation of the norms, rules, or expectations within a society. Functionalists believe that deviance is necessary in a society in order to establish clear perception of social norms and acceptable bondaries, encourage unity within a society, and promote social change.

Musculoskeletal: Muscles-------- TERM: Tetanus

When muscle contracts do not get the chance to relax at all due to constant stimulation at a high frequency. E.g. after a tough workout, your muscles are still tense, even though you aren't flexing.

" Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Renal Bicarbonate Buffer System

When pH is too high, kidneys can selectively excrete more bicarbonate and reabsorb more H+. When pH is too low, kidneys exctrete more H+ and reabsorb more bicarbonate.

Excretory: Renal-------- TERM: Micturition reflex

When stretch receptors in bladder recognize that it is full, they fire parasympathetic neurons to the detrusor musccle and internal urethral sphincter causing them to contract and relax respectively.

Term: Authentic Self

Who we actually are, both positive and negative. -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Ideal Self

Who we would like to be under ideal circumstances. -----Also Related to: Impression Management

Term: Mores

Widely observed social normes (e.g. being truthful)

recombination frequency

With respect to two given genes, the number of recombinant progeny from a mating divided by the total number of progeny. Recombinant progeny carry combinations of alleles different from those in either of the parents as a result of independent assortment of chromosomes or crossing over.

When do you us avogadros number

You can use Avogadro's number to convert between mass and the number of molecules of any pure substance. If you are given the mass of a sample (such as a snowflake), convert the mass to moles, and then use Avogadro's number to convert from moles to molecules.

Term: belief-preserverance

a bias that refers to the inability to reject your particular belief, despite evidence to the contrary (e.g. believing that your girlfriend is trustworthy even when consistent evidence has shown that she has cheated on you multiple times)

Term: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

a brain disorder that results from long-term alcohol abuse that leads to a deficiency in vitamin B1 and is characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills "-----Also Related to: Memory loss / dementia Alcoholism

standard deviations

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score + - 1 SD = 2/3 of the sample, + - 2 SD = ~ 95% of the sample

Term: splitting

a defense mechanism used in borderline personality disorder in which the individual view others as all good or all bad (an an angel vs. devil mentality) -----Also Related to: Borderline Personality Disorder

Protein Purification: Term: S.D.S

a detergent that denatures proteins to make sure that all proteins have a uniform size-to-charge ratio ------Also related to: electrophoresis

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) is promoted by

a drop in blood pressure

Renin is promoted by

a drop in blood pressure

Term: Iconic Memory

a form of visual sensory memory that fades very quickly and is almost always lost, unless the info is quickly attended to; a partial report of iconic memory is more acurate than the whole-report (e.g. your memory of the layout of a word search puzzle; it would be easier to recall a row of the puzzle rather than the whole puzzle)

G-actin

a globular subunit of F actin with an active site for binding a myosin head

" TERM: 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)

a lethal uncoupling agent that binds protons in the intermembrane space and transfers them across the inner mitochondrial membrane, thus dissapating the proton gradient and blocking ATP synthesis from occuring because protons will not cross down its concentration gradient to power ATP Synthase. "Also Related to------Electron Transport Chain Oxidative Phosphorylation

Topic: Polysaccharides ------ Term: Glycogen

a major energy storage form for animals; similar to starch except that it has more α-1,6 glycosidic bonds, which makes it a more highly branched compound

what is a test cross

a mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual

" Cardiovascular: TERM: Hematocrit

a measure of how many Red Blood Cells are in blood, given as a percentage of total cells in blood. Usually ~45%

Term: Master Status

a person's social status that which he or she is most identified with. It is typically the most important status they hold because it affects all aspects of that person's life. It is also generally how people view themselves and holds a symbolic value. Master statuses can also lead to pigeonholing -----Also Related to: pigeonholing

lateral geniculate nucleus

a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Mucous Cells

secretes bicarbonate-rich mucous that protects the inner lining of the stomach from the harshly acidic pH environment. Also Related to------Gastric Glands

Term: thought insertion

a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one thinks that external thoughts are being placed in their head -----Also Related to: delusions

Term: thought broadcasting

a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one's thoughts are broadast directly from one's head to the external world -----Also Related to: delusions

Term: dependency ratio

a ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members. The economically dependent are those considered either too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the age-working population (approximately between the ages of 18-65). The dependency ratio can be increased by factors such as an increasing aging population.

Term: Priming

a retrieval cue by recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory -----Also Related to: Spreading Activation

Cardiovascular: TERM: Bohr Effect

a shifting of the oxyhemoglobin curve to the right, indicating a lower affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen so that oxygen can be transported from the RBC to tissues that need it. The Bohr Effect can be due to decreased pH and increasing the H+ concentration in the blood. H+ binds to hemoglobin allosterically and reduces affinity for oxygen. This allows more oxygen to be delivered to tissues that need it for aerobic production of ATP. Decreased pH can be caused by increased CO2 and lactic acid in blood. Right shift of curve can also be caused by increased temperature, and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG). Also Related to------Exercise

Term: Anomie

a state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualsm, social inequality, and isolation

what is lanosterol

a sterol with the four ring structure characteristic of the steroid nucleus (almost cholesterol)

Term: dissociative fugue

a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities. Individuals in a fugue state are confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity. Significantly they may actually believe that they are someone else, with a complete backstory

Term: cataplexy

a symptom of narcolepsy that invovles a loss of muscle control and a sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

Term: REM Rebound

a symptom that occurs as a result of sleep deprivation that results in an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal

Term: Signal Detection Theory

a theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context BOTH play a role in how you perceive something

molecular orbital theory

a theory that accounts for the allowed states for electrons in molecules

what protein structure could be in the nucleus

a transcription factor

" TERM: Ribozyme

an RNA molecule that is capable of catalyzing reactions. It is composed of RNA and is therefore susceptible to phosphodiesterases since it has phosphodiester bonds in the ribose phosphate backbond "Also Related to------• rRNA • ribsome

" Term: Agoraphobia

an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape. These individuals tend to be uncomfortable leaving their homes for fear of a panic attack or execerbation of another mental illness -----Also Related to: panic disorder

" Enzymes: Term: Holoenzymes

an enzyme with its cofactor

Term: Speech Shadowing

an experimental technique in which subjects are told to repeat a word immediately after hearing it (usually through earphones) person talks you are their shadow so you mimic -----Also Related to: echoic memory

bonding orbital vs antibonding orbital

an orbital is considered an electron cloud now where the elctron cloud of two orbitals are near eachother a bond is considered to be formed but when one is present or neither are an antibond is consdidered there.

immunoglobulins

antibodies

heteroatom

any atom other than carbon or hydrogen

" Term: Anti normative Behavior

any behavior against the norm.

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/mutagens-and-carcinogens Genetic Mutations: Mutagens & Carcinogens-------- TERM: Mutagen

any chemical substance or physical event that can cause a genetic mutation in your DNA "Also Related to------• poisons • UV light • radiation

phosphorylase

any of a group of enzymes that catalyze phosphorolysis with the formation of organic phosphates (as glucose-1-phosphate in the breakdown and synthesis of glycogen) and that occur in animal and plant tissues.

Origin of prostaglandins

arachidonic acid

Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: Electrolytic Cells

are NONspontaneous (+ΔG) and have -Eºcell; because they are nonspontaneous, they require an outside energy source, such as a battery, to supply energy for the redox reaction to occur. Electrolytic cells are used to create useful products through electrolysis ------ Also Related to: electrolysis

" Topic: IR Spectroscopy ------ Term: wavenumbers

are an anolog of frequency that we use for IR spectrum. f = c / λ, whereas wavenumber = 1 / λ. The standard range for wavenumbers in an IR spectrum is 4000 to 400 cm^-1. When light of these wavenumbers is absorbed, the molecules enter excited vibrational states, which include bending, stretching, twisting, and folding. ------ Also Related to: IR spectroscopy

prostaglandin function

are autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate cAMP levels. Powerful effect on smooth muscle, body temp and sleep wake cycyle, pain and fever.

Topic: Atomic and Molecular Orbitals ------ Term: antibonding orbital

are formed as a result of the overlap of two atomic orbitals that have DIFFERENT signs

Viruses: Subviral Particles-------- TERM: Prions

are made up of ONLY proteins (therefore, they contain NO genetic material; NO RNA and NO DNA); they tend to be in the Beta-Sheet conformation, and it is thought that prions cause normal proteins to convert their alpha-helixes to turn into beta-sheets, which may lead to causing protein deposits that can be harmful to the organism, such as protein deposits in our brain. Removal of these protein deposits can cause holes in your brain, resulting in further damage.

Viruses: Subviral Particles-------- TERM: Viroids

are made up of a single-strand of circular RNA; use catalytic RNA to self-cleave to replicate itself Also Related to------hepatitis D

Genetics: Post-Transciptional Modifications-------- TERM: Spliceosomes

are responsible for removing introns from pre-mRNA after it is synthesized. Different isoforms of a gene are a result of alternative splicing. "Also Related to------• post-transcriptional modifications • alternative splicing • introns • exons

Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: Galvanic (voltaic) Cells

are spontaneous (-ΔG) and have +Eºcell

Viruses: Viruses-------- TERM: Virions

are whole "complete" viruses (protein coat + envelope); do not get these confused with the subviral particles, viroids.

" amino acids: Term: What is the pI of the amino acids that do NOT have charged side chains?

around 6

Tropomyosin

arranged like a ribbon that binds the myosin binding site on the actin blocks movement powersurge

negative log values to memorize

as you increase the value, the closer the value should be getting to the next exponent.

Term: Gate Control Theory of Pain

asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input, preventing pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious (aka, non-painful) input is able to suppress pain

" Term: Feminist Theory

attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender; focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination "-----Also Related to: Gender Roles Social Inequality

⁠Precision. I was used to premed classes where you need your calculations and answers to be precise. I felt very incompetent rounding or estimating, so I was wasting A TON of time doing longform arithmetic like multiplication and division. You need to get comfortable doing the calculations quickly in order to get through such questions in 90 seconds. I made Flashcards to memorize fractions (up to 1/12), squares and square roots (1-15, 25), sine and cosine decimal values, and logs (1-10). I also watched the Leah4sci MCAT math video series several times through and employed a lot of those techniques. Although I prefer the Kaplan log approximation rather than Leah's. I actually began to find it easier to do ALL my calculations in scientific notation, and I practiced solving the Chem/phys formulas in this format. I also practiced estimating values quickly, marking an answer, and then doing the written arithmetic (with rounded values) to answer questions on my practice tests. This helped me learn to trust my approximations.

blah

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) is involved with what process

blood pressure homeostasis

Renin is involved with what process

blood pressure homeostasis

Term: Soap

by definition, soap is composed of a carboxylate salt of a fatty acid ionically bonded to a cation; they are made by reacting a triacylglyceral with a base in a process called saponifcation ------ Also Related to: Saponifcation

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase is involved with what process

citric acid cycle

Nucleosidediphosphate kinase is involved with what process

citric acid cycle

Succinyl-CoA Synthetase is involved with what process

citric acid cycle

What is the action of Aldolase

cleaves Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate into GAP and DHAP

What is the action of Pepsin

cleaves peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids.

What is the action of Trypsin

cleaves peptide bonds preferentially near hydrophobic amino acids

Enzymes alter the rate of chemical reactions by

co-localizing substrates. altering local pH. altering substrate shape.

what is cartilage made of

collagen and elastin

what are the types of structural proteins and describe what their general structure is

collagen, elastin, keratin, actin, and tubulin and they are generally fibrous

what are the structural proteins

collagen, elastin, keratin, actin, tubulin

what are extracellular fibers

collagenous, reticular, elastic

Topic: Common Disaccharides ------ Term: Sucrose

composed of a fructose + glucose... connected by a α-1,2 glycosidic bond ------ EXAMPLE: http://fyi.uwex.edu/safepreserving/files/2014/05/sucrose.gif "------ Also Related to: glucose fructose

" Topic: Common Disaccharides ------ Term: Maltose

composed of a glucose + glucose... connected a α-1,4 glycosidic bond; it is a reducing sugar ------ EXAMPLE: https://img-nm.mnimgs.com/img/study_content/lp/1/12/5/273/961/2070/2031/16-6-09_LP_Utpal_chem_1.12.5.14.1.2_SJT_LVN_html_d46d845.png ------ Also Related to: glucose

Term: Zone of Proximal Development

concept coined by Vygotzky that refers to the skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Gaining these skills requires the help of a more-knowledgable other, typically a parent or adult (e.g. a child may struggle to ride a bicycle on her own, but with the help and guidance of a parent she may be successful. Thus according to Vygotzky, this skill is currently within the child's zone of proximal development) "-----Also Related to: Lev Vygotsky ""More-Knowledgable Other""

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time

how do motor proteins work

conformational change that is capable of force generation

Term: Heterocyclic compounds

contain a ring that is made up of at least two different elements (e.g. the imidazole ring of histidine contains carbon and nitrogen)

" Term: Homocyclic compounds

contain a ring that is made up of the same element (e.g. benzene is made up of carbon only)

Respiratory: TERM: Internal Intercostal Muscles

contract upon forced exhalation only

Respiratory: TERM: External Intercostal Muscles

contract upon inhalation to pull ribcage up and expand intrathoracic volume (chest cavity volume)

Sarcomere

contractile unit of a muscle fiber

" What is the action of Renin

converts Angiotensisogen to Angiotensin I

" What is the action of PhosphoGlucoIsomerase (PGI)

converts Glucose-6-Phosphate into Fructose-6-Phosphate

What is the action of ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)

converts the weak hormone Angiotensin I into its more potent form, Angiotensin II, in order to eventually bring low blood pressure back up to homeostasis

Term: Cyclothymic Disorder

cycling between hypomania and dysthymia -----Also Related to: hypomania, disthymia

sarcoplasm

cytoplasm of a muscle cell

when does delta G = 0?

equilibrium

Digestive: Digestion-------- TERM: Chief Cells

secretes pepsinogen in the stomach, the inactivated form of pepsin; digests proteins once the persinogen is activated by H+ Also Related to------Gastric Glands

what does inbreeding lead to

decrease in genetic fitness

what is the tunica interna

deepest layer of blood vessel endothelium basement membrane internal elastic lamina ***ARTERIES ONLY

What is the y-axis?

dependent variable

action potential steps in muscle

depolarization of nerve, release of acH in presynaptic cleft, ach attachs to end motor place. causes depolarization that travels through to t tubule, then a protein conformation change leading to release of calcium in the muscle cell .

Pepsinis produced by

derived from the inactive form called pepsinogen, secreted by Chief Cells

name and describe the layers of the dermis and hypodermis, also label types of burns

dermis (Connective tissue, not epithelial cells , so more room for other things such as nerves, glands and blood vessels.) -papillary nerve endings and blood vessels that come to bring nutrients to the hypodermis or epidermis -reticular - arrector papilla, thicker and denser CT hair follicle sweat glands hypodermis / subcutaneous layer ( adipose) - layer of adipose tissue absorbs shock and regulates heat (muscles and bones are directly below) also has bood vessels burns 1st degree is epidermis 2nd degree is dermis 3rd degree is hypodermis

" Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: Cyclization

describes the ring formation of carbohydrates from their straight-chain forms. When these cyclic sugar rings form, the anomeric (C1) carbon can take on either an α- or β- conformation! ------ EXAMPLE: http://www.harpercollege.edu/tm-ps/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/carbo/rx2gluc.gif "------ Also Related to: α-anomers β-anomers hemiacetal formation

Term: electronic geometry

describes the spatial arrangement of ALL PAIRS of electrons around the central atom, including both the bonding and the (nonbonding) lone pairs. ------ EXAMPLE: ammonia (NH3) has a tetrahedral electronic geometry

Term: molecular geometry

describes the spatial arrengment of ONLY THE BONDING PAIRS of electrons ------ EXAMPLE: ammonia (NH3) has a trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry

diabetes mellitus and appetite

diabetes affected individuals will use proteins and lipids as a source of glucose, thus increasing, rather than decreasing, their appetite.

TERM: Alternative Splicing

different ways of cutting up the RNA and rejoining exon pieces make different isoforms of the final RNA products.

Topic: Polysaccharides ------ Term: Starches

digestible by humans; main energy storage forms for plants; includes (1) amylose and (2) amylopectin

relationship between • concentration gradient,• surface area,• kinetic energy (aka temperature) on rate of diffusion

direct ex: Demyelination of the axon is a major concern for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients. The scavenging of myelin on the axon results in a greater surface area of the neuron exposed for interaction. Thus, there is increased diffusion of electrolytes down their neural concentration gradient. The higher the concentration gradient (aka, the greater the difference in concentration between the high-concentration area vs. low-concentration area), the greater the rate of diffusion).

heat, solute concentration, and changes in pH relationship with protein denaturation

direct • Heat denatures proteins by increasing their average kinetic energy, thus disrupting hydrophobic interactions.• Increasing the amount of solutes or dramatically changing pH denatures proteins by disrupting elements of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure because the solutes, H+, or OH- interfere with bonds that maintained the protein's structure.

presence of Myelin relationship with conduction speed

direct Myelin is an insulator that surrounds the axons and helps speed up action potential transmission, similar to how a rubber coating helps conduct and speed up electrical transmission in a wire, like your phone charger. (note that since myelin is a good insulator, this also means that by definition it must be a poor conductor)

does the wavelength of light equal the color seen

no, scienists know this and can determine the wavelenth of color absorbed based on the color of the solution being ran through the UV spectroscopy

structure of skeletal muscle cell analogy

each muscle is made up of a LONG ( basically end to end) muscle cell. and then has filaments that run along that cell. each with varying amounts of thick and thin filaments. But segment of variation make up one sarcomere. and then repeat. Thus like the lamp each striation is a sarcomere, but the who rod is one muscle cell

oxidizing agents

electron acceptors / electronegative

reducing agents

electron donors

Term: Learning Theory

emphasizes operant conditioning in that all children have the capacity to learn any language, BUT they only acquire the language that their parents or environment reinforce (e.g. although all children could learn proper english, children in less afluent areas speak with slang and improper grammer because they adopt it from their surroundings) "-----Also Related to: nurture operant conditioning

Term: Nativist Theory

emphasizes the innate capacity to learn a language; language is ingrained in us (e.g. deaf children form different cultures can still spontaneously create a system of signs for communication when brought together, indicating that their culture and environment did not play a role) -----Also Related to: nature

TERM: Aspartate Transanimase

enzyme that transfers an amino group to α-ketoglutarate to form Glutamate and Oxaloacetate "Also Related to------Krebs Cycle Malate-Aspartate Shuttle

TERM: cytochrome p450

enzyme used in drug detoxification in the liver; sometimes coincidentally it can also inadvertently activate carcinogenic compounds that are not otherwise harmful "Also Related to------liver drug detoxifcation

Enzymes: Term: Allosteric enzymes

enzymes that alternate between an active and an inactive form, based on whether another molecule is bound to its allosteric site.

Glycogen Synthase is inhibited by

epinepherine and glucagon, which phosphorylate it.

Term: Anti-bonding orbital

formed by 2 out-of-phase orbitals

TERM: Where are your mitochondria inherited from?

from your mother

Central Nervous System Function / Anatomy of: Cerebrum

functions include the roles of its parts Anatomy - contains the cerebral cortex, limbi system, and basal ganglia

What is the action of Glucokinase

functions irreversibly using one ATP just like hexokinase; only present in the liver and pancreatic β-islet cells as part of the glucose sensor and is responsive to insulin in the liver

Term: Paraphilic Disorders

getting turned on by weird shit (abnormal fetishes, like getting aroused by pain, pedophilia, etc.)

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is involved with what process

glluconeogensis

Glucose-6-phosphatase is involved with what process

glluconeogensis

PEPCK is involved with what process

glluconeogensis

Pyruvate carboxylase is involved with what process

glluconeogensis

what are the two types of quaternary structure

globular and fibrous

what does the brain use for energy

glucose and ketones NOT FATTY ACIDS

Branching Enzyme is involved with what process

glycogenesis

Glycogen Synthase is involved with what process

glycogenesis

Debranching Enzyme is involved with what process

glycogenolysis

Glycogen Phosphorylase is involved with what process

glycogenolysis

" Phosphoglycerate Kinase is involved with what process

glycolysis

" Pyruvate Kinase is involved with what process

glycolysis

"Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is involved with what process

glycolysis

"Triose Phosphate Isomerase (TPI) is involved with what process

glycolysis

Aldolase is involved with what process

glycolysis

Glucokinase is involved with what process

glycolysis

Hexokinase is involved with what process

glycolysis

PhosphoGlucoIsomerase (PGI) is involved with what process

glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is involved with what process

glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2) is involved with what process

glycolysis

bisphosphoglycerate mutase is involved with what process

glycolysis

what are cadherins

glycoproteins. mediate calcium dependent cell adhesion hold similar sells together

whats the main ligand for enzyme linked receptors

growth factors

" RNA and the Genetic Code: Post-Translational Modifications-------- TERM: 6 Post-Translational Modifications

happens after translation and mostly occurs in the ER or Golgi Apparatus; includes (1) glycosylation (adding of carbohydrates to the proteins that eventually end up on the cell membrane; it helps to identify different types of cells such as the ABO blood groups) or (2) lipidation (adding a lipid to the protein such as GPI anchors that aids in attaching a protein to the lipid cell membrane) or (3) phosphorylation (adding of a phosphate group to the protein to cause a change in conformation/function, as seen in the Sodium-Potassium Pumps), (4) methylation (adding methyl groups in order to turn genes off from transcription, as seen when histones are methylated to surpress transciprtion), (5) proteolysis (cutting a protein to inactive it into its inactive, zymogen form), (6) ubinquination (adding a protein called ubiquitin onto another protein, which marks it for degradation) Also Related to------Protein modifications

RNA and the Genetic Code: Co-Translational Modifications-------- TERM: Co-Translational Modification

happens to the polypeptide as it is being put together during translation; includes acetylation, in which the start codon (met) is removed and replaced with an acetyl group; the significance of acetylation is still not yet fully understood by biologists "Also Related to------Trasnlation Protein modifications

Term: Saturated fatty acid structure

has no double bonds (think "saturated" with hydrogens) "------ EXAMPLE: cerotic acid CH3(CH2)24COOH

" Term: Unsaturated fatty acid structure

has one or more double bonds ------ EXAMPLE: linoleic acid CH3(CH2)4=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH)'

Term: The Best Buffers

have a pKa within 1 pH unit of the desired experimental conditions

Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: β- anomers

have the -OH on the anomeric carbon CIS to the free -CH2OH group of the ring ------ EXAMPLE: http://www.chem.ucla.edu/~harding/IGOC/A/alpha_anomer02.png

" Topic: Cyclic Sugar Molecules ------ Term: α- anomers

have the -OH on the anomeric carbon TRANS to the free -CH2OH group of the ring ------ EXAMPLE: http://www.ochempal.org/wp-content/images/A/alphaanomers3.png

what genes are more frequent in inbreeding

homozygosisty of dominant and reccessive genotpes.

Lab Techniques Videos to Watch-------- TERM: Southern Blot

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zps2uH8aWVU Also Related to------identifying DNA

" Lab Techniques Videos to Watch-------- TERM: DNA Electrophoresis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EYsykjsfiY Also Related to------Agarose

Lab Techniques Videos to Watch-------- TERM: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHi-3jP6Mvc Also Related to------Taq Polymerase

where are the types of cartilage found

hyaline - most other things elastic - ears and epiglottis fibro - pubic. bones and ribs

what are the types of cartilage

hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage

What is the action of Lipase

hydrolizes lipids

General Chemistry: Ideal Gas Law-------- Ideal Gas Lawvariables Relationship between variables in:Boyle's LawCharles' LawGay-Lussac's LawAvogadro's Principle

ideal gas law: PV = nRTcombined gas law: (P1V1) / T1 = (P2V2) / T2-------- notice how the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT , is basically just algebraic paraphrase of all of the equations shown above (Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, Gay-Lussac's Law, and Avogadro's Principle) all combined into ONE simplified equation. The relationships in the PV = nRT equation essentially explain in each of those individual scientist's discoveries, where R is a constant (≈0.08 L⋅atm / K⋅mol). Hence, the ideal gas law was discovered after Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and Dalton's Law had already been well-established.

relationship between delta g standard and keq

if delta g at standard condtions, where product and reactants are a mole each, is negative than it means the reaction is favorable. A favorable reaction will make more products. More products than reactants make Keq greater than 1. Then vice versa.

Term: Yerks-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation

illustrates that for SIMPLE tasks, increased arousal (such as being in the presence of others) leads to stronger performance... BUT for COMPLEX tasks, increased arousal can lead to a decline in performance "-----Also Related to: Social Facilitation Arousal Theory

" Term: pragmatics

in language, refers to the dependence of language on the context of a situation and pre-existing knowledge; the manner in which we speak may differ depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience (e.g. "pardon me, do you mind if I share this seat with you?" vs. "Yo scoot over bud")

Term: Generalizability

in studies, it is the application of the results to either a significantly wider population or across different settings; it basically assess how well the results of a particular study applies to the general population

in vivo vs in vitro

in-vivo: "in animal" -digestion and metabolism trials -determines utilization by animal in-vitro: "simulation" -laboratory -use microorganisms to "digest" feed

what can lead to a loss of genetic variation in a population

inbreeding, genetic drift and the founder effect

Term: la belle indifférence

seen in Conversion Disorder where the person may by suprisingly unconcerned by a symptom -----Also Related to: Conversion Disorder

relationship b/w adh and water in urine

inverse Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) directly increases the ability of the blood to reabsorb water from the nephron by inserting aquaporins on the collecting duct. When an individual's blood becomes hypotonic with respect to filtrate, the body would then aim to increase free water excretion to regain homeostasis. This means that the kidney would decrease the amount of water reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood. This could be accomplished by decreasing the secretion of ADH, which would promote the loss of more water in the urine, increasing the blood concentration. (tip: Remember that Diuretics, such as coffee and alcohol, make you pee more. Another way to think of a decrease in anti-diuretics is the increase of diuretics. More diuretics = more diluted urine output)

Physics: Sound-------- distance rthat a sound wave has traveled Relationship between intensity Iof the sound wave

inverse(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- Based on the equation for Intensity and the equation for the surface area of a sphere:I = P / A where A = 4πr^2A represents the surface area of a sound wave (which radiates outwardly and is therefore spherical so A = 4πr^2). If r is doubled, then A will increase by a factor of 4, resulting in I decreasing by 1/4. For example, if you are three times as far away from a siren than your friend is, then you will experience 1/9 of the siren's sound intensity than your friend does. This partially explains why sounds get softer as we move farther away from the source (the other reason is that some of the power from the sound source dissipates in the air due to nonconservative forces as it travels farther, a phenomenon called attenuation)

Physics: Forces and Acceleration-------- the distance between two objects' center of mass Relationship between gravitational forces between them

inverse(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- The farther two objects are from each other, the less gravitational force is seen acting on them. (e.g. the Sun and the Earth have a stronger gravitional force betwen each other than the Sun and Pluto)Based on the equation for gravitational Forces F = (G) (m1) (m2) / (r^2) , we can see that the magnitude of gravitational Force is inversly related to the square of the distance; if r is halved, then F will quadruple.(note the similarity of this gravitational Force relationship and the relationship between distance between two charges and the electrostatic Force)

Physics: Electrostatics-------- distance between two charges (r) Relationship between magnitude of the electrostatic force Fe between the two charges

inverse(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- based on Coulomb's Law:Felectrostatic = (k q1 q2) / r^2Imagine a positive attracted to a negative charge at a certain distance away. If the two charges are then moved so that they are separated by twice the distance, then the force of attraction between them would change by a factor of (1 / 2^2), or 1/4. In other words, if the distance is doubled, the square of the distance is quadrupled, and the force between the charges is reduced to 1/4 of what it was originally. (note the similarity of this electrostatic Force relationship and the relationship between distance between two masses and the gravitational Force)

Physics: Electrostatics-------- distance between two charges (r) Relationship between Electric Field (E)

inverse(exponentially, by a power of 2)-------- by dividing Coulomb's Law by the magnitude of the test charge (q), we arrive at the equation for Electric Field:E = k Q / r^2From this equation, we see that the distance r still has an inverse square relationship to the Electric Field. Therefore, if the distance between a test charge (q) and the source charge (Q) is doubled, then the electric field magnitude will decrease by 1/2^2 (aka, the electric field would be reduced to 1/4 of what it was originally)

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- radius rof a closed pipe Relationship between pressure Pexerted by the fluid(deals with real fluids, such as blood)

inverse(exponentially, by a power of 4)-------- demonstrated by Poiseuille's Law:Q = (πr^4P) / (8ηL)(assuming flow rate Q is constant) A very slight change in the radius of a pipe has a very significant effect on the pressure gradient. Applied to the human body, decreasing the radius of a blood vessel by some factor (aka vasoconstriction) causes an increase in pressure by the same factor to the fourth power! This illustrates why blood pressure is dramatically increased during increased sympathetic activity; it is because of the blood vessels constricting and decreasing their radius resulting in a dramatic increase in blood pressure.

Biochemistry: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism-------- insulin Relationship between glycogen breakdown(glycogenolysis)

inverse-------- Biochemistry: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism-------- insulin Relationship between gluconeogenesis(liver)! inverse-------- Biochemistry: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism-------- insulin Relationship between lipolysis(adipocytes)! inverse-------- Biochemistry: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism-------- insulin Relationship between protein synthesis(muscle tissue)! proportional-------- General Chemistry: General Chemistry: Electrons-------- distance of the electronfrom the nucleus Relationship between interaction with the surrounding environment! proportional-------- Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus have the strongest interactions with the surrounding environment and the weakest interactions with the nucleus. These electrons are called valence electrons; they are more likely to become involved in bonds with other atoms because they experience the least electrostatic pull form their own nucleus.

General Chemistry: Gas-Liquid Equilibrium-------- temperatureof a gas Relationship between condensation

inverse-------- General Chemistry: Gas-Liquid Equilibrium-------- temperatureof a gas Relationship between vapor pressureof the evaporated particles! proportional-------- The pressure that a gas exerts over a liquid at equilibrium is the vapor pressure of the liquid. Vapor pressure increases as temperature increases because more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape into the gas phase. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure is called the boiling point, and this is explains why liquid boils at high temperatures or at low pressures.

Physics: Electrostatics-------- electical Potential Energy U Relationship between stability of the system

inverse-------- A low electrical potential energy indicates that the system is become more stable because electrical potential energy is defined as the amount of work required to move a test charge from infinity to a point in space in an electric field surrounding a charge. For example, a change in electrical potential energy from 10 J to 5 J reflects an increase in stability because it is essentially saying that it takes less work in order to keep the test charge in that final position compared to keeping the test charge in the initial position.

transposons

segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another ->possibly causing a mutation.

Biology: Water Homeostasis-------- ADH Relationship between water in urine

inverse-------- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) directly increases the ability of the blood to reabsorb water from the nephron by inserting aquaporins on the collecting duct. When an individual's blood becomes hypotonic with respect to filtrate, the body would then aim to increase free water excretion to regain homeostasis. This means that the kidney would decrease the amount of water reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood. This could be accomplished by decreasing the secretion of ADH, which would promote the loss of more water in the urine, increasing the blood concentration.(tip: Remember that Diuretics, such as coffee and alcohol, make you pee more. Another way to think of a decrease in anti-diuretics is the increase of diuretics. More diuretics = more diluted urine output)

General Chemistry: Raoult's Law-------- concentration of(volatile) soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between vapor pressureof the solvent(in ideal solutions)

inverse-------- As demonstrated by Raoult's Law:PA = XA PºAwhere PA is the vapor pressure of solvent A when solutes are present, XA is the mole fraction of the solvent A in the solution, and PºA is the vapor pressure of solvent A in its pure state. As more solute is added to the solvent, the mole fraction of solvent is decreased, causing the vapor pressure of the solvent to decrease proportionately.Raoult's Law explains the phenomenon of Vapor Pressure Depression.

General Chemistry: Intermolecular Forces-------- fluid flow rate Relationship between intermolecular forces

inverse-------- As flow rate increases, there is greater kinetic energy and therefore the intermolecular forces become weaker and more transient.

General Chemistry: Graham's Law of Diffusion & Effusion-------- molar massof a molecule Relationship between rate of diffusion/effusionof that molecule

inverse-------- As shown by Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion:r1 / r2 = √(M2 / M1)From this equation, we can see that, mathematically, a gas that has a molar mass 4 times that of another gas will travel half as fast as the lighter gas. Conceptually, because all gas particles have the same average kinetic energy at the same temperature (KE = (1/2)mv^2), it must be true that particles with greater mass travel at a slower average speed. Since diffusion and effusion both deal with the movement of molecules, then larger molecules with larger molar masses will diffuse/effuse more slowly than smaller molecules with lighter molar masses. In other words, heavier molecule = slower speed = slower rate of diffusion/effusion.

General Chemistry: Characteristicsof an Ideal Gas-------- pressureexerted by a sample of gas Relationship between ideal gas behavior

inverse-------- As the pressure of a gas increases, the particles are pushed closer and closer together. The closer they are, the more they participate in intermolecular forces. By definition, an Ideal Gas is a gas that does NOT participate in any intermolecular interactions. For example, oyxgen behaves more ideally when its partial pressure is 1 atm rather than at 50 atm.

Physics: Refraction-------- speed of light v in a given MEDIUM Relationship between index of refraction n

inverse-------- Based on equation for index of refraction:n = c / v The slower a light wave travels through a medium, the higher the index of refraction.

Physics: Sound-------- density of a mediumthrough which a sound wave travels Relationship between speed of soundtraveling through the medium

inverse-------- Based on the equation for the speed of sound:v = √ (B/ρ)ρ represents the density of the medium through which sound travels. Therefore, mathematically, we can see that higher ρ results in a lower v. So when comparing the speed of sound through two mediums with the same material, sound travels fastest though solids with low density than solids with high density. An example of this would be wood vs. metal.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yF4cvbAYjwI&index=130&list=PL1O_shUH1zgVfrG2lDsMWuicLdsxm-Dzz

General Chemistry: Electromotive Force and Thermodynamics-------- number of moles of electrons exchanged during a redox reaciton Relationship between ΔGº

inverse-------- Based on the equation relating Gibbs Free Energy and Electromotive Force:ΔGº = -n F Eºcellthe negative sign on the right side of the equation shows that a redox reaction that transfers more moles of electrons is more spontaneous (more negative ΔGº) than a redox reaciton that transfers less moles of electrons.

General Chemistry: Characteristics of a Covalent Bond-------- electronegativity Relationship between bond length

inverse-------- Bond length decreases with larger difference in electronegativity. In other words, the bond lengths decreases when moving to the right along the Periodic Table's rows because the more electronegative atoms have shorter atomic radii. For example, despite C2H2 and HCN both having triple bonds, the nitrogen in HCN is likely to hold the electrons closer (or in a shorter radius) than the carbons in C2H2 because N is more electronegative.

General Chemistry: Characteristics of a Covalent Bond-------- number of shared electron pairs in a covalent bond(aka, bond order) Relationship between bond length

inverse-------- Bond length is defined as the average distance between two nuclei of atoms in a bond. As the number of shared electron pairs increases, the two atoms are pulled closer together, resulting in a decrease in bond length. Thus for a given pair of atoms, a triple bond is shorter than a double bond, which is shorter than a single bond.

General Chemistry: Characteristics of anIdeal Gas-------- intermolecular interactions Relationship between ideal gas behavior

inverse-------- By definition, an Ideal Gas is a gas that does NOT participate in any intermolecular interactions.

Organic Chemistry: Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy-------- extent of conjugationwithin a compound Relationship between wavenumber of maximum absorbance in UV spectroscopy

inverse-------- By definition, wavenumber = 1 / λ. Based on the explanation above that increased conjugation results in increased wavelength absorbance, then this means that increased conjugation will result in a lower wavenumber.

Physics: Electrostatics-------- distance between twolike charges Relationship between electical Potential Energy U

inverse-------- Due to the fact that like charges experience repulsive forces, if the two repulsive charges are held close together (aka distance between them shortens), then there will be a higher electrical potential energy because more work is required to hold them in this position.

DNA/Protein Purification: Term: Electrophoresis

separates proteins based on size; smaller fragments migrate farther; larger fragments are heavier and thus are less moved by the electric field ------Also related to: DNA; RNA; proteins

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- ΔGº Relationship between • emf• Eºcell

inverse-------- One way to describe electrochemical cells includes the electromotive force (emf), which corresponds to the voltage or electrical potential difference of the cell.• if the emf is +, the cell is able to release energy (-ΔG), which means it is spontaneous• if the emf is -, the cell must absorb energy (+ΔG), which means it is nonspontaneousIt is important to note that ΔGº and Eºcell will ALWAYS have opposite signs.

Organic Chemistry: Thin Layer Chromatography-------- polarity of compound X(with a polar stationary phase) Relationship between Rf value

inverse-------- Rf is calculated as (the distance the compound migrates) / (distance to the solvent front).• Polar compounds DO NOT migrate far (since the stationary phase, such as silica gel, is ALSO very polar), therefore this mathematically results in a LOW Rf.• Nonpolar compounds travel farthest up the card (towards the nonpolar solvent front such as hexane), which this mathematically results in a HIGH Rf.(e.g. a compound with an Rf of 0.20 is more polar than a compound with an Rf of 0.75)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DEScXFyI8s&list=PLbKSbFnKYVY0lrUz8bb--eIGvVOf8YMcl&index=5

Biochemistry: Lipids-------- degree of fatty acid saturationon the cell membrane Relationship between fluidity of the cell membrane

inverse-------- Saturated fatty acids can pack more tightly against each other and therefore will be more viscous. A cell membrane with unsaturated fatty acids will have higher membrane fluidity because they cannot pack as tightly, becoming less viscous (more fluid-like).

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- reduction potential, E red Relationship between tendency of a species to lose electrons and be oxidized

inverse-------- Since reduction potential is defined as the tendency to be reduced, a less positive Eºred means a greater tendency for oxidation to occur because oxidation and reduction are opposite processes.

Biochemistry: DNA electrophoresis-------- size (molecular weight)of a DNA fragment Relationship between distance migrated in DNA electrophoresis

inverse-------- Smaller fragments (or more compact DNA if under native conditions) travel the FURTHEST because they are easiest to push by an electrical field. The larger fragments so not migrate as far from the well because they are heavier and harder to be affected by the given electric field.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EYsykjsfiY

General Chemistry: Resonance-------- number of nonzero formal charges present in a resonance structure Relationship between stabilityof the resonance structure

inverse-------- The most stable resonance structures are those that minimize charge on the atoms in the molecule. As a guideline, a Lewis structure will small or no formal charges is preferred over a Lewis structure with large formal charges.

General Chemistry: Raoult's Law-------- concentration of(volatile) soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between freezing pointof the solvent(in ideal solutions)

inverse-------- The presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the lattice arrangement of solvent molecules associated with the solid state. Thus, a greater amount of energy must be removed from the solution (resulting in a lower temperature) in order for the solution to solidify. For example, pure water freezes at 0ºC, but for every mole of solute dissovled in 1 kg of water, the freezing point is lowered by 1.86ºC. This effect is the explanation for why we salt icy roads in the winter.

General Chemistry: Bohr Model-------- principle quantum number n(energy level) Relationship between wavelength λabsorbed

inverse-------- The principle quantum number describes the energy level; recall that energy is inversely related to wavelength. For example,• the energy level n = 3 absorrbs 656 nm• the energy level n = 4 absorbs 486 nm

General Chemistry: The Common Ion Effect-------- concentration of a solutionwith a constituent ion of the salt being dissolved (aka, the concentration of common ions) Relationship between solubility of the salt

inverse-------- The solubility of a salt is considerably reduced when it is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of its constituent salts as compared to its solubility in a pure solvent. This reduction in molar solubility is called the Common Ion Effect, which is really just Le Châlier's Principle in action. For example, if a salt such as NaBr is dissolved into water already containing Na+ ions (from some other salt, perhaps NaCl), the solution will dissolve less NaBr than would an equal amount of pure water. Because the solution already contains one of the constituent ions from the products side of the dissiociation of NaBr, the system will shift toward the left side, reforming solid NaBr. As a result, the molar solubility of the solid is reduced, and less of the solid dissolves in the solution (although Ksp remains constant because.... Ksp... is dependent... only on... temperature)

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- pKa Relationship between acidity (dissociation) "strength"

inverse-------- The strongest acids, such as HCl, have low pKa's (and high pKb's)

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- pKb Relationship between basicity (dissociation) "strength"

inverse-------- The strongest bases, such as NaOH, have low pKb's (and high pKa's)

Organic Chemistry: Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy-------- difference in energy between LUMO and HOMO Relationship between absorption wavelength

inverse-------- UV spectroscopy works because moleucles with π-electrons or nonbonding electrons can be excited by UV light to higher-energy antibonding orbitals. Molecules with a lower energy gap between highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) are more easily excited and can absorb longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) with lower energy.In other words, HOMO stands for highest occupied molecular orbital; LUMO stands for lowest unoccupied molecular orbital. In UV spectroscopy, electrons are excited from the HOMO to the LUMO. The smaller difference in energy between the two, the longer the wavelengths that can be absorbed by the molecule in UV spectroscopy.

length of an inclined plane Relationship between amount of force required to move an object the same displacement

inverse-------- When a device provides mechanical advantage, it decreases the input force required to generate a particular output force. Generally, this is accomplished at the expense of increased distance over which the force must act. W in = W out Fd = Fd as D increases f must decrease.

Protein Purification: Term: Isoelectric Focusing

separates proteins based on their pI, aka based on their charge on the protein surface ------Also related to: proteins

Physics: First Law of Thermodynamics-------- amount of heat LOST from a system Relationship between internal energy of the system∆U

inverse-------- based on the equation for internal energy:ΔU = ± Q ± WThe first law of thermodynamics tells us that the total internal energy of a system will DECREASE when either (3) heat is lost/dissipated from the system or (4) work is being performed by the system. An example of this is car tires "burning rubber" results in a loss of heat due to frictional forces. Thus, the internal energy of the tires is "lost" (however this heat is gained by the surrounding road and air).

effort in a pulley system Relationship between effort distance to maintain the same work output

inverse-------- based on the equation for mechanical efficiency:efficiency = (load)(load distance) / (effort)(effort distance)As the effort (required force) decreases in a pulley system, the effort distance increases to generate the samea mount of work.

Biochemistry: Enzyme Kinetics-------- Km Relationship between catalytic efficiency

inverse-------- based on the equation: Catalytic efficiency = (Kcat) / (Km) • to help remember which term is in the numerator or denominator, remember the mnemonic: "the cat jumps on top of the mouse"

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- dynamic pressureof a fluid"(1/2)ρv^2" Relationship between absolute (hyrostatic) pressureof a fluidP

inverse-------- based on the law of conservation of energy and Bernoulli's Equation:P + (1/2)ρv^2 + ρgh = constantIn order for energy to be conserved...• as the dynamic pressure, (1/2)ρv^2, (aka the pressure of fluid in motion) increases, then...• the static pressure, P + ρgh, (aka the pressure of a static fluid) must decrease.

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- fluid viscocity η Relationship between fluid flow rate Q(deals with real fluids, such as blood)

inverse-------- demonstrated by Poiseullie's Law:Q = (πr^4ΔP) / (8ηL)When comparing two fluids with different viscosities, the fluid with the higher viscosity will have a slower fluid flow rate (also referred to flux). In other words, viscosity causes more internal friction of a fluid, which consequently prevents it from flowing as easily.(e.g. honey has a higher viscosity than water. Thus, a closed pipe with flowing honey has less volume of fluid passing a point per unit time in a closed pipe containing pure water)

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- linear speed vof a fluid Relationship between internal hydrostatic fluid pressure P

inverse-------- demonstrated via Bernoulli's Equation:P + (1/2)ρv^2 + ρgh = constantA tube that has a fluid traveling at a very high speed has low pressure. Based on the laws of conservation of energy and mass, if dynamic (moving) pressure "(1/2)ρv^2" increases, then static (still) pressure P has to decrease in order to conserve energy... more on this explained below:

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- cross-sectional area Aof a tube Relationship between linear speed vof a fluid(deals with ideal fluids only)

inverse-------- demonstrated via the Continuity Equation:A1 V1 = A2 V2in order to avoid a common confusion, it is important to note that fluid linear speed v and fluid flow rate Q refer to two DIFFERENT things:• fluid speed v deals with the linear speed; it is the measure of displacement of a fluid per unit time; it can change depending on the cross-sectional area A• Flow rate Q however is a measure of the volume of a fluid that passes a point per unit time; Q is always constant for a closed system and does not depend on changes in cross-sectional area A. This is essentially due to the law of conservation of mass.That being said, if we know the flow rate Q is constant at all points of a closed pipe with moving fluid... the continuity equation tells us that fluids move faster through narrow passages and move more slowly through wider passages.

Organic Chemistry: Spectroscopy-------- mass of atoms in a bond Relationship between vibration frequency

inverse-------- due to combining the concept that bonds are like springs with Hooke's Lawhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETdNsO7mKXM

Biochemistry: Regulation of blood pH by breathing-------- [blood CO2] Relationship between blood pH

inverse-------- refer to explanation above: "CO2 + H2O ⇄ H2CO3 ⇄ H+ + HCO3-" Increasing the concentration of CO2 would cause the equilibrium to shift to the right (via Le Châtlier's Principle), thus producing more H+. More H+ in the blood causes blood pH to decrease.

Physics: Diffraction-------- width of slit ain a slit-lens system Relationship between length y of thecentral maximum (aka, the central, brightest spot)projected on a screen as a light ray passes through the slit opening

inverse-------- related to the equation to locate Dark Fringes (minima) in a slit-lense setup:(a) (sinϴ) = (n) (λ)As a, the width of the slit, decreases, then sinϴ must increase because nλ is constant for a given fringe. If sinϴ increases, this means ϴ necessarily increases, implying that the fringes are spreading further apart.This is also seen conceptually: When light passes through a narrow opening, the light waves spread out; as the slit narrows, the light waves spread out even more. When lens is placed between the narrow slit and the screen, a pattern consisting of alternating bright and dark fringes can be observed on the screen. As the slit becomes narrower, the central maximum (the brightest and most central fringe) becomes wider.https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/physical-processes/light-and-electromagnetic-radiation-questions/v/youngs-double-slit-problem-solving

General Chemistry: Ideal Gas Law-------- Volume Vthat a gas occupies Relationship between Pressure Pof the gas

inverse-------- shown by Boyle's Law and the Ideal Gas Law:(P1)(V1) = constant = (P2)(V2)

Organic Chemistry: Organic Reactions-------- basicity Relationship between leaving group

inverse-------- weaker bases = better leaving groups because they can stablize extra electrons.

Biochemistry: Enzyme Kinetics-------- Km Relationship between binding affinitybetween an enzyme and its substrate

inverse-------- • Low Km = high affinity for substrate• High Km = low affinity for substrateCompetitive inhibitors increases the Km of an enzyme, decreasing the binding affinity for the enzyme and the substrate.

name all types of channels

ion channels, enzyme linked receptors

" Topic: Complex Ion Formation ------ Term: chelation

is a complex ion in which the central cation is bonded to the same ligand in multiple places ------ Also Related to: chelation therapy to sequester toxic metals

KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/viruses/v/retroviruses Viruses: Retroviruses-------- TERM: Retrovirus

is a single-stranded RNA virus ("ssRNA") that has an envelope. Replication of retroviruses undero elements of both the lysogenic and lytic cycle. Retroviruses use the enzyme reverse transcriptase to generate DNA from RNA while inside of the host. Due to this fact, retroviruses are an exception to the traditional central dogma of genetics (because retroviruses prove that the dogma," DNA --> RNA --> proteins", does not always go in this order. Also Related to------HIV

Topic: Concentration Cells ------ Term: Concentration Cells

is a special type of galvanic (-ΔG) cell. However, for concentration cells, each electrode is the same identity. Thus, concentration gradient is the driving force for current and movement of electrons. ------ EXAMPLE: cell membrane of a neuron

" Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: Surge Current

is an above-average current that is transiently released at the beginning of the discharge phase; it wanes rapidly until a stable current is achieved. ------ EXAMPLE: remote controls that demand rapid responses

Term: prodome

is an early symptom indicating the onset of a disease or illness. "Going downhill". -----Also Related to: schizophrenia

Viruses: Retroviruses-------- TERM: integrase

is an enzyme contained by retroviruses that INTEGRATE the virus' DNA into the host's DNA

tricky MCAT question wording-------- TERM: Which answer choice will result in the "largest decrease in entropic penalty"

is another way of saying "which answer choice will be most energetically favorable" because a "decrease in entropy" is always unfavorable. Entropy is favored in nature.

Topic: Atomic and Molecular Orbitals ------ Term: sigma (σ) bond

is formed when orbitals overlap HEAD-TO-HEAD, resulting in a bond that allows for FREE ROTATION about its axis because the electron density of the bonding orbital is a single linear accumulation between the atomic nuclei.

Topic: Atomic and Molecular Orbitals ------ Term: pi (π) bond

is formed when orbitals overlap in such a way that there are two PARALLEL electron cloud densities that do NOT allow for free rotation because the electron densities of the orbitals are parallel and CANNOT be twisted in such a way that allows continuous overlapping of the clouds of electron densities

Topic: Buffers ------ Term: Buffer Capacity

is optimal at the pH where [conjugate base] = [weak acid] because in the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation, log[A-]/[HA] = log[1] = 0.

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells-------- TERM: Conjugation

is the bacterial form of MATING (sexual reproduction). It involves two cells forming a cytoplasmic bridge between them that allows for the transfer of genetic material. The transfer is ONE-way, from the donor male (+) to the recipient female (-). The bridge is made from appendages called sex pili that are found on the donor male. To form the pilus, bacteria must contain plasmids known as sex factors.

Topic: Monosaccharides ------ Term: Glycoside Formation

is the basis for building complex carbohydrates and requires the anomeric (C1) carbon to link to another sugar, via a bond called a glycosidic bond.

TERM: p53

is the classic example of a tumor suppressor. Tumor suppressors are "good" because they are involved in slowing down or controlling cell division when they are cancerous. In other words, if the cancer-producing oncogene is the "bad guy" gene, then tumor suppressors are the "good" genes. If something happens to p53 that causes it to no longer function, then a cell may become cancerous

" "4º Protein Structure: " Term: Quaternary protein structure

is the interaction between separate subunits of a multisubunit protein, and it is stabilized by the same types of bonds as in 3º structure (van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, or covalent bonds)

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: Proton NMR (H-NMR)

is the most common type of NMR used. In H-NMR, each unique group of protons has its own peak. The integration (area under the curve) of this peak is proportional to the number of protons contained under the peak.

" Topic: Properties of Covalent Compounds ------ Term: Bond order

is the number of shared electrons between two atoms. In other words, bond order refers to whether a covalent bond is a single bond (bond order of 1), double bond (bond order of 2), or a tiple bond (bond order of 3).

Topic: Titrations ------ Term: equivalence point

is the point at thich the number of acid equivalents present in the original solution equals the number of base equivalents added, or vice versa. On a pH meter graph, it is the midpoint of the region of the curve with the steepest slope. ------ EXAMPLE: The equivalence point for a strong acid/strong base titrations is always at pH 7 (for monovalent species)

Topic: Henry's Law ------ Term: vapor pressure

is the pressure exerted by evaporated particles above the surface of a liquid.

Enzymes: Term: Km

is the substrate concentration at one-half Vmax

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: tetramethylsilane (TMS)

is used to calibrate NMR spectra, which has a chemical shift of 0 ppm. Because TMS is used as the calibration standard to mark 0 ppm by convention, DO NOT count the TMS peak when counting peaks.

Reninis produced by

kidneys

What motor proteins are associated with microtubules?

kinesins and dyneins

The StomachSecretes Ghrelin In response to_______; To Cause__________

knowing that a meal is coming ------ "↑ appetite ↑ Orexin Gremlin comes when you are hungry

Biochemistry: Enzyme Kinetics-------- [substrate] Relationship between reaction velocity

logarithmically proportional(until an asymptotic max value, Vmax is reached)-------- demonstrated in a Michaelis-Menten Plot: An increase in the substrate concentration (while maintaining a constant enzyme concentration), leads to a proportional increase in the rate of the reaction only initially. However, once most of the active sites are occupied, the reaction rate levels off, regardless of further increases in substrate concentration. At high concentrations of substrate, the reaction rate approaches its maximal velocity, called Vmax, and is no longer changed by further increases in substrate concentration.

Term: anhedonia

loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities -----Also Related to: Major Depressive Episode

interior of a muscle cell

made up of a bunch protein filaments (sectional unit known as sarcomere), with very little cytosol. still contains mitochondria. Has endoplasmic reticulum known as sarcoplasmic reticulum. Lastly, multinucleated along that cell. "Skeletal and Cardiac muscle cells are peculiar because the cytoplasm is filled by contractile proteins that are surrounded by organelles, especially the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Different from all the other cell types, the dense packaging of contractile proteins and organelles does not leave empty space in the cytosol. This organized structure implies that protein and organelle turnover have a major impact on myofiber size and function."

The Ovary/Placenta Secretes Estrogen To Cause__________

maintains female secondary sex characteristics

The Testes Secretes Testosterone To Cause__________

maintains male secondary sex characteristics

composition of ecm

material secreted by the cells (fibroblast do this) - mainly made of glycoprotein (proteins from carbs) - mostly filled up of collagen (a fiber mentioned in the picture), or proteoglycons

Term: Paramagnetic

materials composed of atoms with UNPAIRED electrons, which causes them to orient the spins in alignment with a magnetic field, and thus are weakly attracted to the magnetic field "------ EXAMPLE: C: 1s2 2s2 2p2 Na: ...3s1 Mn: ....3d5 Gd: ....4f7" "------ Also Related to: • ferrofluid • iron filing and magnets

" Term: Diamagnetic

materials consisting of atoms that have only PAIRED electrons, which cannot be easily realigned, and thus they are repelled by magnets "------ EXAMPLE: He: 1s2 Be: 1s2 2s2 Na+: 1s2 2s2 2p6" ------ Also Related to: magnetic levitation

Term: loosening of associations

may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift rapidly from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would not be able to follow the train of thought -----Also Related to: disorganized thought

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

measures the ALIGNMENT of nuclear spin with an applied MAGNETIC FIELD, which depends on the magnetic environment of the nucleus itself. It is useful for determining the structure (connectivity) of a compound, including functional groups. NMR spectra are generally plotted as frequency vs. absorption of energy. They are standardized by using chemical shift (δ), measured is parts per million (ppm) of spectrophotometer frequency ------ EXAMPLE: MRI

Term: sp bond angle

triple bond; 180°

" Topic: IR Spectroscopy ------ Term: Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

measures the molecular VIBRATIONS, which can be seen as bond stretching, bending, or combinations of different vibrational modes. To record an IR spectrum, infrared light is passed through a sample, and the absorbance is measured. By determining what bonds exist within a molecule, we hope to predict the FUNCTIONAL GROUPS that exist within the molecule. ------ EXAMPLE: Two enantiomers will have identical IR spectra because they have the same functional groups and will therefore have the same absorption frequencies. "------ Also Related to: • dipole moment • fingerprint region (1500 to 400 cm-1)

medial geniculate nucleus and lateral geniculate nucleus

medial - the part of the thalamus that relays auditory signals to the temporal cortex and receives input from the auditory cortex - mnemonic M for music lateral - a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve -mnemonic: L for light

" Term: token economies

method used in inpatient therapy based on the behaviorist perspective, in which positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers. (often seen in elementary school classroooms where students who perform good behaviors/grades get "gold stars" and can eventually trade in these gold stars for toys, books, a no-homework pass, etc.) -----Also Related to: Behaviorist Theory

what are the different types of cytoskeleton

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

Genetics: Mitosis-------- TERM: Closed Mitosis

mitosis that occurs in the nucleus that occurs in some unicellular eukaryotes

Topic: Dalton's Law ------ Term: mole fraction

mole fraction of gas X in a mixture = (moles of gas X) / (total moles of gas in the mixture)

relationship between t3 and t4

more t4 than t3 produced by thyroid thus majority of thyroid hormone is inactive, but when conditions are met to increase metabolic activity, in a fasted like state, then t4 turns into t3 thus t4 regularly known as the thyroid horomone HOWEVER t4 must convert to t3 to become ACTIVE

break down a muscle to its cellular component

muscle - > muscle fascicle -> muscle fiber

names for muscle cell

muscle fibre, myocyte, myofibre

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/mutagens-and-carcinogens Genetic Mutations: Mutagens & Carcinogens-------- TERM: Endogenous Mutagen

mutagens that come from inside your body, already found in you "Also Related to------• reactive oxygen species • Nitric Oxide

" KA https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/genetic-mutations/v/mutagens-and-carcinogens Genetic Mutations: Mutagens & Carcinogens-------- TERM: Exogenous Mutagen

mutagens that come from the external environment. Include interculators (like Ethidium Bromide), and Base Analogs (like 5-BromoUracil) "Also Related to------• interculators • base analogs - as in nitrogenous bases

what prefix means muscle

myo-, and sarco-

what main protein interacts with actin

myosin

what motor proteins are associated with actins

myosin

if work is done on the system the value is

negative; and should make sense because energy from the surroundings has now been added to the system, from this equation by becoming negative they are adding to U.

what are the outcomes of an antibody binding to an antigen

neutralization , opsonization or marking for attack by wbcs, or agglutinating into protein complexes that are insoluble and will be digestedl

do enzymes alter rate by altering substrate primary structure.

no

what are the steps of the scientific method and what are the core steps to answer and look for in MCAT passages

observation ( typically will be presented in an abstract style) Hypothesis (a guess may be given ) The testable explanation - a core step will be the S answer in your write up and typically will be a sentence in the passage. This will be what the researchers are looking for Then there will be a method including IV and DV The IV will be looking at what the researchers are changing in order to find the effect -will be represented as x on the graph THE DV will be what the researchers are looking at to see if there are any changes from their changes made to the IV -Will be represented as the y on a graph Their is also a control typically indicated as the WT or Wildtype this serves as your basis to compare to changes in the IV and DV. "Even though they could show you 9000 different types of graphs, just try to spot what is the same/different about the different experimental groups. Also try to see if there are any general trends/patterns in any of the groups, whether or not any pattern changes at any point during the procedure." Then after the procedure there is data acquisition Multiple methods will be used here Then there is data analysis Here there will be different graphs and charts to represent the information a CORE STEP is to find a C: or a conclusion from the data that is an answer for the researchers to the purpose of their experiment. Determining this information will help guide you in answering questions.

Viruses: Viral Stages-------- TERM: Lysogenic Cycle

occurs when the virus enters the host genome, and just chills, only replicating when the host cell replicates. They are satisfied with where they are.

Viruses: Viral Stages-------- TERM: Lytic Cycle

occurs when the virus kills the host cell, causing the host cell to LYSE. These are like impatient viruses, they want to replicate more and more asap.

what cells are in bones

osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteoprogenitor

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA] pOH = pKb + log [B+]/[BOH]

relationship between pka and pkb

pKa + pKb = pKw = 14

Lipaseis produced by

pancreas

Term: pigeonholing

pi-gemini-eonholing "viewing an individual only through the lens of their master status, without regard to any other of their personal characteristics (e.g. relying on someone's astrological sign (Scorpio, Leo, Pisces) as a guide to their personality, rather than looking at other traits they have)" -----Also Related to: master status

TERM: Polymorphism

poly -many morph-shape or appearance Natually occuring differences in form between members of the same population, such as light and dark coloration in the same species of butterfly.

what are microtubules made of

tubulin protein

General Chemistry: 4 Factors that affect Reaction Rate-------- temperature T Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

proportional(to an extent, until denaturation occurs)-------- based on the Arrhenius equation, which is a sophisticated mathemetical representation of Collision Theory:k = Ae^(-Ea / RT)As the magnitude of the exponent gets smaller, it actually moves from a more negative value toward zero (because of the negative sign of the exponent in the equation. Thus, mathematically, as T increases, the rate constant k also increases. This should also make sense conceptually: increasing the temperature will increase reaction rate because the particles' kinetic energy is increased, allowing them to surpass the necessary activation energy. HOWEVER, especially in biological systems, if the temperature is TOO high, a catalyst may denature-and consequently the reaction rate will fall dramatically.

slope of aLineweaver-Burke plot

proportional-------- Biochemistry: Enzyme Inhibitors-------- presence of aNONcompetitive inhibitor Relationship between • Km• vmax! • Km: no change• vmax: ⬇-------- A noncompetitive inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, rather than the active site. Binding of the inhibitor to the allosteric site changes the conformation of the active site, leading to a decrease in efficiency of enzyme catalysis, which results in a decrease in vmax. However, Km will NOT change due to nonncompetitive inhibition because any copies of the enzyme still in the active conformation can bind substrate with the same affinity. • in a Lineweaver-Burke plot: compared to the line without inhibitor, the line WITH a noncompetitive inhibitor will have the same x-intercept, but a higher y-intercept. This causes an increase in the slope of the line. (basically rotates counter-clockwise with the x-intercept as the axis of rotation)shortcut: basically the "new line" is rotated counter-clockwise w/ the X-intercept being the center of rotation.

slope of aLineweaver-Burke plot

proportional-------- Biochemistry: Enzyme Inhibitors-------- presence of anUNcompetitive inhibitor Relationship between • Km• vmax! • Km: ⬇• vmax: ⬇-------- An uncompetitive inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, but only when the substrate is already bound to the enzyme. This results in an increased inffinity for substrate bound to enzyme and decreased dissociation of the enzyme-substrate complex. Therefore, uncompetitive inhibition results in a decrease in BOTH vmax and Km.• In a Lineweaver-Burke plot: compared to the line without an inhibitor, the line with an uncompetitive inhibitor will have a more negative x-intercept and a higher y-intercept--a shift upwards and to the left. (parallel)shortcut: basically the "new line" is parallel and shifted to the LEFT.

General Chemistry: Atmospheric Pressure-------- depth underwater Relationship between mercurcy heightin a barometer column

proportional-------- General Chemistry: Ideal Gas Law-------- number of moles nof a gas Relationship between Volume Vthat the gas occupies! proportional-------- shown by Avogadro's Principle and the Ideal Gas Law:(n1) / (V1) = constant = (n2) / (V2)

General Chemistry: Maxwell-BoltzmannDistribution Curve-------- temperatureof a molecule(in kelvins) Relationship between speedof the molecule

proportional-------- (also essentially the same explanation as above, since Kinetic Energy and speed are directly proporitonal)As shown in a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve and the equation for Root-Mean-Square Speed (urms):molecules at higher temperatures move at faster speeds.http://www.entropy-book.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Fig.-3-graph-hot-cold-correct.jpg

General Chemistry: Intermolecular Forces-------- intermolecular forces Relationship between boiling pointormelting point

proportional-------- A compound that exhibits more intermolecular forces will have a higher boiling point and melting point. Also, the stronger the intermolecular forces, such as more hydrogen bonding, the higher the boiling point.

General Chemistry: Kinetic Molecular Theory-------- temperatureof a gas particle(in kelvins) Relationship between kinetic energyof the gas particle

proportional-------- According to the Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases, Kinetic Energy = (1/2)mv^2 = (3/2)(kB)(T)where kB is the Botlzmann constant (1.38e-23 J/K). From the equation, we can see that the average kinetic energy of a gas particle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas (in kelvins), and it is the same for ALL gases at a given temperature, irrespective of the chemical identity or atomic mass.

General Chemistry: 4 Factors that affect Reaction Rate-------- presence of catalysts Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

proportional-------- Adding a catalyst increases reaction rate because it lowers the activation energy of a reaction.

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- temperature Relationship between effectiveness of batteries

proportional-------- All batteries are influenced by temperature changes. For instance, in lead-acid batteries in cars, like most galvanic cells, tend to fail the most often in cold weather.

General Chemistry: Solutions-------- concentration of soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between density of the solution

proportional-------- As aqueous soltuions become more concentrated with solute, their densities become significantly different from that of pure water; most water-solutble solutes have molar masses signifcantly greater than that of water, so the density of the solution increases as the concentration increases. This phenomenon is related to boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.

General Chemistry: Osmotic Pressure-------- • molarity of a solution• temperature• the van't Hoff factor Relationship between osmotic pressure

proportional-------- As shown by the equation for Osmotic Pressure:Π = iMRTwhere Π is the osmotic pressure, i is the van't Hoff factor, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the temperature.

General Chemistry: van't Hoff factor-------- number of particles into which a compound dissociaties in a solution(aka, the van' Hoff factor) Relationship between • boiling point elevation• freezing point depression• melting point depression

proportional-------- As shown by the equations for Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression:ΔTb = i Kb m and ΔTf = i Kf mwhere ΔTb is the increase in boiling point and ΔTf is freezing point depression. The variable i is the van't Hoff factor, which corresponds to the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution. For example, i = 2 for NaCl because each formula unit of NaCl dissociates into two particles-a sodium ion and a chloride ion-when it dissolves. Covalent molecules such as glucose do not readily dissociate in water and thus have i values of 1. The larger the value of i, the larger the boiling point elevation or the larger the freezing point depression.

Physics: The Photoelectric Effect-------- intensity of light beam that hits a metal(aka the number of photons per unit time that hits the metal) Relationship between the number of electronsper unit time liberated from the metal(aka the magnitude of current produced)

proportional-------- Based on a phenomenon called the Photoelectric Effect, when a light of a sufficiently high frequency (typically blue to UV light) is incident on a metal, the metal atoms will emit electrons. Provided that the light beam's frequency is above the threshold frequency of the metal, the light beams of greater intensity produce a greater number number of electrons per unit time liberated form the metal (aka producing greater current).

Organic Chemistry: Organic Reactions-------- presence of Electron-Withdrawing Groups Relationship between acidity

proportional-------- Based on the Effect of Induction, the presence of an EWG (and especially the closer its proximimity to the acidic hydrogen), results in increased acidity because the EWG stabilizes the conjugate base of that compound via resonance. In contrast, the presence of an EDG decreases acidity because it destabilizes the compound.

General Chemistry: Free Energy ΔG, Keq, and Q-------- Keq Relationship between spontaneityof a (forward) reaction

proportional-------- Based on the equation for Standard Gibbs free energy from the equilibruim constant:ΔGº = -RT ln KeqMathematically, the greater the value of Keq, the more positive the value of its natural logarithm. The more positive the natural logarithm, the more negative the standard free energy change. The more negative the standard free energy change, the more spontaneous the reaction. In other words, ↑ Keq = ↑ ln Keq = ↓ ΔGº = ↑ spontaneity of a reaction.

Physics: The Photoelectric Effect-------- frequency ƒof a light beam Relationship between the energy E of each photon in the light beam

proportional-------- Based on the equation for the Energy of a Photon:E = hƒAs the frequency of the light ƒ increases, then the energy of the photon of light E also increases (becuase h is a constant known as Planck's constant = 6.626e-34). This relationships explain why on the electromagnetic spectrum, waves with higher frequency (and thus shorter wavelength) correlate with higher energy.

Physics: Sound-------- stiffness of a medium through which a sound wave travels (aka, how resistant the medium is to compression) Relationship between speed of soundtraveling through the medium

proportional-------- Based on the equation for the speed of sound:v = √ (B/ρ)B represents the bulk modulus, a measure of the medium's resistance to compression. B INCREASES from gas to liquid to solid, since gas is most compressible and solids are the hardest to compress. Therefore, sound travels fastest through a solid, such as the bones of the ossicles, than it does through gases, such as air.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yF4cvbAYjwI&index=130&list=PL1O_shUH1zgVfrG2lDsMWuicLdsxm-Dzz

General Chemistry: Ionic Bonds-------- electrostatic forcebetween ions Relationship between boiling pointormelting point

proportional-------- Because of the strength of the electrostatic force between the ionic bond constituents of a compound, ionic compounds have very high melting points and boiling points (in fact, much higher than those of covalent bonds). For example, the melting point of NaCl is 801ºC. Covalent compounds like carbon dioxide (CO2) tend to have lower melting and boiling points. Key concept: ionic bonds are stronger and harder to overcome than covalent bonds.

General Chemistry: Characteristics of a Covalent Bond-------- number of shared electron pairs in a covalent bond(aka, bond order) Relationship between bond energy(aka, bond strength)

proportional-------- Bond energy is defined as the energy required to break a bond by separating its components into their isolated, gaseous atomic states. The greater the number of pairs of electrons shared between the atomic nuclei, the more energy is required to break the bonds holding them together. Thus, triple bonds have the greatest bond energy, and single bonds have the lowest bond energy. By convention, the greater the bond energy is, the stronger the bond.

General Chemistry: Emission-------- difference in energybetween the higher-energy state and the lower-energy state of the electron Relationship between energy of the emitted/absorbed photon

proportional-------- By combining the concepts of the Bohr Model and Planck's Equation for the energy of a quantum, the energy associated with a change in the principal quantum number from a higher, initial value to a lower, final value is equal to the energy of the emitted photon. For example, a change in energy level from n=4 to n=1 will emit a photon with a much higher energy than a change in energy level from n=2 to n=1. Conversely, a change in energy level from n=1 to n=4 requires the absorption of a photon with a much higher energy than a change in energy level fron n=1 to n=2.

General Chemistry: 4 Factors that affect Reaction Rate-------- effectiveness of the mediumin which a reaction occurs Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

proportional-------- Changing the medium in which a reaction occurs can either increase or decrease the reaction rate, depending on how the reactants interact with the medium. The more effective the medium in which a reaction occurs, the greater the rate of reaction in that medium. Generally, polar solvents, such as water, increase the rate of a reaction because their molecular dipole tends to polarize the bonds of polar reactants, thereby lengthening and weaking the, permitting the reaction to occur faster.

General Chemistry: Standard Heat of Combustion-------- size of alkane reactantin a combustion reaction Relationship between number of combustion products

proportional-------- Combustion often involves the reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Longer hydrocarbon chains yield greater amounts of combustion products and release more heat in the process-that is, the reaction is more exothermic. In other words, the larger the alkane reactant, the more numerous the combustion products. For example, the combustion of n-pentane would have a greater exothermic standard of combustion than ethane, propane, or n-butane.

General Chemistry: Characteristicsof an Ideal Gas-------- volume a container containing a sample of gas Relationship between ideal gas behavior

proportional-------- Decreasing the volume of a sample of gas makes it behave less ideally because the individual gas particles are in closer proximity in a smaller volume. Thus, this makes them more likely to engage in intermolecular interactions. However, by definition, an Ideal Gas is a gas that does NOT participate in any intermolecular reactions. For example, oxygen behaves more ideally when inside a 50 L container than a 50 mL container.

what are the purpose of cell junctions

typically for cells to connect

Biochemistry: Regulation of blood pH by breathing-------- breathing rate(ventilation/respiratory rate) Relationship between blood pH

proportional-------- During hypoventilation, breathing rate is slower than normal, and the lungs are not supplying enough oxygen to meet the body's demands.. and it causes blood pH to be low due to the following reason:• less CO2 is exhaled (aka less CO2 leaves the body) than normally∴ CO2 remains inside the body, aka the [CO2] inside the body is high∴ according to the equation "CO2 + H2O ⇄ H2CO3 ⇄ H+ + HCO3-" ∴ an increase in [CO2] will shift the equilibrium to the right → according to Le Chatlier's Principle∴ this shift to the right will cause [H+] to increase∴ blood pH will decrease (becomes more acidic due to more H+ ions present) (if blood pH becomes too acidic due to low [CO2] , this is refered to as respiratory acidosis)(fun fact: this is why some swimmers try to hyperventilate before starting a race: to minimize the amount of [CO2] IN their body before they begin the dive, so that DURING their dive underwater, they can extend the time before they feel the urge to exhale again due to increasing [CO2] levels as they swim... although this does increase their risk of blacking out and thus drowning lol)

General Chemistry: Electrolytes-------- degree of dissocation of an ionic compound(aka, solvation) Relationship between strength as an electrolyte

proportional-------- Electrolytes are solutes that enable solutions to carry currents. The electrical conducitivity of aqueous solutions is governed by the presence and concentration of ions in solution; a solute is considered a strong electrolyte if it dissociates completely into its constituent ions. Examples of strong electrolytes include certain ionic compounds, such as NaCl and KI, and molecular compounds with highly polar covalent bonds that dissociate into ions when dissolved, such as HCl in water.

Physics: Forces and Acceleration-------- mass of two objects Relationship between gravitational forces between them

proportional-------- Gravity is an attractice force that is felt by ALL forms of matter. Although all objects exert a measurable gravitational force on each other, gravitational forces usually do not have much significance on a small scale because other forces tend to be much larger in magnitude. Only on the planetary level do gravitational forces really take on a significant value. (e.g. there does exist a small (but measurable) force between you and your textbook, but it is insignificant compared to the force between you and Earth)Based on the equation for gravitational Forces F = (G) (m1) (m2) / (r^2) , we can see that the magnitude of gravitational Force is directly realted to the masses of the objects; If m1 is tripled, then F will triple.

General Chemistry: Atomic Structure-------- half-lifeof an isotope Relationship between stablity of the isotope(and therefore, its abundance in nature)

proportional-------- Half-life is a marker of stability, generally. Longer-lasting isotopes are more abundant in nature because they have not decayed as fast. In other words, an isotope with a longer half-life is more stable and is therefore more abundant in nature because the isotope has not completely decayed.

General Chemistry: Solubility Product Constants-------- pressure Relationship between solubility product Kspfor gas solutes

proportional-------- Higher pressures favor dissolution of gas solutes, and therefore the Ksp will be larger for gases at higher pressures than at lower ones. For example, as you dive deeper into the ocean where the pressure is higher, the more nitrogen gas that will be dissovled into your blood because nitrogen gas is the main inert gas in the air we breathe. If you rise too quickly to the surface, nitrogen gas bubbles will form in your bloodstream and can damage your tissue, which is very painful and potentially fatal if not properly treated.

Physics: Wave Resonance-------- frequency of applied force(that is close to the natural frequency of the system) Relationship between amplitude of oscilation

proportional-------- If a periodically varying force is applied to a system, then the system will be driven at a frequency equal to the frequency of force. This is known as forced oscillation. This can easily be demonstrated by a child on a swing being pushed by a parent. If the parent pushes the child at a frequency nearly equal to the frequency at which the child swings back toward the parent, then the arc of the swinging child will become larger and larger: the amplitude increases because the force frequency is nearly identical to the swing's natural frequency.

Organic Chemistry: H-NMR Spectroscopy-------- number of chemically equivalent protons in a compound Relationship between height (or area under the curve) of the peakproduced by the protonsin an H-NMR Spectrum(also known as integration)

proportional-------- In H-NMR, each unique group of protons has its own peak. The integration (area under the curve) of this peak is proportional to the number of protons contained under hte peak.

Organic Chemistry: Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy-------- extent of conjugationwithin a compound Relationship between wavelength of maximum absorbance in UV spectroscopy

proportional-------- In UV spectroscopy, UV spectra are obtained by passing UV light through a sample that is usually dissolved in an inert, nonabsorbing solvent, and then recording the absorbance. The absorbance is then plotted against wavelength. The absorbance is caused by electronic transitions between orbitals. The biggest piece of information we get from this technique is the wavelength of the maximum absorbance, which tells us the extent of conjugation within conjugated systems: the more conjugated the compound, the lower the energy of the transition and the greater the wavelength of absorbance.

General Chemistry: Gas-Liquid Equilibrium-------- pressure Relationship between condensation

proportional-------- In a covered or closed container, liquid molecules that evaporate into the gas phase are trapped above the solution. These liquid molecules thus exert a countering pressure, which forces some of the gas particles back into the liquid phase; this process is caleld condensation. Condensation is faciliated by lower temperature or higher pressure.

Biochemistry: Biochemistry: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins-------- Hydrogen Bonding within a polypeptide chain (between amine and carbonyl groups) Relationship between secondary structure stabliziation

proportional-------- Secondary structure, which includes α-helices and β-pleated sheets, are stablized by hydrogen bonding between the amine and carbonyl groups of the component amino acids of a polypeptide chain.

General Chemistry: Solubility Product Constants-------- temperature Relationship between solubility product Kspfor non-gas solutes

proportional-------- Solubility product constants, like ALL other equilibrium constants (Keq, Ka, Kb, and Kw), are temperature DEPENDENT. Generally speaking, the solubility product constant increases with increasing temperatures for non-gas solutes and decreases for gas solutes.

Organic Chemistry: Separations & Purifications-------- which compound elutes first Relationship between similarity to the mobile phase

proportional-------- In chromatography, IF the mobile phase being used is nonpolar, then more nonpolar compounds will elute first and migrate the farther distance. Think about it as "like dissolves like". Because a NONPOLAR compound is "like" the NONPOLAR mobile phase, it will migrate toward that similar mobile phase.Oppositely, if a polar compound is more similar to the polar stationary phase being used, it will therefore NOT elute/migrate a far distance.. because it likes to stay close to a phase that is "like" them. (aka stayin' in yo own comfort zone and choosing to be near what's similar to you)For example, if silica gel, often used as a polar stationary phase, is being used with benzene, then this means that nonpolar compounds will elute first and travel farthest. The the more polar compound, the later it will elute and also the closer it will stay to the stationary phase.

General Chemistry: 4 Factors that affect Reaction Rate-------- concentration of reactantsor parital pressure of reactants(aka, the number of moleculesin a reaction) Relationship between rate constant kof a reaction(aka, the rate of reaction)

proportional-------- Increasing the concentration of reactant will increase reaction rate (except for zero-order reactions) because there are more effective collisions per time. In other words, when there are more molecules, there are more opportunities for collision to occur. For reactions occuring in the gaseous state, the partial pressures of the gas reactants serve as a measure of concentration.

Biochemistry: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism-------- insulin Relationship between glycogen formation(glycogenesis)

proportional-------- Insulin is a peptide hormone that is incapable of passively diffusing through the bilayer due to its size and hydrophilicity; its receptors are located in the cell membrane.Insulin has major effects on muscle and adipose tissue. It increases the rate of glucose transport across the cell membrane, decreases the rate of lipolysis, and increases the uptake of triglycerides and some amino acids from the blood. Essentially, insulin functions to ensure that, during times of high glucose availability, the body preferentially uses glucose for energy. Further, insulin signals for increased glucose storage, and decreased use of alternative energy sources during the postprandial state.Glucagon essentially results in the opposite metabolic processes as insulin.

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- temperature Relationship between Kw

proportional-------- Like ALL equilibrium constants, the value for K is dependent ONLY on temperature. The equilibrium constant Kw is no different. Isolated changes in concentration, pressure, volume, etc will NOT affect Kw. However, at different temperatures, the value for Kw changes proportionally. At temperatures above 298 K, Kw will increase; this is a direct result of the endothermic nature of the autoionization reaction.

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- # of free (nonbonded) electrons Relationship between electrical conductivity

proportional-------- Materials such as graphite are good electrical conductors because its structure consists of carbons that are covalently bonded to 3 other atoms (recall that cabon is tetrahedral), leaving a "sea" of free electrons that can conduct electricity. In contrast, diamond is a poor conductor because each of its carbon atoms are bound to 4 other atoms, leaving no free electrons.

Biology: DNA Structure-------- presence of G-C base pairs Relationship between DNA stability

proportional-------- More GC base pairs increase the stability of DNA and RNA structure because it has 3 hydrogen bonds, as opposed to AT or AU base pairs that only have 2 hydrogen bonds.

Biology: Nervous System-------- presence of Myelin Relationship between conduction speedof an action potential

proportional-------- Myelin is an insulator that surrounds the axons and helps speed up action potential transmission, similar to how a rubber coating helps conduct and speed up electrical transmission in a wire, like your phone charger. (note that since myelin is a good insulator, this also means that by definition it must be a poor conductor)

Physics: Nuclear Binding Energy-------- magnitude of nuclear binding energy released when nucleons bind together Relationship between stability of the nucleus

proportional-------- Nuclei with greater nuclear binding energies are more stable than the unbonded nucleons. When the nucleons come together to form a nucleus (fusion), energy is released, and the magnitude of this energy is proportional to the stability of the newly formed nucleus.

Biology: Blood Pressure-------- presence of proteins Relationship between Oncotic pressure

proportional-------- Oncotic pressure defined as a form of osmotic pressure, exerted by proteins. For example, low albumin levels in the blood (due to liver damage because albumin is made in the liver) would cause a low oncotic pressure.

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- electronegative elements positioned near an acidic proton Relationship between acidity (dissociation) "strength"

proportional-------- One important theme for acid strength is the Effect of Induction. Electronegative elements positioned near an acidic proton increase acid strength by pulling electron density out of the bond holding the acidic proton. This weakens proton bonding and facilitates dissociation. Thus, acids that have electronegative elements nearer to acidic hydrogens are stronger than those that do not.http://schoolbag.info/chemistry/mcat_2/mcat_2.files/image580.jpg

Biochemistry: Ion exchange chromatography-------- | magnitude | of the overall charge on a protein Relationship between concentration of NaCl required for elution

proportional-------- Proteins with a higher magnitude of overall charge (aka more charged proteins, as opposed to moderately charged proteins) require a higher salt concentration for elution. (e.g. a protein with an overall charge of +5 and a protein with an overall charge of -4 would both require a higher concentration of NaCl for elution than a protein with an overall charge of +1)

General Chemistry: Raoult's Law-------- concentration of(volatile) soluteadded to a solvent Relationship between boiling pointof the solvent(in ideal solutions)

proportional-------- Recall that the boiling point is the temperature at which vapor pressure of the liquid equals ambient (incident) pressure. Thus, vapor pressure depression goes hand in hand with Boiling Point Elevation; the lowering of a solution's vapor pressure would mean that a higher temperature is required to match atmospheric pressure, thereby raising the boiling point. For example, salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water due to the concentration of solute (NaCl) added to the water.

General Chemistry: Liquid-Solid Equilibrium-------- temperatureof a solid Relationship between energy of microstates

proportional-------- The availability of energy microstates increases as the temperature of a solid increases. In basic terms, this means that the molecules have greater freedom of movement, and energy disperses. If the atoms or molecules in the solid phase absorb enough energy, the three-dimensional structure of the solid will break down, and the atoms will escape into the liquid phase; this transition is called fusion or melting.

General Chemistry: Acid-BaseChemistry-------- the concentrations of the conjugate pair [A-] and [HA]while maintaining the same ratio of [A-]/[HA] Relationship between buffering capacity

proportional-------- The buffering capacity is defined as the ability to which a system can resist changes in pH. According to the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:pH = pKa + log[A-]/[HA]Clearly, changing the ratio of the conjugate base to the acid will lead to a change in pH of the buffer solution. But what about changing the concentrations while maintaining a constant ratio? What would happen if the concentrations of both the acid and the conjugate base were doubled? While the pH would not change since the ratio of [A-]/[HA] is the same, the buffering capacity would in fact double. In other words, the addition of a small amount of acid or base to this system will now cause even less deviation in pH.

General Chemistry: Solubility Product Constants-------- formation of complex ions Relationship between solubility of a salt (containing the same metal)in solution

proportional-------- The formation of complex ions increases the solubility of a salt in solution. Because a complex ion contains multiple polar bonds between the ligands and the central metal ion (based on the definition of a complex ion), it should be able to engage in a very large amount of dipole-dipole interactions. This stabilizes the dissolution of the complex ion. The end result is that such complexes tend to have VERY high Ksp values, termed "Kf" to represent the formation or stability constant of the complex in solution. The very high Kf value of the complex ion is significantly larger than the Ksp of the salt providing the metal ion to the complex, which partially explains why the initial dissolution of the salt is the rate-limiting step of complex ion formation. As an amount of metal ion is being used up to form the complex ion itself, the dissociation reaction of the salt shifts to the right, providing more metal for complex ion formation.

General Chemistry: Resonance-------- stabilityof the resonance structure Relationship between contribution of the character of the resonance hybrid

proportional-------- The nature of the bonds within an actual compound is a hybrid of all of its resonance structures, and the actual structure of the compound is called the resonance hybrid. In general, the more stable the resonance structure, the more it contributes to the character of the resonance hybrid. Minor contributors usually contain formal charges, indicating decreased stability.

General Chemistry: Gas-Liquid Equilibrium-------- temperatureof a gas Relationship between vapor pressureof the evaporated particles!

proportional-------- The pressure that a gas exerts over a liquid at equilibrium is the vapor pressure of the liquid. Vapor pressure increases as temperature increases because more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape into the gas phase. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure is called the boiling point, and this is explains why liquid boils at high temperatures or at low pressures.

General Chemistry: Atomic Structure-------- principle quantum number n(energy level) Relationship between radius

proportional-------- The principal quantum number (n) represents the shell of an atom. The larger the integer value of n, the higher the energy level and thus the higher the radius of the electron's orbit.

General Chemistry: Electrochemistry-------- reduction potential, E red Relationship between tendency of a species to gain electrons and be reduced

proportional-------- The species in a reaction that will be oxidized or reduced can be determined from the reduction potential of each species, defined as the tendency of a species to gain electrons and to be reduced. Each species has its own intrinsic reduction potential; the more positive the potential, the greater the tendency to be reduced.

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- viscosity η of a fluid Relationship between viscous drag

proportional-------- Thick fluids like whole blood and honey have higher viscosity and thus objects move through these fluids with significantly more viscous drag than they would in fluids with low viscosity, like air or water.

General Chemistry: Collision Theoryof Chemical Kinetics-------- number of effective collisions per second between reacting molecules in a reaction Relationship between rate of reaction

proportional-------- Various theories have been proposed to explain the events that are taking place at the atomic levels through the process of a reaction. The Collision Theory of chemical kinetics states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second between the reacting molecules. In other words, for a reaction to occur, molecules must collide with each other effectively... at the correction orientation AND with sufficient energy in order to break their existing bonds and form new ones.

Organic Chemistry: H-NMR Spectroscopy-------- number of electronegative atoms close in proximity to a proton (H atom) Relationship between • deshielding of the proton• distance Downfield (to the left) in an H-NMR spectrum

proportional-------- When electronegative atoms are attached near a hydrogen (the proton), these atoms pull electron density away from the surrounding atoms, thus deshielding the proton from a magnetic field. The more the proton's electron density is pulled away, the less it can "shield" itself from the applied magnetic field, resulting in a reading further downfield (to the left) in an H-NMR spectrum.

Organic Chemistry: H-NMR Spectroscopy-------- number of electron-DONATING groups close in proximity to a proton (H atom) Relationship between • shielding of the proton• distance Upfield (to the right) in an H-NMR spectrum

proportional-------- With the same reasoning as above, we know that if we had an electron-donating group, such as a silicon atom, it would help shield the H nuclei and give it a position further upfield (to the right.

how to take the negative log of something that is not 1

round down and up to find the range.

General Chemistry: Solutions-------- dissolution Relationship between ΔS of the SOLUTE

proportional-------- [1] Entropy ican be thought of as the measure of molecular disorder, or the number of energy microstates available to a system at a given temperature. Therefore, at constant temperature and pressure, entropy of a solute always increases upon dissolution. For example, when NaCl dissolves into water, the rigidly ordered arrangement of the Na and Cl ions is broken up and freed from their lattice arrangment to have a greater degree of freedom to move around in different ways in the solution (aka their energy is more distributed and their entropy increases).

General Chemistry: Solutions-------- dissolution Relationship between ΔS of the overall system

proportional-------- [3] In the end, the increase in the entropy experienced by the dissolved solute (NaCl) is greater than the decrease in entropy experienced by the water, so the overall entropy change is positive-energy is, overall, dispersed by the dissoluation of NaCl in water. In this particular example, because of the relatively low endothermicity and relatively large positive change in entropy, this explains why NaCl spontaneously dissolves in liquid water.

General Chemistry: Henry's Law-------- partial pressureof a gas Relationship between solubility (concentration)of the gas

proportional-------- according to Henry's Law:[gas in solution]1 / P1 = [gas in solution]2 / P2 = kH , where kH is Henry's constant (whose value depends on the identity of the gas)Solubility (concentration) and pressure are directly related. In biology, this is a critically important relationship for gas and nutrient exchange. If the atmospheric pressure changes, as it does from sea level to high altitude, then the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere also changes (as explained by Dalton's Law), and the amount of gas exchanged is altered accordingly; if the parital pressure of a particular gas is elevated (such as when delivering hyperbaric oxygen), the amount of gas dissolved in the blood is also elevated.

Physics: Work-Energy Theorem-------- net work done by all the forces acting on an object Relationship between change in kinetic energy of that object

proportional-------- based on the Work-Energy theorem Equation: Wnet = ΔKThis relationship is important to understand, as it allows you to calculate work without knowing the magnitude of the forces acting on an object or the displacement through which the forces act. If you calculate the change in kinetic energy experienced by an object, then-by definition-the net work done on or by an object is the same. For example, pressing the brake pedal in your car puts the work-energy theorem into practice. The brake pads exert frictional forces against the rotors, which are attached to the wheels. These frictional forces do work against the wheels, causing them to decelerate and bringing the car to a halt. The net work done by all these forces is directly equal to the change in kinetic energy "1/2mv^2" of the car.

Physics: Kinematics-------- forced needed to keep a spring compressed/stretched Relationship between the displacement that spring is compressed/stretched from its equilibrium position

proportional-------- based on the equation for Hooke's Law:F = - k x

Physics: First Law of Thermodynamics-------- amount of work done ON a system Relationship between internal energy of the system∆U

proportional-------- based on the equation for internal energy:ΔU = ± Q ± WThe first law of thermodynamics tells us that an INCREASE in the total internal energy of a system is caused by either (1) transfering heat into the system or (2) performing work on the system. An example of this is compressing a spring will increase the internal energy of the spring.

Physics: First Law of Thermodynamics-------- amount of heat ADDED to a system Relationship between internal energy of the system∆U

proportional-------- based on the equation for internal energy:ΔU = ± Q ± WThe first law of thermodynamics tells us that an INCREASE in the total internal energy of a system is caused by either (1) transfering heat into the system or (2) performing work on the system. An example of this is heating up a pot of water increases the internal energy of that pot of water.

Biochemistry: Enzyme Kinetics-------- Kcat Relationship between catalytic efficiency

proportional-------- based on the equation: Catalytic efficiency = (Kcat) / (Km) • to help remember which term is in the numerator or denominator, remember the mnemonic: "the cat jumps on top of the mouse"

Physics: Thermal Expansion-------- temperature Relationship between • change in a solid's length• change in a liquid's volume

proportional-------- based on the equations for thermal expansion and volumetric expansion:ΔL = αLΔT and ΔV = βVΔTRising temperatures cause an increase in length (for solids) and volume (for liquids), and vice versa: falling temperatures cause a decrease in length/volume. Thermal expansion is often seen in hardwood; it is also the reason why bridges are built with gaps in between its segments in order to maintain its structural integrity during changing temperatures throughout a year. Volumetric expansion is seen in mercury: this is why the mercury in thermometers rise up the column as temperature rises. It is because the volume of the liquid expands.

Physics: Potential Energy-------- • mass of an object• height of an objectfrom the datum Relationship between (graviational) potential energy

proportional-------- based on the gravitational Potential Energy Equation:U = mghwe see that potential energy U has a direct relationship with all three of the variables. Changing any one of them by some factor will result in a change in the potential energy by the same factor. For example, tripling the mass of an object (or tripling the height) will increase the gravitational potential energy U by a factor of 3.

Physics: Hydrostatics-------- density of fluid ρsurrounding an object Relationship between Buoyant Forceacting on said object

proportional-------- demonstrated by Archimedes' Principle:Fbouy = (ρfluid) (g) (Vsubmerged)By taking a closer look at Archimedes' Principle and Newton's 3rd Law, we see that the buoyant force acting on an object is equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid it displaces(e.g. if two identical objects of equal mass were placed in either water or mercury, the bouyant force acting on the object submerged in mercury would be greater because mercury is MORE dense than water; the same principle applies for dense air vs. less dense air. A skydiver in dense air would experience more buoyant force than he would if he was in thin air)

TERM: Parietal Cells

secretes HCl and intrinsic factor. The HCl decreases pH so that the H+ ions can cleave pepsinogen into pepsin. The low pH also helps kill most harmful bacteria and denature proteins and break down some intramolecular bonds that hold food together. Intrinsic factor aids in the absorption of vitamin B12 "Also Related to------Gastric Glands Intrinsic Factor

General Chemistry: Bohr Model-------- principle quantum number n(energy level) Relationship between Energy of the electon E

proportional-------- demonstrated by Bohr's equation for the energy of the electron:E = - RH / n^2 where RH = Rydberg's constant = 2.18e-18• The energy of an electron E increases (aka becomes less negative, approaching zero) the farther out from the nucleus that the electron is located (increasing n). This is an important point: while the magnitude of the fraction is getting smaller, mathematically, the actual value it represents is getting larger because of the negative sign in the equation (becoming less negative).• Another way to think of this is that a larger integer value for the principal quantum number n indicates a larger radius, and thus higher energy, analogous to gravitational potential energy: where the higher or farther the object is above Earth, the higher its potential energy will be.

Physics: Refraction-------- index of refraction nof a medium through which light travels(aka the density of the medium) Relationship between bending of the light ray TOWARDS the normal

proportional-------- demonstrated by Snell's Law:n1 (sin ϴ1) = n2 (sin ϴ2) When light enters a medium with a HIGHER index of refraction n (aka, mediums with more density usually have a higher n), the light ray bends TOWARD the normal. This is shown mathematically because if n2 > n1, then ϴ2 < ϴ1. Conversely, if the light travels into a medium where the index of refraction is SMALLER, the light will bend AWAY from the normal. (e.g. when a light ray travels from air to a more dense medium such as glass or water... the light ray will bend toward the normal in the glass or water... because air has a n = 1.0003 and glass/water has a n > 1.

Physics: Fluid Dynamics-------- cross sectional area Aof a pipe Relationship between internal hydrostatic fluid pressure P(deals with ideal fluids only)

proportional-------- demonstrated by the Venturi Effect, which combines the principles of the Continuity Equation and Bernoulli's Equation.if ↑A ↓v then ↑P + (1/2)ρ↓v^2 + ρghFor horizontal flow, there is a direct relationship between cross-sectional area and pressure exerted on the walls of the tube.

Psychology: Sexuality-------- Rating on Kinsey Scale Relationship between degree of homosexuality

proportional-------- the Kinsey Scale scores sexuality from a scale of 0-6, with 0 being completely HETERO-sexual and 6 being completely HOMO-sexual. A Kinsey Scale score of 3 would equate to bisexuality.(Ex: man claims to have had sexual relationships with mostly other men, although he occasionally has been attracted to women at times. Therefore, this man would likely score a 4 or 5 on the Kinsey Scale)

Biochemistry: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins-------- • heat• solute concentration• change in pH Relationship between protein denaturation

proportional-------- • Heat denatures proteins by increasing their average kinetic energy, thus disrupting hydrophobic interactions.• Increasing the amount of solutes or dramatically changing pH denatures proteins by disrupting elements of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure because the solutes, H+, or OH- interfere with bonds that maintained the protein's structure.

General Chemistry: Intermolecular Forces-------- intermolecular forces Relationship between surface tension

proprotional-------- Surface tension is defined as a measure of intermolecular forces (and only intermolecular forces) acting between molecules on the surface of a liquid. (e.g. if molecule A can participate in hydrogen bonding while molecule B cannot, then molecule A will exhibit greater surface tension than molecule B)

what is Q

reaction quotient

what are the types of bone marrow

red and yellow

where is yellow and red bone marrow found and what are their roles

red bone marrow = hematopoesis; in spongy bone / medullary cavity yellow = adipocyte storage; in diaphysis.

Topic: NMR Spectroscopy ------ Term: downfield

refer to higher chemical shifts, located to the LEFT on the x-axis in NMR spectra ------ Also Related to: Deshielding

Term: counter-balancing

refers to an experimental precaution where you present stimuli in a random order in order to eliminate the possibility to time effects

" Term: reciprocal determinism

refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation (e.g. a stressful event can cause you to be depressed, and as a result some negative feelings can affect your behavior, such as pushing people away from your life, and thus can expose you to more stress) -----Also Related to: Social Cognitive Theory and Albert Bandura

Topic: Covalent Bond Notation ------ Term: nonbonding electrons

refers to the valence electrons that are NOT invovled in covalent bonds ------ Also Related to: lone paris

What is the action of Carboxypeptidase

removes the C-terminal (aka carboxy end) amino acid from a peptide

What is the action of Aminopeptidase

removes the N-terminal (aka amino end) amino acid from a peptide.

Topic: Ideal Gases ------ Term: ideal gas

represents a hypothetical gas with molecules that have no intermolecular forces and occupy no volume. Although real gases deviate from this ideal behavior at high pressures (low volumes) and low temperatures, many compressed real gases demonstrate behavior that is close to ideal.

how to find the 10^x of something that isn't a whole number

similar to finding the log of something that isn't whole, take the value and round the exponent up down to get an approximation of how close it should be. Then use the distinct values you remeber and see how close they are to one another. Since here the value is .2, its between the .1 and .3 we remembered for logs of 8x10 and 5x 10, thus the answer should be between those two and having the lower exponent value because it hasn't quite reached the next one yet.

what is ksp

solubility product constant

" Topic: Carbohydrate Classifcation ------ Term: Epimers

special types of diastereomers that differ EXACTLY ONE chiral carbon. ------ EXAMPLE: http://mcat-review.org/epimers.gif ------ Also Related to: diastereomers

sarcoplasmic reticulum

specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells

whats standard gibbs free

standard state conditions = all species at 1. mol reactants and products

" Viruses: Retroviruses-------- TERM: cDNA

stands for "complementary DNA"; it is the DNA that is reverse transcribed from RNA via the enzyme reverse transcriptase. In other words, when reverse transcription occurs, cDNA is the strand of DNA that is complementary to the RNA that is being reverse transcribed.

data analysis

start with the wild type conditions and then in those same conditions compare to something that has one change. so here in this example wt -/- should be compared with gpcr(-) -/- and then next wt - /+ should be compared with gpcr(-) -/+ OVERALL look for the wild type and make comparison in the one change.

Term: Social Facilitation

states that a person will perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others. (aka "social" society "faciliates" their performance success) -----Also Related to: Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation

" Term: Drive Reduction Theory

states that motivation arises from the desire to eliminate uncomfortable internal states of tension (e.g. my motivation for getting up and walking to the vending machine stemmed from my internal drive to reduce my thirstiness)

Term: Arousal Theory

states that people perform actions in order to maintain arousal at an optimal (medium) level, summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson Law "-----Also Related to: Yerkes-Dodson Law social faciliation

Topic: Henry's Law ------ Term: Henry's Law

states that the amount of gas dissolved in solution (aka, the gas' solubility) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas at the surface of a solution. In other words, solubility (concentration) and pressure are directly related. ------ Also Related to: • alveolar capillary gas exchange

Topic: Dalton's Law ------ Term: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

states that the individual gas componenets of a mixture of gases will exert individual pressures in proportiona to their mole fractions. It also states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the SUM of the partial pressures of the individual component gases.

" TERM: Memory B Cells

stick around longer than Plasma Cells; their main function is to make proliferation easier (more rapid and more prolonged proliferation) for the NEXT time you encounter a certain antigen

Term: Lazarus Theory

stimulus ---> cognitive appraisal ----> emotion + physiological response

Where is ghrelin secreted?

stomach

purpose of sarcoplasmic reticulum

stores calcium when muscle is not contracting. When muscle contracts, calcium is released into sarcoplasm. Membrane pumps calcium into SR from sarcoplasm after contraction.

What are the layers of the epidermis? and name some characteristics of each

stratum basale -keratinocytes - keratin intermediate filament for strength -melanocytes - melanin -rapid cell division stratum spinosum -cells develop desmosomes -think of the spiny portions (proteins [cytoskeelton]) that make up a desmosome -spiny fighters langerhorn cells ( immune system) stratum granulosum - keratinhyalin granules "keratin handling lamelar bodys = lipid layer that gives skin its water tight properties and prevents pathogens from entering stratum lucidum -keratin handling worked them selfs to death creating keratinhyalin granules and lamelar bodies. and died, appear Clear as in "lucid" bc lost nucleus and organells which gives cell color stratum corneum -coronar dead place layers of epithelium.

Haversian system

structural unit of compact bone

" Topic: Buffers ------ Term: Which is the "best" indicator to use for a titration?

the "best" indicator has a pKa that is closed to the pH of the equivalence point of the titration

Term: secondary amino group

the N atom is bonded to 2 carbon atoms ------ EXAMPLE: proline

Term: primary amino group

the N atom is only bonded to 1 carbon atom ------ EXAMPLE: most amino acids

Term: Theory of Mind

the ability to sense how another person's mind works. Once a theory of mind is developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us, becoming aware of judgments from the outside world and react to those judgments. (e.g. the ability to understand how your friend is interpreting a story that you're telling them) -----Also Related to: Identity

Term: Self-Serving Bias

the attribution of your successes to internal factors... and your failures to external factors. (e.g. "I made a 528 on my MCAT because I'm smart and hard-working." vs, "I made a 490 on the MCAT because the AAMC is stupid and gives an impossible exam)"

Topic: Starches ------ Term: Amylopectin

the branched glucose units that make up starches; linked via α-1,6 glycosidic bonds ------ EXAMPLE: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fengwei_Xie/publication/274961277/figure/fig2/AS:294958704676867@1447335043832/Fig-2-Chemical-structures-of-amylose-and-amylopectin-molecules-of-starch.png ------ Also Related to: Starches

Term: Display Rules

the cultural expectations of a certain emotion (e.g. in some cultures, it is considered taboo to show sadness at a funeral while in other cultures crying loudly is expected)

expressivity

the degree to which a genotype is expressed in an individual

Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: What is the direction of electron flow in ALL types of electrochemical cells?

the direction of electron movement is from anode to cathode.

Term: Hindsight Bias

the error of seeing past events as more predictable than they actually are; also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along effect" (e.g. when Mr. Know It All is wrong: "well in hindsight I knew this was gonna happen....")

Term: Environmental Justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, nationality, or income with respect to environmental laws and policies; an example of a clear violation of this would be moving an urban factory's toxic waste to a less affluent area of the city, placing the people living in these low-income areas at greater risk

whats found at the metaphysis

the growth plate which is present in children

Term: adaptive function of attitude

the idea that an individual will be accepted socially if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed. (e.g. if having a caring attitude is socially acceptable, therefore if I will be socially accepted if I am a caring person) -----Also Related to: Functional Attitudes Theory

Topic: Electrochemical Cells ------ Term: Salt Bridge

the purpose of salt bridges in galvanic (voltaic) cells is to exchange anions and cations to balance, or dissipate, newly generated charges; salt bridges do this by containing inert electrolytes-ionic compounds that do NOT readily dissociate. Otherwise, excessive charge would accumulate and provide a countervoltage charge that is large enough to prevent the redox reaction from taking place, ceasing the current. ------ EXAMPLE: inert electrolytes, such as KCl or NH4NO3

what is bone resorption

the removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts

Topic: Phase Diagrams ------ Term: triple point

the temperature at which all 3 phases of matter exist in equilibrium

Term: Self-Reference Effect

the tendency for you to best recall info that you can personally relate to your own experiences (e.g. demonstrated by the "The Real World" Kaplan MCAT paragraphs in the review books)

what is the most common place for silent mutations

the third base as its the wobble or degeneracy of code.

always look at what part of graph or data first

the wildtype to establish a baseline

what happens if a hybrid doesn't have an even number of chromosomes

then it can't reproduce.

" Term: Conflict Theory

theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order and how these differentials contribute to the maintainence of social order; these power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources (e.g the stronger gorup rules the weaker group and creates the rules; demonstrated when 10-year olds "rule" the playground and control the younger and weaker 6-year olds) -----Also Related to: Karl Marx

Term: Functionalism

theoretical framework that explains how components of society fit together to create a cohesive whole (e.g. views society as if it's a living organism, and as such, if society is to function smoothly, its parts and systems must work together in harmony. When all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state. If they do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathologic state)

Term: Social Constructionism

theoretical framework that uncovers the ways in which individuals and groups construct/create their own perceived social norms; can be applied intangible concepts such as how a society defines honor and justice is dependent on the interactions and decisions of individuals within that particualr society. Notably, because these concepts depend on society itself, they are subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time (e.g. a

Term: Spearman's Theory of General Intelligence

there is one general intelligence called a g-factor that people have. This theory is HIGHLY supported by research evidence because people who tend to excel in one area (like reading), also tend to do well in other areas (like math). "-----Also Related to: Charles Spearman • g-factor

how doe the sarcoplasmic reticulum obtain calcium

thruough a calcium ion pump that requires atp.

what are the three types of cell junctions

tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

what is the purpose of a salt bridge in a galvanic/ electrolytic cell

to maintain the charge equilibrium in solution, if it weren't to remain neutral then the flow of electrons would change directions when the anode becomes too positive, and keep alternating flow until neutral.

what is keratin

tough fibrous protein

what are the enzyme linked receptors

transmembrane proteins that bind a hormone signal and directly catalyze a reaction inside the cell. often resulting in a second messenger cascade

Biochemistry: Enzyme Inhibitors-------- presence of aCompetitive inhibitor Relationship between • Km• vmax

• Km: ⬆• vmax: no change-------- In the presence of a competitive inhibitor, Km increases. Remember that x-intercept of the Lineweaver-Burke Plot corresponds to -1/Km. Therefore, because competitive inhibitor causes Km to increase, the x-intercept will approach zero (moves closer to the right). Because the x-intercept moves closer to the right while the y-intercept (associated with Vmax) is uncharged by competitive inhibitors, the slope of the Lineweaker-Burke Plot will become steeper. (basically rotates counter-clockwise with the y-intercept as the axis of rotation)shortcut: basically the "new line" is rotated counter-clockwise w/ the Y-intercept being the center of rotation.

Associated names to know with Biological Theory

• Noam Chomsky

General Chemistry: Electromotive Force and Thermodynamics-------- Keq Relationship between Eºcell

• if Keq < 1, Eºcell is negative• if Keq > 1, Eºcell is positive• if Keq = 1, Eºcell is 0.-------- By combining different equations for Gibbs Free Energy:ΔGº = -n F Eºcell and ΔGº = -RT ln Keq to get:-n F Eºcell = RT ln KeqMathematically, when the equilibrium constant Keq is less than 1 (meaning that the equilibrium state favors the reactants), the Eºcell will be negative because the natural logarithm of any number between 0 and 1 is negative. These properties are characteristic of Electrolytic cells, which house nonspontaneous redox reactions. Instead, if Keq is greater than 1 (meaning that the equilbrium state favors the products), the Eºcell will be positive because the natural logithm of any number greater than 1 is positive; these properties are characteristic of Galvanic cells, which house spontanoues redox reactions. And when Keq is equal to 1, then ln(1) is 0, so Eºcell is 0.

relationship between pH and pKa on protonation state

• if pH < pKa, then protonated• if pH > pKa, then deprotonated • At low (acidic) pH, there is more free H+ floating around to interact with the amino acid to protonate it.• At high (basic) pH, there is more free OH- present to deprotonate the amino acid.

Biochemistry: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins-------- pH and pKa Relationship between protonation state

• if pH < pKa, then protonated• if pH > pKa, then deprotonated-------- • At low (acidic) pH, there is more free H+ floating around to interact with the amino acid to protonate it.• At high (basic) pH, there is more free OH- present to deprotonate the amino acid.

protonation stateof an amino acid(which depends on the pH of the environment and amino acid's intrinsic pI) fx on direction of migration in electrophoresis

• if protonated amino acid (cation) ---> cathode• if deprotonated amino acid (anion) ---> anode according to the rules that:• if pH < pI, then the amino acid will be in a protonated state• if pI < pH, then the amino acid will be in a depronated state• when pH = pI, then the amino acid will be in its zwitterion form and will be stationarythen:if an amino acid with a pI of 5 is run in an electrophoresis that has a pH environment of 8 (aka pI is less than the pH), the amino acid will be deprotonated. Deprotonated amino acids migrate toward the POSITIVELY CHARGED ANODE.(the reason why the anode is positively charged as opposed to negatively charged is because electrophoresis occurs in an ELECTROLYTIC CELL, not a galvanic/voltaic cell.. so that's why the sign designations are flipped). An easy way to remember this is that cations are always attracted to the cathode, and anions are always attracted to the anode.

Biochemistry: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins-------- protonation stateof an amino acid(which depends on the pH of the environment and amino acid's intrinsic pI) Relationship between direction of migration in electrophoresis

• if protonated amino acid (cation) ---> cathode• if deprotonated amino acid (anion) ---> anode-------- according to the rules that:• if pH < pI, then the amino acid will be in a protonated state• if pI < pH, then the amino acid will be in a depronated state• when pH = pI, then the amino acid will be in its zwitterion form and will be stationarythen:if an amino acid with a pI of 5 is run in an electrophoresis that has a pH environment of 8 (aka pI is less than the pH), the amino acid will be deprotonated. Deprotonated amino acids migrate toward the POSITIVELY CHARGED ANODE.(the reason why the anode is positively charged as opposed to negatively charged is because electrophoresis occurs in an ELECTROLYTIC CELL, not a galvanic/voltaic cell.. so that's why the sign designations are flipped). An easy way to remember this is that cations are always attracted to the cathode, and anions are always attracted to the anode.

Sarcomere parts

• the Z-lines are found at both ends of a sarcomere • the M-line is the middle of the myosin filaments (and sarcomere) • the I-band consists of thin filaments only; light also has the letter i • the H-zone consists of thick filaments only • the A-band consists of all of the thick filament, whether or not it is overlapping with the thin filament; dArk also has the letter A

General Chemistry: Spectroscopy-------- visible region of the electromagnetic specrumROY G BV Relationship between • wavelength λ• frequency ƒ and energy E

• wavelength decreases from left to right• frequency & energy increases from left to right-------- Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet700 600 575 500 450 400 (approximate wavelengths absorbed)↑ wavelength (~700 nm) ↓ wavelength (~400 nm)↓ frequency and energy ↑ frequency and energy

difference between galvanic and electrolytic cells

•Galvanic: Sum of standard electrode potential energies for half reactions >0, so the reaction is spontaneous and the cell produces energy •Electrolytic: Sum of standard electrode potential energies for half reactions <0, so energy must be supplied to force oxidation and reduction

The Thymus Secretes Thymosin To Cause__________

↑ T-cell development

The Ovary/Placenta Secretes Progesterone To Cause__________

↑ growth/maintainence of the endometrium

The Adrenal Cortex Secretes Cortisol In Response to_______; To Cause__________

↑ light (early morning in circadian rhythm) ------ wakefulness

" The Pineal Gland Secretes Melatonin In Response to_______; To Cause__________

↓ light (night time in circadian rhythm) ------ sleepiness