Persuasion: Content Academic Vocabulary

Case studies

Examples from scientific research. Example: Government studies show that collecting and using recycled materials saves energy.

Examples

Specific instances or illustrations of a general idea. Example: For example, recycling could help save some of the fifty thousand trees that are sacrificed every week to produce Sunday newspapers in the U.S.

Expert opinions

Statements made by a recognized authority on the subject. Example: Brenda Platt of th eInstitute for Local Self-Reliance says, "Studies have concluded that recycling cots less than traditional trash collection and disposal..."

Facts

Statements that can be proven true; some facts are in the form of statistics, or numerical information. Example: Garbage usually goes into landfills. Of the garbage produced each year in the U.S., 42% is paper.

Generalization

a broad statement that applies to or covers many individuals, experiences, situations, observations, or texts. A valid generalization is a type of conclusion that is drawn after considering as many of the facts as possible.

Primary source

a firsthand account. In primary sources, writers peresnt their experiences, opinions, and ideas. Primary sources include autobiographies, letters, interviews, oral histories, eyewitness news reports, essays, editorials, and speeches.

Secondary source

a secondhand account, often based on more that one viewpoint. In secondary sources, writers summarize, interpret, or analyze events in which they did not participate. Examples of secondary sources include cycyclopedias and other eference works, textbookd, biorgraphies, many magazine articles, and most newsparper articles.

Argument

a series of statements in a text designed to convince the reader of something. What the writer (or speaker) wants to prove is the position or claim. An argument might appeal to both logic and emotion. For instance, an argument in a scientific or hisotircal journal would probably present only logical appeals, which include reasons and factual evidence. An argument in a potical text would probably also include emotional appeals, which are directed more to the reader's hear than to the mind. Some arguments use loaded words (words loaded with emotional connotations) and anecdotes that also appeal to feelings. It is iomportatn to be able to recognize emotial appeals used in arguements -- and to be aware of how they can persuade an audience without credible evidence.

Position

a stated idea or opinion that a writer has about a subject or issue.

Persuasive essay

a way for a writer to share his/her views and convince others to accpet them. The goal of a persuasive essay is to state the claim/assertion clearly and support it with reasons and evidence. Reasons may include rhetorical devises.

Credibility

a willingness to belive or accept something as true; the ability to inspire belief or trust.

Elaboration

adding information, usually in the form of details. This might incldue original ideas on a topic or researched information.

Ethical appeal

addresses readers' sense of right and wrong. Ethical appeals also rely on a reader's belief that the writer is ethical. Example: Recycling reduces the garbage we produce.

Begging the question

also called circular reasoning, assumes the truth of a statement before it has been proved. Typically, it is a restatement of opinion using different words. Example: All students in the ninth grade need to get a laptop computer because it's essential for every ninth grader to have one.

Counter-argument/Counter-claim

an opinion that challenges the reasoning behind a position and shows that there are grounds for taking an opposite view.

Text structure

any organizational patterns that writer use to make their meaning clear. The four basic ways to arrange texts include: chronological order, spatial order, order on importance, logical order. Other methods used to organize text are cause and effect, problem-solution, and question-answer.

Either/or fallacy

assumes that there are only two possible choices or solutions (usually extremes), even though there may be many. Example: Either I get a cell phone, or you're never going to know where I am after school.

Content Literacy

being literate in a content area; being able to read, write, think, talk, volve problems, and learn as a mathematition, scientist, historian, poet, etc., about concepts and driving questions in each of these disciplines; being able to identify core ideas and concepts, questions to ask, problems to solve, and having habits of mind or contet-specific strategies to examine those ideas, questions, or problems.

Analogies

comparisons that show similarities between otherwise unrelated facts or ideas. Example: We should be as concerned about the garbage problem today as they once were about finding a vaccine for polio.

Author's intent or purpose

determines which mix of logical and emotional appeals is appropriate. A reliance on emotional appeals alone suggest that the writer is unable to back up his or her ideas with hard evidence.

Logic

evidence (facts and examples). An arguement is illogical when it does not provide reasons backed by evidence.

Fallacious reasoning

faulty reasoning or mistakes in logical thinking. Fallacious reasoning leads to false or incorrect conclusions. Some types of fallacious reasoning include:

Stereotyping

gives all members of a group the same (usually undesirable) characteristics. It assumes that everyone (or everything) in that group is alike. Stereotypes are often based on misconceptions about racial, social, religious, gender, or ethic groups. Example: Small towns are boring.

Rhetorical devices

help a writer support his/her position (thesis). Rhetorical devices appeal to the readers' logic, emotions, or ethical beliefs.

Hasty generalization

is a broad, general statement or conclusion that is made without sufficient eveidence to back it up. A hasty generalization is often made on the basis of one or two experiences or observations. Insufficient eveidence: I read about a healthy eighty-eight year-old woman who smokes a pack of cigarettes every day. My grandfather smokes, too, and he's in great shape physically. Example (hasty generalization): Smoking does not affect your health.

Emotional appeal

is aimed at readers' hearts. Emotional appeals speak to emotionsw such as fear, love, sympathy, and pride. Example: Recycling keeps us from being buried in trash.

False cause and effect

occurs when one event is said to be the cause of another event just because the two events happened in sequence. You cannot assume that an event caused whatever happened afterward. Example: Her grades improved when she got a job after school.

Discourse

orderly thought or procedure; rational conversations. Discourse includes instructional conversations, collaboration, debate, persuasive oral presentations. Discourse can also include writing.

Anecdotes

personal examples or observations that illustrate a point. Example: My grandfather says the forests that once surrounded my hometown have nearly vanished.

Logical appeal

speaks to readers' common sense and logic. Logical appeals make sense. Example: Recycling saves precious resources.

Evidence

specific information or proof that supports the reasons/assertions in an argument. Evidence must be precise and relevant, clearly related to the argument. Types of evidence include:

Commonly accepted beliefs

specific instances or illustrations of a general idea. Example: Most people think that garbage is useless and has no value.

Denotation

the literal dictionary definition fo a word. Denotations are characterized by a neutral, objective tone. For example, thin and skinny have similar denotations. They each describe a quality of depth or size.

Connotation

the meaning, association, or emotion that has come to be attached to a word. A connotation can be positive or negative, depending on its context and each reader's past experience. For example, many people would say thin has a positive connotation but skinny has a negative one. Both thin and skinny are considered loaded words because they have strong emotional connotations.

Parallelism

the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences that have the same grammatical structure or that state a similar idea. Parallelism, or parallel structure, helps make lines rhythmic and memorable and heightens their emotional effect.

Tone

the writer's attitude toward his/her subject or audience. If the intent is to persuade, the tone is usually serious, calm, and reasonable. The credibility of the argument becomes an issue if the author uses a humorous, angry, or high emotional tone or if the author exaggerates or tries to make light of various issues.

Rebuttal

to prove something to be false or someone to be in error through logical argument or by providing evidence to the contrary.

Name calling

uses labels to attack a person who holds an opposing view instead of giving reasons or evidence to attack the opposing view itself. This fallacy includes criticizing the person's character, situation, or background. Example: Why should I listent to someone who doesn't even know who won the World Series?

Claim

what the writer (or speaker) wants to prove. Also called an assertion or position.