Philosophy 7 Exam 1

Critical Thinking

"a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas and artifacts before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion."

1. Harvard University now takes the position that its investment in urban redevelopment projects will be limited to projects that are environmentally friendly. Before you conclude that that is such a great idea, stop and think. For a long time, Harvard was one of the biggest slumlords in the country. 2. I would forget about whatever Carpenter has to say about higher pay for college teachers. After all, she's a professor; what would you expect her to say? 3. People who own pit bulls show a lack of respect for their friends, their neighbors, and anybody else who might come in contact with their dogs. They don't care if their dogs chew other people up. 4. Romney was for abortion rights before he began running for president. Now he's anti-abortion. I think he should be ignored completely on the subject since you can't depend on what he says. 5. Don't tell me I should wear my seat belt, for heaven's sake. I've seen you ride a motorcycle without a helmet! 6. House Majority Leader Tom DeLay argues that stem-cell research is immoral. But DeLay is an ultra-right-wing lunatic who is incapable of thinking objectively about anything. Obviously his argument is nonsense. 7. The congressman thought the president's behavior was an impeachable offense. But that's nonsense, coming from the congressman. He had an adulterous affair himself, after all. 8. The student status committee has presented us with an argument favoring alcohol privileges on campus. What do the students want? Is it their intention to stay boozed up from the day they enter as freshmen till the day they graduate? Do they expect us to open a bar for them? Or maybe a chain of bars all over campus? Such a proposal is ridiculous! 9. Outlaw gambling? Man, that's a strange idea coming from you. Aren't you the one who plays the lottery all the time? 10. Why should we give aid humanitarian aid to Uganda? Give me a break! Why should we care more about the Ugandans than about our own people? 11. Letter to the editor: "The Supreme Court decision outlawing a moment of silence for prayer in public schools is scandalous. Evidently the American Civil Liberties Union and the other radical groups will not be satisfied until every last man, woman and child in the country is an atheist. I'm fed up." - Tri-County Observer 12. Environmentalists are continually complaining about the dangers of nuclear power. Unfortunately, electricity is dangerous no matter where it comes from. Every year hundreds of people are electrocuted by accident. Since most of these accidents are caused by carelessness, they could be avoided if people would just exercise greater caution. 13. Their proposal is 90 percent predictable, and 90 percent bad for the country. But what would you expect, coming from Republicans. 14.When several people in Harvey's department get new computers, he is annoyed because he is not among them. "I'll tell you what," Harvey says to his wife, "if they want to rip me off by not getting a new computer for me, I'll just rip them off for extra office supplies. They've got a lot of stuff at work we could use around here, and they'll have no way of knowing that it's gone. Turnabout's fair play." 15.The article "Race and the Death Penalty" is just another liberal diatribe aimed at convincing people that there is racial bias in capital punishment. The whole point of the so-called statistics it mentions is to get people to be against the death penalty.

1. AD HOMINEM INCONSISTENCY 2. AD HOMINEM CIRCUMSTANTIAL 3.. STRAW MAN 4. AD HOMINEM CIRCUMSTANTIAL 5. AD HOMINEM TU QUOQUE (inconsistency ad hominem) 6. AD HOMINEM ABUSIVE 7. AD HOMINEM TU QUOQUE 8. STRAW MAN 9. AD HOMINEM TU QUOQUE 10. STRAW MAN 11. STRAW MAN 12. RED HERRING 13. GENETIC FALLACY 14. TWO WRONGS MAKE A RIGHT 15. GENETIC FALLACY

Strong, Weak Inductive Argument

1. An inductive argument is strong if its conclusion indeed probably follows from its premises. 2. If the premises are true/acceptable, then the conclusion is likely to be true/acceptable. 3. It has more than 50% supporting relation.

Identify the Conclusion 1. Eastern Standard Time is three hours ahead of Pacific time, so 8:00 pm in New York is 5 pm in Seattle. 2. If you leave bananas in a plastic produce bag, the heat will make them ripen fast. Since you don't want to eat the bananas until Wednesday, you should take them out of the bag or they will over-ripen. 3. No one likes a liar, so stop lying to me. 4. The moon is 238, 900 miles from earth. Traveling at a steady 65 miles per hour, it would take about 153 days to get there, or a bit over 5 months. 5. Citizens of democracies have a duty to other citizens - present and future - to participate in the governing process, so you should vote in every election.

1. 8:00 pm in New York is 5 pm in Seattle. 2. you should take them out of the bag or they will over-ripen. 3. stop lying to me. 4. Traveling at a steady 65 miles per hour, it would take about 153 days to get there, or a bit over 5 months. 5. you should vote in every election.

validity

1. A deductive argument is valid if its conclusion indeed necessarily follows from its premises. 2. If the premises are true/acceptable, then the conclusion must also be true/acceptable. 3. 100% supporting

Put into standard form 1. Most people don't like to be lied to. So, if you lie to someone, and they find out, they are probably not going to like it. 2. Since I have already had 3 years of High School Spanish, I think I can test into junior year Spanish when I transfer out of the community college. 3. I am working full time and going to school full time, so you know I don't get enough sleep! 4. I believe God loves us all. So I believe God loves even those who don't love God. (Hint: be careful thinking about the issue here!) 5. Gerrymandering is almost impossible to eliminate. Consequently, the current polarization of our political system is going to continue. 6. By definition, insects have 6 legs. Since spiders have 8 legs, they can't possibly be insects. 7. He is going to arrive at the airport by 8pm tonight, provided the plane leaves Dallas on time. 8. Everyone on my mom's side of the family supported Hillary Clinton, and everyone on my dad's side of the family supported Trump. You know when all the relatives get together for my baby sister's wedding, the conversations are going to be volatile! 9. If it rains one more day this winter, we would have had the wettest winter in the recorded history of this city. Luckily winter is over tomorrow, which is predicted to be clear ad sunny. So we probably won't get to break that record, after all.

1) 1. Most people don't like to be lied to. 2. If you lie to someone, and they find out, they are probably not going to like it. 2) 1. I have already had 3 years of High School Spanish. 2. I think I can test into junior year Spanish when I transfer out of the community college. 3) 1. I am working full time. 2. I am going to school full time. 3. So you know I don't get enough sleep! 4) 1. I believe God loves us all. 2. So I believe God loves even those who don't love God. 5) 1. Gerrymandering is almost impossible to eliminate. 2. Consequently, the current polarization of our political system is going to continue. 6) 1. By definition, insects have 6 legs. 2. Spiders have 8 legs. 3. Spiders can't possibly be insects. 7) 1. Provided the plane leaves Dallas on time. 2. He is going to arrive at the airport by 8pm tonight. 8) 1. Everyone on my mom's side of the family supported Hillary Clinton. 2. Everyone on my dad's side of the family supported Trump. 3. You know when all the relatives get together for my baby sister's wedding, the conversations are going to be volatile. 9) 1. If it rains one more day this winter, we would have had the wettest winter in the recorded history of this city. 2. Luckily winter is over tomorrow. 3. Tomorrow is predicted to be clear ad sunny. 4. So we probably won't get to break that record, after all

1. The perfume of the new millennium. Women of our century choose a subtle feminine fragrance. Carfoor is the most popular choice of the millennial woman. Career women say, "It's feminine, but discreet." Delightful, subtly feminine—and yet you can wear it to work. Work, succeed, and play: you are still feminine and a real woman. Successful women choose Carfoor. 2.That idea is absurd. It's just something the Tea Party put out there. 3. Your mom doesn't even own a cell, and you listen to her when she tells you not to text and drive? 4. Jackson is at least 100 pounds overweight. He has a simple choice: Lose it or die. 5. If you give that homeless guy fifty cents today, tomorrow he will want a dollar, then five dollars, then ten, and where will it stop? Before you know it, you're homeless. 6. If he truly loved me, he would have written me a letter and said so. He didn't do that, so he obviously hates me. 7. Only man has morals. No woman is a man. So, no woman has morals.

1. Argument from Popularity 2. Genetic Fallacy 3. Circumstantial Ad Hominem 4. False Dilemma 5. Slippery Slope 6. False Dilemma 7. Equivocation

1. The woman in the hat is not a witch since witches have long noses and she doesn't have a long nose. 2. I have been wrangling cattle since before you were old enough to tie your own shoes. 3. Albert is angry with me so he probably won't be willing to help me wash the dishes. 4. First I washed the dishes and then I dried them. 5. If the road wasn't icy, the car wouldn't have slid off the turn. 6. Albert isn't a fireman and he isn't a fisherman either. 7. Are you seeing that rhinoceros over there? It is huge! 8. The fact that obesity has become a problem in the U.S. is shown by the fact that obesity rates have risen significantly over the past four decades. 9. Bob showed me a graph with the rising obesity rates and I was very surprised to see how much they've risen. 10.Albert isn't a fireman because Albert is a Greyhound, which is a kind of dog, and dogs can't be firemen. 11. Charlie and Violet are dogs and since dogs don't sweat, it is obvious that Charlie and Violet don't sweat. 12. The reason I forgot to lock the door is that I was distracted by the clown riding a unicycle down our street while singing Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Simple Man." 13. What Bob told you is not the real reason that he missed his plane to Denver. 14. Samsung stole some of Apple's patents for their smartphones, so Apple stole some of Samsung's patents back in retaliation. 15. No one who has ever gotten frostbite while climbing K2 has survived to tell about it, therefore no one ever will.

1. Argument. Conclusion: The woman in the hat is not a witch. 2. Not an argument 3. Argument. Conclusion: Albert won't be willing to help me wash the dishes. 4. Not an argument 5. Not an argument 6. Not an argument 7. Not an argument 8. Argument. Conclusion: Obesity has become a problem in the U.S. 9. Not an argument 10.Argument. Conclusion: Albert isn't a fireman. 11. Argument. Conclusion: Charlie and Violet don't sweat. 12. Not an argument. 13. Not an argument. 14. Not an argument. 15. Argument. Conclusion: No one who gets frostbite while on K2 will ever

1. I don't feel guilty about cheating on Dr. Boyer's test. Half the class cheats on his tests. 2. "Listen, Higgins. I need your vote in the next department election or I may not get elected chair. Remember, the chair will decide what hours your classes meet next year." 3. I admit my son Billy can't run, pass, kick, catch, block, or tackle, but he deserves to make the football team. If he doesn't make the team, he is going to be an emotional wreck, and he may even drop out of school. 4. Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence is one of the most eloquent pleas for freedom and democracy ever written. But do not forget that he was an owner of slaves. 5. This gun-control bill is wrong for America, and any politician who supports it will discover how wrong they were at the next election. 6. Joshua, you're down to earth and I trust your judgment. That's why I know I can count on you to back me up at the meeting this afternoon. a) apple polishing b) argument from pity c) scare tactics d) no fallacy 7. Listen. As long as you're going to live here at home and let your mother and me support you, you can rest assured that you're going to cooperate. And that goes for your opinions as well as for your behavior. 8. Well! Finally, after all these years, the telephone company makes an error on my bill in my favor! And I'm surely not going to point it out to them. They've been gouging me since telephones first came into existence. 9. Frankly, I don't think you would be satisfied with anything less than our Model 24, which allows for more expansion than any other personal computer in its class. The way you catch on to things—something I can tell just from the questions you've asked here in the store—you're not going to be happy with a machine whose limits you'll soon reach. 10. Letter to the editor: "Your food section frequently features recipes with veal, and you say veal is a wholesome, nutritious dish. I disagree. Do you know how veal comes to be on your plate? At birth a newborn calf is separated from its mother, placed in a dark enclosure, and chained by its neck so that it cannot move freely. This limits muscular development so that the animal is tender. It is kept in the dark pen until the day it is cruelly slaughtered." 11. When several people in Harvey's department get new computers, he is annoyed because he is not among them. "I'll tell you what," Harvey says to his wife, "if they want to rip me off by not getting a new computer for me, I'll just rip them off for extra office supplies. They've got a lot of stuff at work we could use around here, and they'll have no way of knowing that it's gone. Turnabout's fair play." 12. I see nothing unethical in paying bribes to foreign officials to obtain business favors. That's the way business is done in many parts of the world. Like they say, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do". 13. Public opinion polls? They're rigged. Just ask anyone. a) argument from common practice b) guilt trip c) begging the question d) argument from popularity e) no fallacy 14. Obviously it was right for the United States to attack Iraq in 1991. Polls at the time showed that over 90 percent of Americans thought the war was justified. 15. Either we impeach the man or we send a message to the kids of this country that it's all right to lie under oath. Seems like an easy choice to me. a) red herring b) straw man c) false dilemma d) inconsistency ad hominem e) none of these 16. My driving instructor, Mr. Peterson, told me that it's dangerous to drive without a seat belt. But why should I listen to him? Last week I saw him driving without a seat belt. 17. Convicted murderer Johnny Palko has argued that he did not receive a fair trial. But Palko is a vicious thug who's spent most of his adult life behind bars. Why should we even listen to such a parasite? 18. Either you support preferential treatment for disadvantages minorities in university admissions, or you're a racist. 19. Strong measures must be taken to halt the flood of Mexican immigrants into the United States. If we allow this immigration to continue, soon Spanish will become the official language of California. Eventually, the entire United States will be just a cultural offshoot of Mexico. 20. Of course you should buy a life insurance policy! Why shouldn't you? 21. Are you really going to believe her about librarians' salaries not being excessive? I'll have you know she herself is a librarian, or don't you think that matters? 22. Every event has a cause other than itself, since if it didn't, it would have to have caused itself, which is impossible. 23. The article "Race and the Death Penalty" is just another liberal diatribe aimed at convincing people that there is racial bias in capital punishment. The whole point of the so-called statistics it mentions is to get people to be against the death penalty. 24.No, I do NOT believe that a murderer ought to be allowed to live. No way! Murderers have forfeited the right to live because anyone who murders another person has lost that right 25. Senator Briddle has argued that we should outlaw violent pornography. Obviously, the senator favors complete governmental censorship of books, magazines, and films.

1. Common practice 2. Scare tactics 3. Argument from pity 4. Ad Hominem (abusive) 5. Scare tactics 6. Apple polishing 7. Scare tactics 8. Two wrongs make a right 9. Apple polishing 10. Argument from pity 11. Two wrongs make a right 12. Common practice 13. Argument from popularity 14. Argument from popularity 15. False dilemma 16. Ad Hominem (inconsistency) 17. Ad Hominem (abusive) 18. False dilemma 19. Slippery slope 20. Misplacing the burden of proof 21. Ad Hominem (circumstantial) 22. Begging the question 23. Genetic fallacy 24. Begging the question 25. Straw man

deductive vs. inductive 1. Dogs are carnivores, and carnivores need to eat meat to be healthy. So I think this new trend toward forcing dogs to be vegetarian is going to really compromise their health. 2. The most significant factor for living a happy life is full, intimate, and caring relationships. People with addiction problems usually sacrifice their relationships in the course of satisfying the addictive cravings. This why I think many people who struggle with addictions are likely to have a difficult time constructing a satisfying life, even if they find ways to successfully manage the addictions. Restoring the relationships might even be harder than breaking away from the addictive substance. 3. Homelessness is on the rise, which means the petty crimes associated with homelessness - vandalism, public indecency, petty theft - will be on the rise, too. 4. I think that was the state line! If we crossed the state line, we must be in Idaho now. 5. If carbon emissions were taxed, business would have a financial incentive to reduce reliance on energy sources with high carbon use. But, realistically, there is no way the U.S. is ever going to get a carbon tax through the legislature. So now the financial incentives for business is to stay with high carbon energy sources.

1. Deductive 2. Inductive 3. Inductive 4. Deductive 5. Deductive

Argument or not? 1. About 75% of adults in the United States describe themselves as religious according to research by the PEW research center. But the percentage is much lower among members of the Millennial generation. 2. Should I take Arabic or Spanish next year? Spanish would be easier to learn, but the challenge of learning Arabic appeals to me. Still, the deciding factor for me is whether I will get to use the language. Since I have a job offer in Southern California after I graduate, Spanish would be more useful. 3. I have friends who refuse to shop at Wal-Mart because of their employment practices, but I really like the low prices. 4. The Farmer's Almanac says summer this year is going to be hotter than normal, but I don't know if that is a trustworthy source. 5. Ground squirrels have body stripes like chipmunks, but no stripes on the head. So this must be a ground squirrel, since there are no head stripes. 6. I have heard that life is unfair, but it was only after my best friend's brother was killed for no reason - just in the wrong place at the wrong time - that I really understood what that means. 7. Money can't buy happiness, but poverty can sure destroy it. 8. I think I am going to get a promotion because my boss said he wants to talk about my future with the company tomorrow after my shift is over. 9. I had $500 in my account and then got about $40 cash on a purchase of $15.00, so there should be at least $400 in the account.

1. No. 2. Yes. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Yes. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Yes. 9. Yes.

Statement or Not? 1. No one understands me but you. 2. Alligators are on average larger than crocodiles. 3. Is an alligator a reptile or a mammal? 4. An alligator is either a reptile or a mammal. 5. Don't let any reptiles into the house. 6. You may kill any reptile you see in the house. 7. East Africans are not the best distance runners. 8. Obama is not a Democrat. 9. Some humans have wings. 10. Some things with wings cannot fly. 11. Was Obama born in Kenya or Hawaii? 12. Oh no! A grizzly bear! 13. Meet me in St. Louis. 14. We met in St. Louis yesterday. 15. I do not want to meet a grizzly bear in the wild.

1. Statement 2. Statement 3. Not a statement (question) 4. Statement 5. Not a statement (command) 6. Not a statement (command/request) 7. Statement 8. Statement 9. Statement 10. Statement 11.Not a statement (question) 12.Not a statement (exclamation) 13.Not a statement (command) 14. Statement 15. Statement

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented, taking the first step will lead to the final, unacceptable step, a often leads to b, b often leads to c, c often leads to d,

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion, digression that leads the reasoner off the track of considering only relevant information.

Straw Man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea, misrepresents one's opponent's argument and is thus a kind of irrelevance

Appeal to Authority

Appeals to an authority to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action

Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments that are really distractions from the main point

Two wrongs don't make a right

Attempting to justify one harmful thing on the basis of another, different, harmful thing. When you defend your wrong action as being right because someone previously has acted wrongly

Argument from Popularity

Attempting to persuade by appealing to the popularity of a claim ("everyone thinks so"), fallacy of appeal to the people, someone's claim or argument is mistaken simply because it's not what most everyone believes, Agreement with popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of truth, and deviation from popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of error, but if you assume it is and do so with enthusiasm, then you are using this fallacy.

Tu Quoque (inconsistency ad hominem)

Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism.

Genetic Fallacy

Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it. One argues that the origin of something is a reason for rejecting or accepting it

inductive argument

Creating a case by providing specific examples and drawing a conclusion based on the evidence they provide, If those premises were true, would it be UNLIKELY, but still possible, that the conclusion is false? (If so, it is an inductive argument.

Both premises and conclusions are

statements

Reliable/Cogent, UnReliable/Uncogent Inductive Argument

strong inductive argument with true/acceptable premises, Reliable = strong + true/acceptable premises if an inductive argument fails to meet one of these two conditions, then it is unreliable.

Categorical Logic

the logic that deals with the logical relationship between categorical statements

There are two parts of an argument

the premise and the conclusion

equivocation

the use of ambiguous language to conceal the truth or to avoid committing oneself; fallacy of equivocation, the same word is being used in two different sense (I.e. with two different meanings), draw on our understanding of the meaning of words and of our understanding of the world, generally.

Circumstancial Ad Hominem

their position is supported by self-interest rather than by good evidence

Conclusion Indicators

thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result, so, accordingly, clearly, must be that, shows that, conclude that, follows that, for this reason.

Apple Polishing

trying to gain favor by gifts or flattery, the fallacy of appeal to emotions

Misplacing the Burden of Proof

attempting to place the burden of proof on the wrong side of an issue, trying to get someone else to prove you are wrong, when it is your responsibility to prove you are correct, they are not accepting their burden of proof and are improperly trying to place it on your shoulders

Premise Indicators

because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by

both premise indicators and conclusion indicators are, grammatically,

conjunctions

Wishful Thinking

convincing yourself that something is true simply because you want it to be true

Argument from Tradition (Common Practice/Ad hominem)

fallacy of traditional wisdom, Arguing that a claim is true on the grounds that it is traditional to believe it is true.

Argument

has multiple distinct meanings, a heated exchange of differing views, or a reason for thinking that a statement, claim or idea is true

The A Statement

The A statement is the universal affirmative statement. It asserts that every member of the set S is also a member of the set P. It has the statement format that All S are P. Here S is the variable used for the subject term and P is the variable for the predicate term. The statement "All dolphins are mammals." asserts that every member of the set dolphins is also a member of the set mammals.

Abusive Ad Hominem

involves an attempt to discredit an argument or view by launching a direct personal attack

the ad hominem fallacy

is an excellent example of a fallacy that can be psychologically compelling.

Deductive Arguments

its conclusion is claimed to necessarily follow from its premises. in a deductive argument, the logical relation between the premises and the conclusion is claimed to be 100% supporting.

The E Statement

The E statement is the universal negative statement. It says that none of the member of the set S is also a member of the set P. It has the statement form that No S are P.

The I Statement

The I statement is the particular affirmative statement. It asserts that at least one member of the set S is also a member of the set P. It has the statement form that Some S are P. The statement Some dinosaurs are carnivores. asserts that at least there is one dinosaur that is also a carnivore.

The O Statement

The O statement is the particular negative statement. It denies at least one member of the set S the membership of the set P. That is, it claims that at least one member of the set S is not a member of the set P. It has the statement form that Some S are not P. The statement Some reptiles are not animals with legs. asserts that there is at least one reptile that is not an animal with leg.

Standard Argument Form

The presentation of an argument in which each actually expressed premise is listed as a separate claim, and the conclusion, introduced, by a conclusion flag word, is listed after all the premises

Inductive Arguments

its conclusion probably follows from its premises, logical relation between the premises and the conclusion is claimed to be less than 100% supporting.

Appeal to Pity

This type of fallacy uses the audiences's sympathy, concern, or guilt in order to overwhelm their sense of logic

Scare Tactics

Try to frighten people into agreeing with the arguer by threatening them or predicting unrealistically dire consequences,

Soundness/Unsound Deductive Argument

when a deductive argument is valid and all the premises are actually true, Sound = valid + true/acceptable premises, a deductive argument is also unsound if one or more of its premises are false/unacceptable

begging the question

occurs when one (either explicitly or implicitly) assumes the truth of the conclusion in one or more premise, a kind of circular reasoning, commits the fallacy of begging the question, informal fallacy, its a bad argument

ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute,

Formal Fallacy

a logical error that occurs in the form or structure of an argument; it is restricted to deductive arguments

Fallacies

a mistake in reasoning, some are formal and some are informal

informal fallacy

a popular but invalid (or unhelpful) form of argument, those which cannot be identified without understanding the concepts involved in the argument

False Dilemma

a reasoner who unfairly presents too few choices and then implies that a choice must be made among this short menu of choices, "false dichotomy fallacy" or "black or white" fallacy, unfair many contains only two choices

Categorical statement

a statement about a category or type of thing

explanation

a statement that makes something clear, establishes why it is true rather than that it is true

Standard Categorical Syllogism

a syllogism that consists of three categorical sentences, in which there are three terms, and each term appears exactly twice The three terms in a standard categorical syllogism are the major, the minor and the middle terms. The major term is the predicate term of the conclusion. The minor term is the subject term of the conclusion. The middle term is the term that appears twice in the premises.

statement

a type of sentence that can be true or false and corresponds to the grammatical category of a "declarative sentence."

grammatical conjunction

a word that connects two separate statements

deductive argument

an argument that reasons from known premises to an inevitable conclusion, If those premises were true, would it would be IMPOSSIBLE for the conclusion to be false?" (If so, it is a deductive argument)

premise

an assumption; the basis for a conclusion, reason for thinking the conclusion is true

An _______ is a set of statements, some of which (the premises) attempt to provide a reason for thinking that some other statement (the conclusion) is true.

argument