Phil 341 final

What is a causal hypothesis?

is a tentative claim- a statement offered for further investigation or testing. our reasoning falls into two parts: 1. forming a hypothesis and 2. confirming the hypothesis.

Poisoning the Well

is a type of informal logical fallacy where irrelevant adverse information about a target is preemptively presented to an audience, with the intention of discrediting or ridiculing something that the target person is about to say.

What is an argument from Analogy?

is an argument that something has an attribute because a similar thing has that attribute e.g Bill likes hunting. Therefore his brother Sam likes hunting

Hyperbole

is an extravagant over statement.or exaggeration -overdone exaggeration e.g "The democrats want everyone to be on welfare" is hyperbole. "Nobody in the Tea Party likes African Americans"

Loaded questions

like innuendo is used to imply something without coming out and saying it. e.g the question " Why does the president hate rich people? implies without saying it that the president hates rich people. "Have you always loved being in debt?" implies without saying it that you love being in debt.

Scare Tactics fallacy

occurs when a speaker or writer tries to scare us into accepting an irrelevant conclusion e.g you really should get a Prudential life insurance policy. What would happen to your spouse and children if you die? Remember, you are their main source of income. Would they be forced to move?

Overlooking Prior Probabilities

occurs when someone fails to take these underlying probabilities into account. e.g Bills is the best football player in our high school, and Hal is the best hockey player in our high school. So it appears that Bill chances of becoming a professional football player and Hal's chances of becoming a professional football player are equally good.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

"After this, ,therefore because of it." A speaker or writer commits this fallacy when he or she assumes that the fact that one event came after another establishes that it was caused by the other. e.g After I took Zicam my cold went away fast. Therefore taking Zicam caused my cold to go away fast. the speaker makes a mistake to assume that Zicam caused the cold to go away fast. e.g After I played poker my cold went away fast. Therefore playing poker caused my cold to go away fast.

What are stereotypes and how are they sometimes used as a rhetorical device?

Generalizations about all members of a group or class based on an image of those in a group As a euphemism - "Jewish people are wonderful savers"

Hasty Generalization

Generalizing from too few cases) generalizing from too few cases or from samples that are too small e.g The food in L.A is lousy, judging from this meal

What are the two principles of moral reasoning?

Moral Reasoning Principle 1 If separate cases aren't different in any relevant way, the they should be treated the same way, and if separate cases are treated the same way, they should not be different in any relevant way. Moral Reasoning Principle 2 If someone appears to be isolating the consistency principle, then the burden of proof is on that person to show that he or she is in fact not violating the principle.

What is the difference between a moral and nonmoral value judgement?

Moral: optional. For example, doing something that you could choose not to. Eating a hot dog or a pizza. Non-moral: not optional. For example, eating or breathing. "Moral values" means you have a criteria for your actions.

what is the appeal to precedent in legal reasoning?

Precedent involves an earlier decision being followed in a later case because both cases are the same.

What are the two parts of an argument?

Premiss: (more usually spelled "premise") a proposition which gives reasons, grounds, or evidence for accepting some other proposition, called the conclusion. b. Conclusion: a proposition, which is purported to be established on the basis of other propositions.

What is the emotive meaning (or rhetorical force) of words?

The positive or negative associations of a word e.g Consider the difference between "Govrnment-guaranteed health care and a "Government take over the health care." these terms might reasonably be used to refer to the same thing but they largely have different emotional associations- one positive one negative the word connotation is the traditional term of these associations e.g our definition of abortion as the murder of an unborn child at the beginning of this section is another much quoted example of this type of definition.

Perfectionist fallacy

is committed when a speaker or writer ignores options between perfection and nothing e.g A single English course won't make anyone a great writer, so I don't see why we have to take one the speaker has presented us with perfectionist fallacy. he has restricted our options, he is arguing unless a single English course can make us a great writers ("perfectionist"), we shouldn't have to take one at all. He has ignored the possibility that a single English course might make us a better writers.

what is virtue ethics?

is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of particular actions.

Argument force fallacy

is the fallacy committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the acceptance of a conclusion

what is moral relativism?

is the position that moral or ethical propositions do not reflect objective and/or universal moral truths, but instead make claims relative to social, cultural, historical or personal circumstances.

What is consequentialism (utilitarianism)?

is the view that the consequences of a decision, deed, or policy determine its moral value. If an action produces better consequences than alternatives, then it is the better action, morally speaking. the doctrine that the morality of an action is to be judged solely by its consequences.

Innuendo

Uses the power of suggestion to disparage (say something bad about) someone or something unlike dysphemisms- expressions having obvious negative rhetorical force- innuendo relies on neutral (or even positive) phrasing to insinuate something derogatory. e.g Ladies and gentlemen, I am proof that at least one candidate in this race doesn't make stuff up. Jim: Is Ralph is telling the truth Joe: tes, this time Joe is insinuating that Ralph doesn't usually tell the truth.Yet another example, maybe our all time favorite,is this remark from W.C. Fields.

Ad hominem (fallacy)

Using someone's personal qualities to refute their viewpoint or stance e.g not only have I seen you drive and text, but just last week you were saying it isn't dangerous to do that. this too is an argument ad hominem.Instead of addressing whether it is dangerous to text, the speaker (the committing the fallacy) is still talking about the other person, apparently thinking that the fact the individual has changed positions on the issue somehow nullifies what he or she said.

Overlooking False Positives

occurs when the probabilities of something's happening are calculated e.g ten percent of the people living in Hayfork have come down with a stomach ailment, and most of these people ate vegetables from Olsen's stand in the public market. it seems wise to steer clear of Olsen's stand. Our speaker is fearful of Olsen's vegetables. He thinks that because most of Hayfork citizens who fell ill ate them, his chances of falling ill will increase if he eats them.

What is a casual statement?

sets forth the cause of some event. Unfortunately arguments and casual statements use overlapping vocabulary. e.g The toilet is leaking because the floor is wet. this, however, is a casual statement: The floor is wet because the toilet is leaking.

Proof Surrogate

suggest there is an evidence or authority for a claim without actually saying what the evidence or authority is. when someone can't prove or support something, he or she may hint that proof or support is available without being specific as to what it is.

What is religious relativism and absolutism?

- maintains that one religion can be true for one person or culture but not for another. -absolutism- only one religion is right

Explain the two kinds of arguments

-A deductive argument is an argument that is intended by the arguer to be deductively valid, that is, to provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion provided that the argument's premises are true. in a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. -An inductive argument is an argument that is intended by the arguer to be strong enough that, if the premises were to be true, then it would be unlikely that the conclusion is false. So, an inductive argument's success or strength is a matter of degree, unlike with deductive arguments.

Briefly explain the differences between objective and subjective claims?

-An objective claim is a statement about a factual matter-one that can be proved true or false. -A subjective claim cannot be proved right or wrong by any generally accepted criteria

What does the book say about evaluating the credibility of websites?

-Don't use aesthetics -Evaluate the references and the experts noted

IBE (Interference to the best explanation (IBE))

-an argument whose conclusion explains the cause of something - common type of inductive reasoning in which the conclusion explains the cause of something.

What is an interested party?

A person who stands to gain from one's belief in a claim

What are two questions that need to be asked about a claim which is presented?

1. Question the claim's credibility 2. Question the source's credibility

What are three guidelines for thinking critically about Generalizations from a sample?

1. understand that opinion polls operate under the same basic standards as other inductive generalizations insofar as the sample must be large enough and representative of the population as a whole; a. The size of the sample should be large enough to reach an acceptable margin of error. b. The sample is best generated randomly (where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected) so as to avoid bias. 2. grasp the concepts of level of certainty and margin of error; 3. recognize the weaknesses in self-selecting samples; 4. understand how the tendency of people to respond to polls dishonestly, and the tendency of agencies with vested interests to ask slanted questions, can bias a poll sample; 5. recognize the merits of a double-blind poll for generating objective results.

Stereotypes

A cultural belief about a social group's attributes, usually simplified or exaggerated.

what makes an argument stronger or weaker?

A strong argument is a non-deductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not conclusive, logical support for its conclusion. A weak argument is a non-deductive argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.

Why is ambiguity a major concern in critical thinking?

An ambiguous statement can have more than one meaning, an ambiguous claim can be interpreted in more than one way and whose meaning is not made clear by the context e.g "does Paul cashed a check"- it means that Paul gave somebody cash, or that somebody gave a cash to hi? It could mean either.

Downplayer

Attempt to make someone or something look less important or less significant. e.g "Don't mind what Mr. Pierce says; he thinks, he is an educator" downplays Mr. Pierce and his statements.

what is the balance of considerations reasoning and an IBE?

Balance of considerations reasoning often involves deductive and inductive elements reasoning requires weighing considerations for ad against thinking or doing something. e.g Should assault weapons be banned? on the one hand, doing that would violate the second amendment to the US constitution , but on the other hand, when guns were outlawed in Australia the number of accidental gun deaths fell dramatically; that would probably happen here,, too. it is a tough call. the first consideration mentioned in this passage that banning assault weapons would violate the second amendment and therefore, should not be done- is a deductive arguments. the second considerations mentioned that banning assault weapons would reduce the number of accidental gun deaths- is an inductive argument.

What are methods used to help confirm casual hypotheses?

Confirmation of many cause and effect hypotheses consists in trying to show that the hypothesizes caused is the condition "but for which" the effect in question would not happen. e.g We dried the floor, turned off the toilet, and waited. The floor stayed dry. Then we turned the toilet back on and watched. Now, there is a puddle on the floor. Therefore the leaking toilet caused the puddle. the hypothesized cause is the leaking toilet. The effect in question is the wet floor. The argument gives a reason for thinking that, but for the toilet, the floor would have stayed dry.

What is meant by weighing evidence?

Credibility and persuasiveness of information presented as facts, specially in comparison with other evidence.

What is duty theory AKA deontologism?

Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences of their actions. Do the right thing. Do it because it's the right thing to do. Don't do wrong things. Avoid them because they are wrong. Under this form of ethics you can't justify an action by showing that it produced good consequences, which is why it's sometimes called 'non-Consequentialist'

What are the euphemisms

Euphemisms neutral or positive expressions instead of one that carries a negative associations e.g Detainee means what mist of us call "prisonner Career enhancement opportunity is a nice way of being told that you have been fired.

What does Chapter 4 say about how we should judge a person's expertise?

Evaluate the expert's education level, skill, length of practice, achievements and status as noted by their peers

Red Herring/smoke screen (fallacy)

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the original issue.

Why is vagueness the most common form of unclear thinking or writing?

It can be intentional to avoid giving a clear, concise answer

Slippery Slope

Offering an argument resting on an unsupported warning that something will progress by degrees to an undesirable outcome. e.g We should not require gun owners to carry liability insurance, because if we do that, before long they will repeal the Second Amendment. The speaker has made a surprising and controversial statement. this is not like saying if you run your Ac twenty-four hours a day, your utility bill will go up. The speaker should support his theory. Until he does, his argument is a slippery slope.

What are random samples, error margins and confidence levels?

Random samples- is one selected by a procedure that gives every member of a population an equal chance of being included. The smaller the random sample , the wider will be the range of random fluctuation. The range of random fluctuation is known as Error margin The probability that a random sample of a given size will fall within the error margin can be mathematically calculated and is known as confidence level

Poisoning the Well (fallacy)

Speakers and writers sometimes try to get us to dismiss what someone is going to say by talking about the person's consistency or character or circumstances e.g You can forget what Father Hennessey will say this evening about abortion, because Father Hennessy is a priest and priests are required to think that abortion is a mortal sin.

What is a person's "background knowledge" and background information?

The body of beliefs that consists of facts we learn from our own direct observations and facts we learn from others

What is moral subjectivism?

The theory that the norms of human conduct are ultimately determined by each person for himself or herself.

What are web checkers and give an example.

Those websites that verify claims on the internet ex. snopes.com

overconfidence effect

a cognitive bias in which someone believes subjectively that his or her judgement is better or more reliable than it objectively is.

What is a population in a sample?

a data sample is a set of data collected and/or selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure.

Heuristics

a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about their next course of action.

availability heuristic

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision.

what are cognitive biases?

a mistake in reasoning, evaluating, remembering, or other cognitive process, often occurring as a result of holding onto one's preferences and beliefs regardless of contrary information. Ex. stereotyping

bandwagon effect

a psychological phenomenon in which people do something primarily because other people are doing it, regardless of their own beliefs, which they may ignore or override.

Ad Hominem

is a fallacious argumentative strategy whereby genuine discussion of the topic at hand is avoided by instead attacking the character, motive, or other attribute of the person making the argument, or persons associated with the argument, rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself

Ridicule/sarcasm

also know as horse laugh - widely used to put in a bad light -ridicule is a porwerful rhetorical tool-most of us really hate being laughed at.

Appeal to tradition, Common practice,Popularity

an argument in which a thesis is deemed correct on the basis that it is correlated with some past or present tradition.

how does the sample size affect error margins and confidence levels?

as sample size increases, the margin of error decreases. As the variability in the population increases, the margin of error increases. As the confidence level increases, the margin of error increases.

What is value judgement?

assesses the merit, ,desirability, or praiseworthiness of someone or something.

What is an attribute of interest in samples?

attribute ascribed to a thing or things in the conclsion of an inductive generalization, inductive Argument from Analogy or a statistical syllogism (liking hunting)

Miscalculating probabilities

calculate probabilities e.g Bill's chance of becoming a professional football player are about 1 in 1000 and Ha;'s chances of becoming a professional hockey player are about 1 in 5000. So the chance of both of them becoming professionals in their respective sports is 1 in 6000 the conclusion is incorrect. the two events- Bill's becoming a professional football player and Hal's becoming a professional hockey player-are independent events. One independent event cannot affect the outcome of another; whether one happens does not change the probability of the other. When we gauge the probability of two independent events, we multiply their two individuals probabilities. So to fin the probability of Bill and Hal both becoming professionals, we multiply 1/1000 times 1/5000. the probability of both making pro teams is thus 1 in 5000000.

Straw Man (fallacy)

fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer attempts to dismiss a contention by distorting or misrepresenting it. Here is an sample of the straw man fallacy What do I think about outlawing large ammunition clips? I think the idea of disarming everyone is ridiculous and dangerous. as you can see the speaker has turned the proposal to outlaw large ammunition clips into something far different, a proposal to disarm everyone. he has set up a straw man (one that is easy to know over) e.g you: i think we should legalize medical marijuana your friend: maybe you think everyone should go around stoned, but i think that's absurd. your friend has transformed your position into one that nobody would accept.

Generalizing from Exceptional Cases

generalizing from cases that are exceptional or from samples that are biases (skewed) e.g the poise aren't required to get a search warrant if they arrest a suspect while a robbery is in progress and search him for a weapon.Therefore they shouldn't be required to get a search warrant for any kind of search the speaker is generalizing about all the police searchers from a premise about searches in exceptional circumstances.

false dilemma (fallacy)

happens when someone tries to establish a conclusion by offering it as the only alternative to something we will find unacceptable, unattainable, or implausible. e.g We either eliminate Social Security or the country will go bankrupt. Therefore we must eliminate Social Security. the speaker doesn't present all the options. He ignores, for example, the alternative of cutting something other than Social Security, or raising the age of eligibility, or reducing payments to people who make a lot of money from other sources.

Repetition

hearing or reading a claim over and over can sometimes mistakenly encourage the belief that it is true

Gambler Fallacy

is a common and seductive mistake that happens when we don't realize that independent events really are independent. e.g the last three coin flips have all been heads, so the next flip is more likely to come up tail it is true that four heads in a row is fairly unlikely.

loss aversion

refers to people's tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring equivalent gains: it is better to not lose $5 than to find $5.

negativity bias

refers to the often asymmetrical way we perceive the negative and the positive. Simply put, negative experiences tend to exert greater psychological impact on us than positive experiences of the same magnitude.

in-group bias

the tendency for humans to be more helpful and positive towards members of their own group over members of an out-group.

confirmation bias

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

What are dysphemisms

used to produce a negative effect or attitude towards something or to tone down the positive associations it may have. e.g Eating animal flesh sounds worse than eating meat. "Conservative" and "far-right" or between "liberal" and ultra-liberal'"

What is generalizing from a sample?

when you reason that all, most, or some percentage of the members of a population have an attribute because all, most, or some percentage of a sample of the population have that attribute. A "population" is any identifiable group of things e.g So far, I have liked every one of Professor Stoolers lectures. Therefore, I will like all of his lectures. Most of pit bulls I have met are sweet.Therefore most pit bulls are sweet.