Philosophy Exam #1 Study Guide

Explain the meaning of "Liberal Arts."

"Liberal Arts" involves the disciplines that are designed to free the mind from bias, prejudice, and superstition.

Explain the meaning of the two Greek words that define philosophy.

"Philos" means lover and "Sophia" means wisdom.

Define counter-example.

A counter-example is an example which raises difficulties to an argument.

What is a fallacy?

A fallacy is a false way of thinking.

Define the fallacy of an appeal to pity

A fallacy of an appeal to pity occurs when a person makes an incorrect decision based upon pity or sorrow.

Fully define myth.

A myth is a story or image that does not have to be factually true, but which conveys a deeper truth.

Explain the difference between a paraphrase and a quotation. Explain the citation rule about paraphrases.

A paraphrase is in a person's own words. A quotation is word for word what someone says. Paraphrases need citations because the idea is not yours unless you were the person who wrote/said it. Citations need page numbers.

Distinguish between the premises and the conclusions of an argument.

A premise forms the basis of an argument and leads to a conclusion. The conclusion is the statement that we assert to be true. An argument occurs when one gives reasons, facts, and evidence in order to prove that something is true. Arguments must include a premise.

Explain how the true philosopher's attitude towards the body will lead to a different lifestyle.

A true philosopher believes in seeking wisdom. Therefore, a true philosopher will not be controlled by the body since it is influenced by the soul.

Define aesthetics.

Aesthetics is the philosophy of beauty and art.

Fully define anamnesis.

Anamnesis is Socrates' argument of recollection and recollection involves looking within to the soul/mind.

Explain what the significance of using the slave boy as an example of anamnesis.

Anamnesis is part of Socrates' argument of recollection and relates to the slave boy because if the slave boy is able to know geometry, despite not being educated during all of his life, then we can link this to Socrates' argument of anamnesis.

Explain the basic answer Anytus gives to the question of from who should we obtain virtue from. What is Socrates' criticism of this position?

Anytus introduces the possibility that the teachers of virtue are the elders of Athens who pass down traditions to the young people. Socrates raises dialectical problems with this particular position.

Fully define deontological.

Deontological is the view that ethics is the matter of doing the right thing regardless of the consequences.

Fully define dialectic.

Dialectic is Socrates' method of seeking the truth through questions and cross-examinations. It is a form of reasoning or inquiry.

Fully define dualism.

Dualism is taking some reality and dividing it into two parts that are in conflict.

Fully define empiricism.

Empiricism is the theory that all learning and knowledge comes from sensation.

Fully define epistemology.

Epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge.

Fully define eristic.

Eristic is the art of asking tricky questions in order to confuse your opponent and gain power over them.

Fully explain the comparison Socrates makes between his situation and Achilles. Go into what this means for ethics.

Ethics involves doing the right thing regardless of the consequences. Achilles' mother says that the afterlife is nothing good at all. Achilles says that he has a duty and Socrates believes that this is the proper attitude to life. Socrates knows that he can make an argument of some kind to stop philosophizing. Although, Socrates does not do so because it would have been unethical. Both Socrates and Achilles do not fear the idea of death because they care about ethics.

Explain what Anytus' attitude is to the sophists, and what critical response Socrates has to this attitude.

Ethics involves doing the right thing regardless of the consequences. Achilles' mother says that the afterlife is nothing good at all. Achilles says that he has a duty and Socrates believes that this is the proper attitude towards life. Socrates knows that he can make an argument of some kind to stop philosophising. Although, he does not do that because doing so is unethical.

Define the fallacy of equivocation.

Fallacy of equivocation is the false way of reasoning, where we radically change the meaning of a word or phrase in an argument.

Define Plato's notion of form.

Forms are outside our mind. Forms are spiritual, unchanging, perfect essences.

Define democracy.

In a democracy each citizen has one vote and the majority rule wins.

Explain how Socrates defines death in the Phaedo.

In the Phaedo, Socrates says that death is the body's separation from the soul.

Fully define irony.

Irony is a device that shows the complete opposite of what one says. Sometimes irony is used in order to point out ignorances and inconsistencies within a person's argument.

Explain why Socrates tells us we cannot be confident about the conclusion that virtue comes from God.

Knowledge seems to be the possession of God who then inspires virtue in some people. We are told however that this conclusion is not firm on the ground because the dialectic has not been pursued in the correct way. That is, we should have first inquired into what virtue is.

Define materialism.

Materialism means that all reality can be reduced to matter.

Explain the significance of math/geometry in Plato's thought. Explain what it shows about skepticism.

Math and geometry are things that we can get objective answers to. There are no controversial answers in math and geometry, since it is black and white. You may get an incorrect answer in the two, but the right answer can be shown. This refutes skepticism because skepticism must be false. We can at least prove things in math and geometry. Both subjects do not represent physical realities, but instead, non-physical realities. This provides support for the Form Theory. Equality, for example, cannot be disputed. You can clearly prove the existence of a spiritual reality that is eternal. Math and geometry give objective answers to things that cannot be changed.

Explain what Socrates means by comparing expertise in horsemanship to expertise in raising good children. How does this refute Meletus in the Apology?

Meletus said that every single citizen was a good educator of children, except for Socrates. Socrates says that this does not make any sense, since there is a small number of people who have knowledge. Socrates then says that only a small number of people have proper knowledge of horses. Most people know very little about the proper care of a horse and this is representative of the pattern. Meletus' answer is the opposite of this pattern, so it is very unlikely that he is correct.

Explain what characteristics/qualities mark Meno as a student of the sophists.

Meno himself is unable to answer some of the most obvious questions; therefore, Meno is a by-product of sophistical education. Meno represents a rather sophisticated, well-spoken, and attractive man that can be persuasive. Meno does not seem like he wants to know the true definitions of things, like virtue and morality.

Fully define metaphysics.

Metaphysics is the philosophy of reality.

Fully define moral realism/objectivism.

Moral realism/objectivism is the view that some moral propositions are objectively true.

Fully define moral relativism.

Moral relativism means that morality is a matter of opinion because it cannot be proven.

Fully explain the reasoning behind the argument that no one does evil knowingly. Explain the counter examples we talked of in class and Socrates probable response.

People do evil through ignorance, as opposed to intention. For example, Socrates may be corrupting the youth by accident and not on purpose. Socrates says that evil is that which is ultimately harmful and that no one wishes to harm themselves. Some counter-examples include: suicide, masochism, and serial murder. Socrates is against suicide and argues that death should be in the hands of God. Socrates would most likely argue that masochism and serial murder are both immorally wrong as well.

Explain why philosophy is not mainly concerned with whether the dialogues describe historical conversations.

Philosophy is concerned with the arguments and whether they are true or not. Philosophy is mainly concerned with the ideas and not as much with whether or not they describe historical conversations.

Define rhetoric.

Rhetoric is the art of speaking well and influencing others as a way to gain power, especially in politics.

Fully define skepticism.

Skepticism is the position in which knowledge is impossible to reach.

Explain Socrates' argument that he is not a sophist.

Socrates argues that he is not a sophist because he does not get paid like sophists do. Socrates says that he does not have knowledge, like the sophists have virtue.

Explain the main reasons why Socrates is not afraid of death in the Apology.

Socrates believes that he has a duty to live the examined life. Socrates does not feel that his life being taken is a problem because everyone will die eventually. Socrates believes that his soul will be freed by the body.

Fully describe what Socrates is looking for in any true definition.

Socrates believes that in any true definition, one should be able to identify the quality/qualities that everything in that category must have.

Explain what Socrates means by saying the human person can become his own imprisoner.

Socrates believes that the human person can become his own imprisoner, since physical desires become stronger the more that they are desired. The body is temporarily satisfied by these desires; therefore, the human person is never really happy and instead, an imprisoner.

Explain what Socrates would say the ideal relationship between the body and the soul is.

Socrates believes that the ideal relationship between the body and the soul involves one where the soul is superior to the body. The soul should be the master of the body and the body should be its slave. Socrates says that the body will continue to desire physical pleasures, but the soul will crave wisdom.

Explain why Socrates calls philosophy the practice of death.

Socrates calls philosophy the practice of death because it entails the elevation of the soul through the restriction of the body. People may believe that by doing so you are living an impoverished life.

Explain what Socrates does claim to know in the Apology and its significance for moral realism.

Socrates claims to know what is right and wrong. He says that it is always wrong to do what you think is immoral. Socrates believes that we cannot have knowledge when it comes to morality. But, Socrates thinks that he knows something about the idea of morality.

Explain whether Socrates is a moral relativist or a moral realist/objectivist.

Socrates is a moral realist. In the Apology, Socrates says that it is always wrong to do what is immoral. This is the only knowledge that Socrates admits to having (the knowledge of morality).

Explain why Socrates is not concerned with being acquitted at trial. What is he most concerned about?

Socrates is concerned about telling the jury the truth about his life. He recognizes that this may make the jury angry and find him guilty, but this is not as important to Socrates. Socrates was not concerned about being acquitted at all. Getting the jury to agree with you would mean that you would have to compromise yourself and Socrates did not want to do this. Socrates is worried about disobeying the gods. He says that it is worse to disobey the gods than it is to disobey people. Therefore, death must be a blessing, in his perspective.

Explain the main reasoning on why Socrates thinks democracy isn't a good form of government.

Socrates is very critical of democracy. His defenses are always rational and not based upon opinions. He believes that a democracy is not a good form of government, since some people are not qualified to make decisions of their own.

Explain the various senses of the phrase "no one is wiser than Socrates."

Socrates may have special wisdom that no one else has, but all human wisdom is the same (Socrates is probably right when he says this). Socrates says that there is one thing that he has knowledge about: he claims to know something about morality (right and wrong).

Explain why Socrates thinks the soul is in the body to begin with.

Socrates thinks that the soul is in the body to begin with because the material world needs the soul. Socrates believes that the soul is brought into the body in order to relieve the body of its chaos.

Explain what Socrates means by comparing true teaching to midwifery.

Socrates typically says that he is not a teacher. This is the only time he says that he is a teacher of a certain kind. The midwife does not impregnate the woman, nor does she birth the baby. The woman symbolizes the dialogue partner. It is true that the midwife can help the pregnant woman by coaching her breathing and by helping her when she pushes. Socrates' teaching is symbolized by the midwife. He does not give you knowledge, but his dialectical questions help you to draw forth the memory of knowledge that is within your mind. Socrates is helpful like the midwife is helpful.

Explain why Socrates says the philosopher welcomes death.

Socrates welcomes death because he does not know what death is like (ignorance is bliss). He does believe, however, that whatever happens in the physical world is important, since God will bring people's actions to justice. Ultimately, death is the death of your body and not your soul.

Fully explain what characterizes sophism.

Sophism is a fallacious argument that is used in order to deceive and influence people (rhetoric). Sophists ultimately believe in succeeding, even when their means of doing so is morally wrong. Sophists are generally characterized by their secular atheism, relativism, and critique of religion.

Explain Socrates' basic argument that suicide is never justified.

Suicide is never justified according to Socrates because one who committs suicide is leaving his or her body behind. Socrates believes that the body's death should only be in the hands of God. Socrates believes that God merged a soul and a body together in order to restore balance in the chaotic material world. God is the master, while the human is his property. Socrates believes suicide is never justified because God created humans for a purpose. He did not create us to destroy ourselves.

Define temperance.

Temperance is the moral virtue of having reasonable control over your physical desires.

Explain the scholarly division of Plato's dialogues into early, middle, late period.

The Early Period dialogues by Plato involve dialectic discussion and we find that authority does not have knowledge. The Middle Period dialogues by Plato are generally better written and we start to get answers from Socrates. During the Middle Period, Plato used Form Theory. Plato's dialogues from the Late Period are more complicated and involve more ideas, such as criticism and form.

Explain what are the three models of education that are being discussed implicitly in the Meno. Be sure to give what characterizes each.

The Socratic Model: This model is based on Socrates and his dialectical method; the pursuit of truth is important. The slave boy example shows that you have to admit your faults in order to make progress. The Sophistical Model: This model shows that there is no truth; it is the matter of manipulating things and gaining control (rhetoric). This is represented by Meno, who has studied under the Sophists. Meno makes no progress in the slave boy example. The Tradition-Based Model: This model is represented by Anytus. This view says that education involves faith and what your family or culture teaches you. This view is anti- philosophical. Things should be simply accepted and not reasoned about. Anytus also makes no progress.

Explain what the epistemological tension is in terms of the soul's relationship to the body for Socrates.

The body is drawn towards the view of empiricism (the belief that all knowledge comes from the senses). The soul knows that you will not find knowledge through the senses. The conflict is that the soul wants to get away from the senses and follow its path towards wisdom.

Explain what the definitions about color and figure reveal about the differences between Socrates and the Sophists.

The definition of color is a sophisticated definition. Color is appealing to Meno, but it does not identify what the common quality is. Socrates gives a plain definition about figure, but it does the job. It shows the quality that all figures share. The definition of color represents what the Sophists would believe, while the definition of figure represents what Socrates would believe.

Explain why the definition that virtue is the desire for good things does not survive dialectic.

The definition that virtue is the desire for good things does not survive dialectic because we have to remember that everyone desires good things. It does not differentiate between virtuous actions and any other types of actions.

Explain the reasoning behind the equality proof in the Phaedo. Then discuss what this shows about Socrates' view of knowledge.

The equality proof in the Phaedo is an argument for anamnesis and the theory of the forms. It starts off by asking us to consider what is the definition of absolute equality. The answer would be: things that are exactly the same. Where does this concept come from: if it does not come from sensation or the physical world, then it must come from knowledge that we are born with (this supports anamnesis). If we all agree on the definition of pure equality, then we all must be recollecting the same reality, a reality that is non-physical (this supports the theory of the forms).

Explain what is meant by the fallacy of an appeal to authority.

The fallacy of an appeal to authority shows that something is true because someone with authority says that it is true.

Distinguish between the old and the new accusers at the trial.

The first accusers at the trial are the people who stated that Socrates is a sophist. The new accusers at the trial are the three men who bring legal charges against Socrates to court.

Explain what Socrates means by comparing himself to a gadfly and the city of Athens to a horse.

The gadfly is beneficial to the sluggish horse because it keeps the horse awake. The horse is annoyed by the gadfly's buzzing, but the horse should not be. Socrates says that he annoys the citizens of Athens by asking his questions. He says that his questions keep them awake to the part of life that they neglect (the spiritual world). Therefore, Socrates says that he is beneficial to his people and that he should not be put to death.

Explain the main translations of eidos. Then explain why Dr. Flynn prefers the translation as form.

The main translations of eidos are "idea," "ideal," and "form." The other two terms suggest a reality that is inside the mind. Dr. Flynn prefers the translation of form because it represents an outside reality.

Explain the reasoning behind the road to Larissa metaphor and the statue of Daedalus metaphor in the Meno.

The metaphors of the road to Larissa and the statue of Daedalus are about true opinion and knowledge. The road to Larissa shows how one can get to knowledge because instructions may be used. The statue of Daedalus, however, relies on the myth of the sculpture. The statue is symbolic of why knowledge is superior to true opinion. The unchained statue represents true opinion. Knowledge is based on reasons and unlike the unchained statue, it will never leave you.

Explain the moral tensions that arise because of the soul's relationship to the body for Socrates.

The moral tension is that the body's actions are concerned with either pain or pleasure. The soul is driven by doing what is right, which comes from the form of justice. However, the body does not care about what is right or wrong and that is what creates a conflict between the body and soul.

Explain what is meant by the skeptical/sophistical paradoxes of inquiry. Why does Meno use them at this point in the dialogue?

The skeptical/sophistical paradoxes question that if we do not know what something is, how will we go about finding it? The paradoxes question how we will encounter it and how we will recognize it. The paradoxes lead to the conclusion that knowledge is impossible, since you can never remedy ignorance.

Explain what the slave boy dialectic demonstrates about epistemology.

The slave boy diabetic demonstrates that we cannot have epitome on some things. We can get answers from subjects like math and geometry because the answers are "black and white."

Compare and contrast the progress between Meno and the slave boy.

The slave boy makes progress and Meno does not make progress. The slave boy is able to admit that he does not know the answers to the questions that Socrates asks, but Meno absolutely refuses that he does not know the answers. Meno initially blames Socrates for his lack of progress in the torpedo fish example.

Explain the epistemological and the moral tensions that confront the human person in the Phaedo.

The soul is in a confused position when it is in the body, but it does remember something about the forms. The body is attracted to the senses and the theory of empiricism (all knowledge comes from the senses). The soul vaguely remembers that this is not true at all. This creates a tension between the soul and body, since they are going in two different directions. The most significant epistemological tension in the Phaedo has to do with the idea that the senses and the body's desires, pains, and pleasures are distracting for the soul that is seeking wisdom.

Explain Socrates' thinking on how the desires of the body can enslave the human person.

The soul is in the body to create order. The body corrupts the soul because it is attracted to pleasure and repelled by pain. It is very easy for the human person to give into their desires. Desires become stronger because of pleasure. The more you give into desires, the stronger they become.

Fully explain the two tensions that result from the dualistic view of human nature.

The two tensions that arise as a result of the dualistic view of human nature include moral and epistemological tension. The body tries to avoid pain and gain pleasure. Meanwhile, the soul is drawn away from the body and wants to do what is right and just. The body does not care about what is right or wrong. The body is instead drawn towards the senses. The soul knows that knowledge will not be found if the body tries to follow the senses (the view of epistemology).

Define theodicy.

Theodicy is the belief that God probably exists and that both good and evil exist in order to have balance in this world.

Explain what Meno means by comparing Socrates to a torpedo fish. What does Socrates reply to the comparison?

Torpedo fish paralyze their enemies. Meno blames Socrates for his inability to come up with a real definition of virtue. Meno says that Socrates is using tricky questions to make it seem as though he does not have knowledge. Socrates says that he is not doing this on purpose and that if he was paralyzing Meno, that he would be paralyzing himself. Socrates says that if they inquire they will find out.

Explain the differences and similarities between true opinion and knowledge.

True opinion is forgettable and can be accounted for without facts and reasons. Knowledge is permanent, unforgettable, and one can give facts and reasons for it in order to make an account of it. For example, a person who has been on the road to Larissa has knowledge of how to get there, while someone who has not been on the road to Larissa, but knows how to get there, only has true opinion.

Explain what is meant by saying that Socrates is using the word "knowledge" in the Apology in a very specific sense.

When Socrates says that he does not know anything, he is using the word "know" in a very different way. Socrates says that people have the ability to answer every possible question and that we are all on a journey towards the idea of knowledge. Just because Socrates does not know something, it does not make him a skeptic.

Define the fallacy of ad hominem.

When a person makes a fallacy of ad hominem, he or she is attacking the person who is trying to make an argument. This fallacy is a personal attack on someone, as opposed to the issue itself.