Physiological Psychology Final

Mice are believed to have about _______ glomeruli, each of which receives input from one of only four receptor protein families.

1,800

Presynaptic Drug Effects

1. Effects on transmitter production 2. Effects on transmitter release 3. Effects on transmitter clearance

9 - QuizWhat best characterizes atypical antipsychotics? 20 sec They present a reduced risk of motor side effects. This is a correct answer

10 - QuizExtended typical antipsychotic treatment is most likely to produce 20 sec tardive dyskinesia. This is a correct answer

The ______ drives shifts in attention. 20 sec pulvinar This is a correct answer

10 - QuizRunning a current through the ______ can switch off conscious awareness. 20 sec claustrum This is a correct answer

11 - QuizWhich model of emotion incorporated a cognitive component? 20 sec Schachter This is a correct answer

10 - Quiz_____ detect muscle stretch. 20 sec Muscle spindles This is a correct answer

13 - QuizEkman and colleagues argue that all cultures display ____ basic facial expressions. 20 sec 8 This is a correct answer

12 - QuizWhich model proposed that emotion and arousal occur at the same time? 20 sec Cannon-Bard This is a correct answer

A sound of a jetliner 500 feet overhead is about _______ dB above the threshold of hearing of an average person.

120

17 - QuizEmotional reactivity 20 sec remains remarkably consistent across the lifespan

16 - QuizBilateral lesions of the _____ reduce fearfulness in primates. 20 sec amygdala This is a correct answer

19 - QuizBotox injections and Parkinson's disease both provide evidence supporting the _____ of emotion. 20 sec facial feedback hypothesis This is a correct answer

18 - QuizA healthy ______ inhibits impulsive actions. 20 sec prefrontal cortex This is a correct answer

1 - QuizWhich model of emotion incorporated a cognitive component? 20 sec Schachter This is a correct answer

2 - QuizWhich model proposed that emotion and arousal occur at the same time? 20 sec Cannon-Bard This is a correct answer

Which protects us against excessive muscle contraction? 20 sec Golgi tendon organs This is a correct answer

2 - QuizWhich signal extrafusal fibers to contract? 20 sec alpha motor neurons This is a correct answer

Interaural temporal differences

2.Interaural temporal differences (ITDs) are differences between the two ears in the time of arrival of sounds. They arise because one ear is always a little closer to an off-axis sound than is the other ear. Differences between the two ears in the time of arrival of a sound, which can be employed by the nervous system to localize sound sources. More important to locating low frequency sounds

21 - QuizWhich is a negative symptom of schizophrenia? 20 sec social withdrawal This is a correct answer

20 - QuizImpartial research estimates that polygraphs are accurate ___ of the time. 20 sec 65% This is a correct answer

cause of narcolepsy

Similarly, humans with narcolepsy have lost about 90% of their hypocretin neurons (Figure 14.33) (Scammell, 2015; Thannickal et al., 2000). This degeneration of hypocretin neurons seems to cause inappropriate activation of the cataplexy pathway that is normally restricted to REM sleep. So hypocretin normally keeps sleep at bay and prevents the transition from wakefulness directly into REM sleep.

Reflex

Simple, unvarying, unlearned response to sensory stimuli such as touch, pressure, and pain.

SWS (slow wave sleep)

Sleep stages 3 and 4, during which low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings. most growth hormone release happens during SWS.

somnambulism

Sleepwalking. Because such episodes occur during stage 3 SWS, they are more common in the first half of the night (when those stages predominate).

Receptor

Specialized protein molecules that capture and react to molecules of the neurotransmitter Located on the postsynaptic membrane

amacrine cells

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells, and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions within the retina.

amacrine cells

Specialized retinal neurons that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions within the retina.

horizontal cells

Specialized retinal neurons that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells. Horizontal cells and amacrine cells are especially significant in lateral interactions within the retina, which we'll discuss later. The horizontal cells make contacts among the receptor cells and bipolar cells; the amacrine cells contact both the bipolar and the ganglion cells.

Rufini's Ending

Stretch

tendon

Strong tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Research using fMRI suggests that feelings of romantic love, as opposed to friendship, are associated with reduced activity of the C. posterior cingulate and amygdala.

Studies have found that people presented with photographs of a model rate the face as more emotionally expressive if the photographs are B. a composite of two left halves.

Tract Tracer

Substances that are taken up by neurons and transported over the routes of their axons.

Cataplexy

Sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to collapse of the body without loss of consciousness. Many people with narcolepsy also show cataplexy

A patient who is given L-dopa to control the symptoms of Parkinson's disease may A. develop schizophrenia-like symptoms.

Sufferers from combat-related PTSD may experience memory problems as a result of cell loss in the _______ produced by _______. D. hippocampus; high levels of glucocorticoids

Fourier Analysis

Taking a complex sound and breaking it down into many sine waves The mathematical decomposition of a complex pattern into a sum of sine waves of various frequencies and amplitudes.

Transgenic

Term used to refer to an organism that contains genes from other organisms

_____ cells are activated when an animal reaches specific intersection points on a map. 20 sec Grid This is a correct answer

The _____ are involved in classical conditioning. 20 sec amygdala and cerebellum This is a correct answer

Parvocellular layer neurons primarily discriminate 20 sec wavelengths. This is a correct answer

The _____ contains parvocellular and magnocellular layers. 20 sec lateral geniculate nucleus This is a correct answer

Dorsal Root

The ______ ____ (back) of each spinal nerve consists of SENSORY projections from the body to the spinal cord.

Ventral Root

The _______ ____ (front) consists of MOTOR projections from the spinal cord muscles

D

The absolute refractory period refers to the brief period of time Answers: A. after exocytosis and before the release of more neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cleft. B. following a response to a difficult exam question during which no other information can be processed. C. during which a postsynaptic receptor cannot bind another neurotransmitter after it has been open. D. after a neuron has fired an action potential during which the same neuron cannot fire another action potential.

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A last-resort treatment for intractable depression, in which a strong electrical current is passed through the brain, causing a seizure. ECT may work by reducing functional connectivity between an overactive prefrontal cortex and other cortical regions (J. S. Perrin et al., 2012).

limbic system

A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network. These nuclei are implicated in emotions. Papez (which rhymes with "capes") noted associations between emotional changes and specific sites of brain damage. These interconnected regions, known as the Papez circuit, include the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, the anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, and the fornix. The arrows in Figure 15.13 schematically depict this circuit. Later, Paul MacLean (1949) suggested that the amygdala and several other regions also interacted with the components of this circuit, and he proposed that the entire system be called the limbic system.

flaccid paralysis

A loss of all movement and reflexes below the level of transection of the spinal cord. Vehicular accidents, falls, violence, and sports injuries cause many human spinal injuries that result in motor impairment. Injuries to the human spinal cord commonly develop from force to the neck or back, breaking a bone that then compresses the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is severed completely, immediate paralysis results, and reflexes below the level of injury may be lost—a condition known as flaccid paralysis.

first-generation antipsychotics

A major class of antischizophrenic drugs that share an antagonist activity at dopamine D2 receptors.

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

dendritic knob

A portion of an olfactory receptor cell present in the olfactory epithelium. Numerous cilia emerge from the dendritic knob and extend along the mucosal surface At the opposite end of each bipolar olfactory receptor cell, a fine, unmyelinated axon, which is among the smallest-diameter axons in the nervous system, runs through tiny holes in the skull directly into the olfactory bulb (to be discussed shortly). These myriad clumps of axons, referred to as the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I), are really quite short—not much longer than the thickness of the bone they pass through.

P3 effect A positive deflection of the event-related potential, occurring about 300-500 ms after stimulus presentation, that is associated with higher-order auditory stimulus processing and late attentional selection.

P1 effect A positive deflection of the event-related potential, occurring 70-100 ms after stimulus presentation, that is enhanced for selectively attended visual input, compared with ignored input.

PCP

PCP acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist, blocking the NMDA receptor's central calcium channel, thereby preventing the endogenous ligand—glutamate—from having its usual effects Other antagonists of NMDA receptors, such as ketamine, have similar effects.

neuropathic pain (neuralgia)

Pain caused by damage to peripheral nerves. It is often difficult to treat. Phantom limb pain

inferior colliculi

Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information. the primary auditory centers of the midbrain. Outputs of the inferior colliculi go to the medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus.

plegia

Paralysis; the loss of the ability to move.

receptor cell

Cell that receives a stimulus and converts it into an electrical impulse to be sent to the brain and/or spinal cord.

Schizophrenia

Changes in all three kinds of glial cells, especially the loss of oligodendrocytes and their associated myelin

nociceptor

A receptor that responds to stimuli that produce tissue damage or pose the threat of damage. a very particular type of voltage-gated sodium channel to produce action potentials to report pain to the brain.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A recessive hereditary disorder of protein metabolism, at one time resulted in a lot of intellectual disability. Treated greatly by preventing a child from eating pheenylalanine

scotoma

A region of blindness caused by injury to the visual pathway or brain. Because of the orderly mapping of the visual field (known as retinotopic mapping) at the various levels of the visual system, damage to parts of the visual system can be diagnosed from defects in perception of the visual field. If we know the site of injury in the visual pathway, we can predict the location of such a perceptual gap, or scotoma (plural scotomas or scotomata), in the visual field. Within a scotoma, a person cannot consciously perceive visual cues, but some visual discrimination in this region may still be possible; this paradoxical phenomenon has been called blindsight.

ocular dominance column

A region of cortex in which one eye or the other provides a greater degree of synaptic input. Ocular dominance columns were first discovered by electrophysiological recording. Although the receptive field of an individual V1 neuron is the same for vision through either eye, some cells are equally activated by the two eyes while other cells respond preferentially (i.e., more strongly) to stimulation of one eye.

supplementary motor area (SMA)

A region of nonprimary motor cortex that receives input from the basal ganglia and modulates the activity of the primary motor cortex.

tuberomammillary nucleus

A region of the basal hypothalamus, near the pituitary stalk, that plays a role in generating SWS.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Stereocilia (Stereocilium)

A relatively stiff hair that protrudes from a hair cell in the auditory or vestibular system. Each hair cell has 50-200 stereocilia

William Redican, in his study of facial expressions of nonhuman primates, argued that the distinctive primate expression labeled grimace is analogous to human C. fear or surprise.

Children who torture animals have been found to have C. decreased levels of 5-HIAA in the CSF.

Nicotinic Receptors

Cholinergic Ionotropic, rapidly responding, usually excitatory receptors. MORE COMMON

Muscarinic Receptors

Cholinergic Metabotropic Receptors, slowly responding, excitatory/inhibitory

closed-loop control mechanism

Closed-loop control mechanisms maximize accuracy: information from whatever is being controlled flows back to the device that controls it. A control mechanism that provides a flow of information from whatever is being controlled to the device that controls it.

B

Convergence is illustrated in the circuits of the visual system, in which about 100 million receptor cells concentrate their information on about _______ ganglion cells. Answers: A. 100 million B. 1 million C. 100,000 D. 1 billion

simple cortical cell

Cortical cells can be categorized according to which of these types of stimuli produce maximum responses. So-called simple cortical cells respond best to an edge or a bar that has a particular width and a particular orientation and location in the visual field. Therefore these cells were sometimes called bar detectors or edge detectors.

Which of the following does not belong with the others?

Otolith

Pitch

Our perception of frequency. A dimension of auditory experience in which sounds vary from low to high.

epidermis

Outer layer of skin

Ectoderm

Outermost germ layer; goes on to form the nervous system

intermediate-ter memory (ITM)

Outlasts a STM, but is not permanent. Researchers have devised memory tasks to assess relative contributions of brain regions to different aspects of working memory: -Spatial-location recognition -Response recognition -Object recognition

Nissl Stain

Outline ALL cell bodies Because the dyes are attracted to RNA distributed within the cell. Allow us to measure cell body size and the density of cells in particular regions IMPRECISE, UNFOCUSED. BIG PICTURE.

A model of schizophrenia presented by Mirsky and Duncan emphasizes that schizophrenia emerges from Selected Answer:C. the interaction of stress, genetics, and anatomical abnormalities of the brain.

About _______% of severely disabled OCD patients who underwent cingulotomy benefited substantially. Selected Answer:A. 33

Decorticate rage refers to D. sudden, intense, poorly directed rage provoked by ordinary stimuli.

According to Alan J. Fridlund, a major role of facial expression is D. to provide emphasis and direction in conversation.

Patients with damage to the amygdala do poorly at interpreting facial expressions as indicators of trustworthiness

According to Charles Darwin, facial expressions C. are used for communication.

Which of the following medical conditions may induce depression secondary to excessive secretion of ACTH? D. Cushing's syndrome

According to Eugen Bleuler, primary symptoms of schizophrenia include D. All of the above

We use nondeclarative memory to answer ______ questions. "how" This is a correct answer

Patient H. M. suffered from 20 sec anterograde amnesia. This is a correct answer

9 - QuizAn NMDA receptor regulates the movement of ____ ions. 20 sec Ca2+

Patient K. C.'s memory deficits were probably due to damage to the cortex. This is a correct answer

adrenal steroids

Also called adrenocorticoids. Steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex, including glucocorticoids such as cortisol and mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone.

senile plaques

Also called amyloid plaques. Small areas of the brain that have abnormal cellular and chemical patterns. Senile plaques correlate with senile dementia. Patches termed senile plaques appear in the cortex, the hippocampus, and associated limbic system sites. The plaques, formed by the buildup of a substance called β-amyloid, impair synaptic function (Wei et al., 2010).

health psychology

Also called behavioral medicine. A field that studies psychological influences on health-related processes, such as why people become ill or how they remain healthy.

cingulate cortex

Also called cingulate gyrus. A region of medial cerebral cortex that lies dorsal to the corpus callosum. Integrates pain

sympathetic nervous activity

The adrenal medulla releases its hormones in response to

Half

The amount of spinal motor neurons that form which die later

TRPM8

Also called cool-menthol receptor 1 (CMR1). A sensory receptor, found in some free nerve endings, that opens an ion channel in response to a mild temperature drop or exposure to menthol. responds to cool temperatures, and it is found on small C fibers

Olfactory Nerve

Cranial Nerve I. Smell. Has sensory function. Has no motor function

Optic Nerve

Cranial Nerve II. Vision. Has sensory function. Has no motor function

Oculomotor Nerves

Cranial Nerve III Innervate Muscles to move the eye Has no sensory function. Has motor function (eye muscles)

Trochlear Nerves

Cranial Nerve IV. Innervate Muscles to move the eye Has no sensory function. Has motor function (eye muscles)

Trigeminal Nerve

Cranial Nerve V. Carries facial sensation through some axons, and controls chewing movements through other axons

Oculomotor, Trochlear, Abducens Nerves

Cranial Nerve VI. Innervate muscles to move the eye

Abducens Nerve

Cranial Nerve VI. Motor nerve. Movement of the eye. Has no sensory function. Has motor function (eye muscles)

Vestibulocochlear Nerve

Cranial Nerve VIII. Hearing and balance. Has sensory function (ear). Has no motor function

Autoreceptor

Presynaptic neurons use _____________ to monitor how much transmitter they have released. A receptor for a synaptic transmitter that is located in the presynaptic membrane, telling the axon terminal how much transmitter has been released. Caffeine blocks autoreceptor effects of an endogenous ligand (adenosine, a neuromodulator) . Adenosine inhibits transmitter release

______ damage results in unwanted eye reorientation toward peripheral distractors. 20 sec Frontal eye field This is a correct answer

Primate direction of attention to specific locations is correlated with neural activity in the LIP. This is a correct answer

pupil

The aperture, formed by the iris, that allows light to enter the eye.

sensory homunculus

Demonstrates that the area of the cortex dedicated to the sensations of various body parts is proportional to how sensitive that part of the body is.

Binocular deprivation

Depriving both eyes of form vision, as by sealing the eyelids.

Limbic and Hypothalamic regions

Endogenous opiate receptors are found in the ...

Effects on Transmitter Release

Example: -Tetrodotoxin, blocks sodium channels, prevents axons from firing action potentials. -Calcium Channel Blockers -Tetanus, Botox - Interfere with SNAREs -Can involve modifying the systems that the neuron normally uses to monitor and regulate its own transmitter release

Presynaptic, Postsynaptic

At each synapse, information is transmitted from the axon terminal of the ___________ neuron to the receptive surface of the ____________ neuron

The notion of "first-rank" symptoms of schizophrenia is associated with Kurt Schneider

At least 40% of patients with panic disorder have anatomical anomalies of the B. temporal lobes.

D

At metabotropic synapses, second messengers are synthesized inside postsynaptic neurons by Answers: A. gene transcription in the nucleus. B. the Golgi apparatus. C. mitochondria. D. specific enzymes.

growth cones

At the tips of axons and dendrites alike, specialized swellings called growth cones are found

Hair Cells

Auditory sensory cells / A cochlear auditory receptor cell. Embedded in the basilar membrane

Lateral

Away from the midline

Output Zone (Part of a Neuron Structure)

Axon terminals - signals are transmitted across synapses Where the neuron transfers information to other cells

optic radiation

Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex.

Capture of one photon of light in a photoreceptor can block the entry of _______ Na + ion(s).

B. 1 million

Molecules of photopigment are concentrated in what part of the rods?

B. Outer segments

Inhibitors of the neurotransmitter _______ cause the pupil of the eye to _______.

B. acetylcholine; dilate

Cortical area V4 has many cells that respond preferentially to

B. concentric and radial stimuli.

In area V5 of the visual cortex, cells appear to be sensitive to _______ but not to _______.

B. movement; wavelength

Because the visual system integrates stimuli over time, its performance is relatively

B. slow but sensitive.

place coding

BETTER FOR HIGH FREQUENCIES The encoding of sound frequency as a function of the location on the basilar membrane that is most stimulated by that sound. According to place coding theory, the pitch of a sound is encoded in the physical location of the activated receptors along the length of the basilar membrane: activation of receptors near the base of the cochlea (which is narrow and stiff and responds to high frequencies) signals treble, and activation of receptors nearer the apex (which is wide and floppy and responds to low frequencies) signals bass.

temporal coding

BETTER FOR LOW FREQUENCIES The encoding of sound frequency in terms of the number of action potentials per second produced by an auditory nerve. proposes that the frequency of an auditory stimulus is encoded in the rate of firing of auditory neurons. Complementary to the place coding theory In general, temporal coding is most evident at the lower end of the hearing range, but it functions up to about 4000 Hz.

sleep enuresis

Bed-wetting. Some dysfunctions associated with sleep are much more common in children than in adults. Two sleep disorders in children—night terrors (described earlier) and sleep enuresis (bed-wetting)—are associated with SWS. Most people grow out of these conditions without intervention, but pharmacological approaches can be used to reduce the amount of stage 3 sleep (as well as REM time) while increasing stage 2 sleep.

aggression

Behavior that is intended to cause pain or harm (whether physical or emotional) to others, either individually or in groups.

Antidepressants that target serotonin reuptake are called 20 sec SSRIs. This is a correct answer

Benzodiazepines are prescribed to manage brief episodes of 20 sec anxiety. This is a correct answer

Cones in the retina form synapses with which of the following cell types?

Bipolar cells

Local Anaesthetics

Block pain by blocking sodium channels

SNRIs

Block reuptake into presynaptic axon terminals, allowing the transmitters (serotonin and norepinephrine) to accumulate in the synapse

Tricyclics (TCAs)

Block reuptake into presynaptic axon terminals, allowing the transmitters (serotonin and norepinephrine) to accumulate in the synapse

proprioception

Body sense; information about the position and movement of the body that is sent to the brain.

V1, V2, V3, V4, V5

Book section 10.4 and on

primary visual cortex (V1)

Brain region located in the occipital cortex (toward the back of the head) responsible for processing basic visual information like the detection, thickness, and orientation of simple lines, color, and small-scale motion.

Ekman and colleagues argue that all cultures display ____ basic facial expressions. 20 sec 8 This is a correct answer

Brain self-stimulation sites are located within the 20 sec medial forebrain bundle. This is a correct answer

vestibular nuclei

Brainstem nuclei that receive information from the vestibular organs through cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve).

cochlear nuclei

Brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary complex. There is a Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus and a Ventral Cochlear Nucleus

superior olivary nuclei

Brainstem nuclei that receive input from both right and left cochlear nuclei and provide the first binaural analysis of auditory information. One path from each cochlear nucleus projects bilaterally to the superior olivary nuclei, so each superior olivary nucleus receives input from both the right and left cochlear nuclei.

But unlike heat and mechanical damage-triggered nociceptors that release glutamate, the itch-specific fibers use another neurotransmitter, called natriuretic polypeptide B (Nppb), to stimulate neurons in the dorsal horn (LaMotte et al., 2014).

But unlike heat and mechanical damage-triggered nociceptors that release glutamate, the itch-specific fibers use another neurotransmitter, called natriuretic polypeptide B (Nppb), to stimulate neurons in the dorsal horn (LaMotte et al., 2014). A peptide neurotransmitter used by neurons reporting itch to the spinal cord.

At any given time, a photoreceptor operates approximately over a _______ range.

C. 100-fold

In aged monkeys, neurons of visual cortex show _______ spontaneous activity and _______ orientation selectivity.

C. increased; decreased

A point of light located in the upper left of the visual field is projected to the _______ part of the retina.

C. lower right

Cervical Nerves

C1-C8. Neck

chemoattractants

CAMs that attract certain growth cones

Axon

CARRIES MESSAGES OVER LONG DISTANCES The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

CONTROLS THE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM A small region of the hypothalamus above the optic chiasm that is the location of a circadian oscillator. Transplants prove that the SCN produces a circadian rhythm

retrograde messenger Transmitter that is released by the postsynaptic region, travels back across the synapse, and alters the functioning of the presynaptic neuron.

CREB Cyclic AMP responsive element—binding protein, which binds the promoter region of several genes involved in neural plasticity when activated by cAMP.

secondary somatosensory cortex (S2)

The area in the parietal lobe next to the primary somatosensory area (S1) that processes neural signals related to touch, temperature, and pain.

Elderly people with cognitive impairment showed shrinkage specifically in the D. hippocampal formation.

Eye-blink conditioning is an example of _______ conditioning and has been used to study mammalian cerebellar circuits. A. classical

Zygote

Fertilized egg. Has 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs. Within 12 hours of fertilization, it divides.

Merkel's Disc

Fine touch SLOW-ADAPTING Most of our ability to perceive the form of an object we touch comes from Merkel's Discs and Meissner's Corpuscle Receptive fields have an inhibitory surround Both Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel's discs preferentially respond to edges on a surface Meissner's and Merkel's both preferentially respond to edges on a surface. They respond to touch because they make a specialized mechanical ion channel called PIEZO, which opens mechanically Braille

Acetylcholine (ACh)

First neurotransmitter discovered.

Mesolimbocortical Pathway

REWARD A set of dopaminergic axons arising in the MIDBRAIN and innervating the limbic system (amygdala, nucleus accumbns, hippocampus) and cortex. Abnormalities can result in schizophrenia

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

semantic memory

Generalized declarative memory—for instance, knowing the meaning of a word without knowing where or when you learned that word. semantic memory is generalized declarative memory, such as knowing the meaning of a word without knowing where or when you learned that word

Ventricular enlargement of the brains of some patients with schizophrenia appears to develop from Selected Answer:C. decreases in the volume of adjacent neural tissue.

Genes encoding which of the following substances have been associated with schizophrenia? Selected Answer:D. All of the above

Brainbow Imagery

Genetic manipulations have been devised to insert and then activate the genes for multiple colorful fluorescent proteins within neurons. Has revolutionized the study of interconnections of neurons.

In Situ Hybridization

Goes a step further from IHC, uses radioactively labeled strands of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA), labels only those neurons in which a gene of interest has turned on TARGETS FOR A SPECIFIC GENE

In mice, genetic deletion of CREB impairs B. LTM.

H.M.'s performance on the mirror tracing task showed that he could acquire a kind of _______ memory. B. long-term

sleep hygiene

Habits, such as avoiding caffeine shortly before bedtime, that promote healthy sleep.

Cingulate Cortex

Has also been implicated in attention Anterior cingulate cortex seems to mediate the emotional, discomforting aspect of pain

Bipolar Neurons (Classifying nerve cells by shape)

Have a single dendrite at one end of the cell and a single axon at the other end. Especially common in sensory systems such as vision

Unipolar Neurons (Classifying nerve cells by shape) (Also called monopolar)

Have a single extension (process) usually thought of as an axon, that branches in two directions after leaving the cell input body

Multipolar neurons (Classifying nerve cells by shape)

Have many dendrites and a single axon. They are the most common type of neuron.

cell assembly A large group of cells that tend to be active at the same time because they have been activated simultaneously or in close succession in the past.

Hebbian synapse A synapse that is strengthened when it successfully drives the postsynaptic cell.

Elaine Walker and E. Fuller Torrey are researchers who have studied Selected Answer:C. schizophrenia.

Hideyo Noguchi discovered the relationship between Selected Answer:B. psychosis and syphilis.

ultrasound

High-frequency sound; in general, sound above the threshold for human hearing, at about 20,000 Hz. Mammalian species employ an astonishing range of frequencies in their vocalizations, from infrasound (less than 10 Hz) in elephants and whales to ultrasound (greater than 20,000 Hz) in bats and porpoises and many other species (the ghost-faced bat emits vocalizations at an incredible 160,000 Hz).

Inhibition of return refers to B. impaired detection of stimuli at the former location of the task-irrelevant cue.

Hillyard's classic study of auditory attention found that ERPs for attended stimuli are C. particularly evident in the N1 component.

Benzodiazepines like Valium bind at allosteric sites on the ____ receptor. 20 sec GABA-A This is a correct answer

Historically, psychiatrists have treated classic bipolar disorder with 20 sec lithium. This is a correct answer

Optic Chiasm

In all vertebrates, some or all of the axons of each optic nerve cross to the opposite cerebral hemisphere. The optic nerves cross the midline at the optic chiasm (named for the Greek letter χ [chi] because of its crossover shape). In humans, axons from the half of the retina toward the nose (called the nasal hemiretina) cross over to the opposite side of the brain (Figure 10.10A). The point at which the two optic nerves meet.

Basal Forebrain

Important clusters of cholinergic cells are found in the _____ _________

PTSD

In PTSD, the experience of life-threatening events causes release of stress hormones, which appears to reinforce memory formation. GABA, opioid, and especially epinephrine and norepinephrine transmission enhance memory formation in animal models Treatments that bock chemicals acting on the basolateral amygdala may reduce the effect of emotion on memories (BETA ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS)

In the _______ task, a single stimulus or stimulus location is held in an attentional spotlight. B. sustained attention

In a choice reaction-time test, visual information typically is processed at the level of the prefrontal cortex within _______ ms. 145

Nodes of ranvier

In between the "beads" that make up the myelin sheath

According to Hans Selye, the initial response to stress is a state he called the D. alarm reaction.

In fear conditioning, the central nucleus of the amygdala transmits information through the _______ to evoke hormonal responses. D. bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

Inhibit; Negative

In general, steroid hormones from the peripheral organs _______ the release of hormones from the pituitary through the process of _______ feedback.

Infant mammals also show a large percentage of REM sleep. In humans, for example, 50% of sleep in the first 2 weeks of life is REM sleep. REM sleep is even more prominent in premature infants, accounting for up to 80% of total sleep. Unlike healthy adults, human infants can move directly from an awake state to REM sleep for the first few months of life. The REM sleep of infants is quite active, accompanied by muscle twitching, smiles, grimaces, and vocalizations.

In humans and other mammals, the most dramatic progressive decline is in stage 3 sleep; people at age 60 spend only about half as much time in stage 3 as they did at age 20. By age 90, stage 3 sleep has disappeared. This decline in stage 3 sleep with age may be related to diminished cognitive capabilities, since an especially marked reduction of stage 3 characterizes the sleep of people with senile dementia (Kondratova and Kondratova, 2012). Growth hormone is secreted primarily during stage 3, so perhaps the loss of growth hormone from disrupted sleep in the elderly leads to the cognitive deficits.

Which of the following is not an attribute of the type A personality? C. Submission to authority

In humans, diminished cerebrospinal concentrations of serotonin metabolites are correlated with aggression and violence.

Glial Cells

In its exclusion of _____ _____, the neuron doctrine may have been an oversimplification

Cochlea

In mammals the auditory portion of the inner ear is a coiled, fluid-filled structure called the cochlea A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the primary receptor cells for hearing.

Operant Conditioning

In one form of associative learning, called operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning), an association is formed between the individual's behavior and the consequence(s) of that behavior. For example, lab animals can easily learn to press a lever to gain the reward of a tasty food pellet, using an apparatus like the one in Figure 17.13, often called a Skinner box after its famous originator, B. F. Skinner. A FORM OF ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

pharmacogenomics

In pharmacogenomics, each person's genome is scanned for polymorphisms in genes belonging to two general classes: pharmacokinetic genes that determine how the drug is metabolized and moves through the body, and pharmacodynamic genes related to the brain mechanisms through which the drug has its intended effects on neural function (Figure 16.22). The identification of combinations of alleles affecting the metabolism and actions of drugs, in order to personalize drug treatments.

negative symptom

In psychiatry, a symptom that reflects insufficient functioning. Examples include emotional and social withdrawal, blunted affect, and slowness and impoverishment of thought and speech. The term negative symptoms refers to behavioral functions that have been lost—for example, slow and impoverished thought and speech, emotional and social withdrawal (M. F. Green et al., 2015).

electroencephalography (EEG)

In the 1930s, experimenters found that brain potentials recorded from electrodes on the scalp by electroencephalography (EEG) (see Figures 3.22 and 3.23) provided a way to define, describe, and classify levels of arousal and states of sleep. This measure of brain activity is usually supplemented with recordings of eye movements by electro-oculography (EOG) and of muscle tension by electromyography (EMG).

Induction

Induction is the process in embryonic development by which the presence of one tissue determines the differentiation of another tissue. (Sonic Hedgehog)

Synapses

Information is transmitted across ________

dermis

Inner layer of skin

Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue)

Innermost layer, provides an anchor for muscles, contains pacinian corpuscles, helps shape the body

migraines

Intense headaches, typically perceived from one half of the head, that recur regularly and can be difficult to

Astrocytes

Involved in the formation of new synapses, as well as the pruning of surplus synapses that is a normal part of brain development.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC)

Involves creating antibodies against a protein of interest. They selectively seek out and attach themselves to only brain regions which create that protein

polymodal

Involving several sensory modalities.

pain inhibition via serotonin

It is likely that serotonin both inhibits and promotes pain perception by different physiological mechanisms, in contrast to norepinephrine which is predominately inhibitory. Additional evidence of the role of monoamines in pain modulation comes from studies of antidepressant administration in animal models of pain.

amblyopia

Reduced visual acuity of one eye, that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments.

amblyopia

Reduced visual acuity of one eye, that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments. treated by eyepatch over the healthy eye

free-running

Referring to a rhythm of behavior shown by an animal deprived of external cues about time of day. The free-running period is the animal's natural rhythm

concordant

Referring to any trait that is seen in both individuals of a pair of twins.

discordant

Referring to any trait that is seen in only one individual of a pair of twins.

somatosensory

Referring to body sensation, particularly touch and pain sensation. Most evident system for STIMULUS LOCATION

parvocellular

Referring to relatively small cells. LGN are called parvocellular (from the Latin parvus, "small") because their cells are relatively small.

monozygotic

Referring to twins derived from a single fertilized egg (identical twins). Such individuals have the same genotype.

dizygotic

Referring to twins derived from separate eggs (fraternal twins). Such twins are no more closely related genetically than are other full siblings.

Binaural

Referring to two ears

3 - QuizIn the _______ task, a stimulus or stimulus location is held in an attentional spotlight. sustained attention This is a correct answer

Reflexive attention is also called exogenous attention. This is a correct answer

optic disc

Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. It is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light.

occipital lobe

Large region of cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere, specialized for visual processing.

incus

Latin for "anvil." A middle-ear bone situated between the malleus and the stapes.

Malleus

Latin for "hammer." A middle-ear bone that is connected to the tympanic membrane.

stapes

Latin for "stirrup." A middle-ear bone that is connected to the oval window.

Inverse Agonist

Less common type of ligand, binds to receptor and initiates reverse effect of normal receptor function

D

Ligand-Gated

Meissner's Corpuscle

Light touch FAST-ADAPTING MORE NUMEROUS THAN MERKEL'S DISCS, BUT OFFER LESS SPACIAL RESOLUTION

zeitgeber

Literally "time giver" (in German). The stimulus (usually the light-dark cycle) that entrains circadian rhythms.

Autonomic Ganglia

The autonomic nervous system is brain's main system for controlling the organs of the body. Supporting these functions are aggregates of neurons called _________ _______, found in various locations in the body outside of the CNS.

20 to 20,000 Hz.

The average hearing range of humans is

optic tract

The axons of retinal ganglion cells after they have passed the optic chiasm. Most of the axons terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus. After they pass the optic chiasm, the axons of the retinal ganglion cells are known collectively as the optic tract.

refraction

The bending of a wave as it passes at an angle from one medium to another

sensory pathway

The chain of neural connections from sensory receptor cells to the cortex.

Binding Affinity

The degree of chemical attraction between a ligand and a receptor is termed _______ _________

the doctrine of specific nerve energies

The doctrine that the receptors and neural channels for the different senses are independent and operate in their own special ways and can produce only one particular sensation each.

Compared to animals placed in impoverished conditions, animals kept in enriched conditions have been found to have heavier brains, due primarily to increases in the D. cortex.

The eight-arm radial maze has been used with rats to demonstrate the importance of the _______ in _______ memory. A. hippocampus; spatial

Arborization

The elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons. The degree of arborization of dendrites reflects the complexity of the neuron's information-processing function

electro-oculography (EOG)

The electrical recording of eye movements.

Motor neurons (Motorneurons)

Long axons The neurons that govern movements. They have long axons reaching out to synapse on muscles, causing them to contract in response to commands from the brain. Other motor neurons coontact and control organs and glands. Stimulate muscles or glands

Sensory Neurons

Long axons. Carry messages from the peripheral tissue (sensors in the skin, for example) back to the spinal cord or brain. Respond to environmental stimuli, such as light, odor, or touch

Cushing's Syndrome

Long-term excess of glucocorticoids.

According to Lacey and Lacey, responses of various bodily systems show distinct patterns that are specific to the individual. They call this characteristic B. individual response stereotypy.

Longitudinal studies have found that individual response stereotypy in autonomic responses to emotional stimuli A. is invariant over the life span.

Some biological rhythms have periods longer than a day. Such rhythms are called infradian because their frequency is less than once per day (the Latin infra means "below"). A familiar infradian rhythm is the 28-day human menstrual cycle.

Many other animal behaviors are also characterized by annual rhythms; for example, most animals breed only during a particular season.

Papez's circuit provides a model of the relationships of different regions in the limbic system involved in D. emotional expression.

Mark and Ervin have argued that some human violence is B. related to temporal lobe seizure activity.

Indoleamine Neurotransimtters

Melatonin, Serotonin Derived from Tryptophan Features a five-sided Indole Ring

episodic memory

Memory of a particular incident or a particular time and place. Detailed autobiographical declarative memory of this sort is known as episodic memory: you show episodic memory when you recall a specific episode in your life or relate an event to a particular time and place.

two-photon excitation microscopy

Method of providing many low-energy photons that can penetrate deep into tissues, such that the simultaneous arrival of two photons at a fluorescent molecule is sufficient to elicit a visible photon in response. two-photon excitation microscopy uses lasers to shine a lot of infrared light onto tissue so that when two infrared photons hit a fluorescent molecule at the same time, they excite it enough to cause it to emit a higher-powered photon that we can see

. mechanosensory pain; heat

Mice lacking the gene for TRPV1 respond to _______ but not to _______.

Anterograde Transport

Moves material toward the axon terminals

Retrograde Transport

Moves used materials back to the cell body for recycling

What does episodic memory contain? experiences This is a correct answer

Nondeclarative learning includes classical and operant conditioning, and skill learning. This is a correct answer

D

Norepinephrine and dopamine are examples of transmitters whose synaptic activity is terminated by Answers: A. passive diffusion. B. calcium influx. C. depolarization. D. reuptake.

Vestibulocerebellum

Normally tucked beneath the other two major divisions of the cerebellum is the vestibulocerebellum, made up of small and somewhat primitive structures called the nodule and flocculus. As its name suggests, the vestibulocerebellum has close connections with the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem, through which it receives information about body orientation. Its outputs help the motor systems to maintain posture and guide eye movements (Herzfeld et al., 2015); for example, damage to this system produces errors in gaze and difficulty with tracking visual objects as the head moves.

medial geniculate nuclei

Nuclei in the thalamus that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex.

10^15 (one quadrillion)

Number of synapses in the brain

scotopic system

ONLY USES RODS A system in the retina that operates at low levels of light and involves the rods. One system uses the rods and works in dim light, so it is called the scotopic system (from the Greek skotos, "darkness," and ops, "eye"). The scotopic system has only one receptor type (rods) and therefore does not respond differentially to different colors, which is the basis for the saying "at night, all cats are gray."

Circannual Clock (Circannual rhythm)

Occurring on a roughly annual basis. As with circadian rhythms in constant light, seasonal animals in isolation show free-running annual rhythms of a period not quite equal to 365 days. Thus, there also seems to be an endogenous circannual clock.

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (CAMP)

SECOND-MESSENGER Transmits the messages of many of the peptide and amine hormones. Mediates the effects of several hormones

labeled lines

SEGREGATION OF SENSATION The concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information.

SSRIs

SELECTIVELY block reuptake into presynaptic axon terminals, allowing the transmitter (serotonin) to accumulate in the synapse

Long-Term memory (LTM) lasts for days to years and has a very large capacity.

STM and LTM rely on different processes to store information Information can also be forgotten or recalled inaccurately

Working Memory:

STM in which information is processed and used, then forgotten. Lasts about 30 seconds int he absence of rehearsal lesions (damage) of the prefrontal cortex severely impair working memory

Benzodiazepines

Safer and less addictive than barbiturates. GABA Uses orphan receptor

inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), CAMP

Second-messengers

6 - QuizMirror neurons were initially discovered in the 20 sec premotor cortex. This is a correct answer

5 - QuizThe _____ participates in the programming, timing, and coordinating of movements. 20 sec cerebellum This is a correct answer

Serotonin (5-HT)

5-HT cell bodies are relatively rare, concentrated along the midline in raphe nuclei (seam) of the midbrain and brainstem PRODUCED IN RAPHE NUCLEI 200,000 neurons are serotonergic, but they exert widespread influence Controls Mood, sleep, sexual behavior, anxiety

There is a negative correlation between aggression and ______ activity. 20 sec serotonin This is a correct answer

6 - QuizBilateral lesions of the _____ reduce fearfulness in primates. 20 sec amygdala This is a correct answer

The _____ participates in the programming, timing, and coordinating of movements. 20 sec cerebellum This is a correct answer

6 - QuizMirror neurons were initially discovered in the 20 sec premotor cortex. This is a correct answer

8 - QuizTrinucleotide repeats are responsible for the development of 20 sec Huntington's disease. This is a correct answer

7 - Quiz_____ is the inability to perform a simple motor act that can be freely performed on command. 20 sec Ideomotor apraxia This is a correct answer

Emotional reactivity 20 sec remains remarkably consistent across the lifespan. This is a correct answer

8 - QuizA healthy ______ inhibits impulsive actions. 20 sec prefrontal cortex This is a correct answer

7 - Quiz_____ has been the leading researcher on the binding problem. 20 sec Anne Treisman This is a correct answer

8 - QuizLIP stands for 20 sec lateral intraparietal area. This is a correct answer

_____ is the inability to perform a simple motor act that can be freely performed on command. 20 sec Ideomotor apraxia This is a correct answer

8 - QuizTrinucleotide repeats are responsible for the development of 20 sec Huntington's disease. This is a correct answer

A typical night's sleep involves four or five ____ cycles. 20 sec 90-110-minute This is a correct answer

8 - QuizWhich hormones does the pineal gland release? 20 sec melatonin This is a correct answer

The muscles of the middle ear are activated by sounds that are about _______ dB above a person's hearing threshold.

80 to 90

10 - Quiz_____ detect muscle stretch. 20 sec Muscle spindles This is a correct answer

9 - QuizL-dopa, a dopamine precursor, is administered to patients diagnosed with 20 sec Parkinson's disease. This is a correct answer

Slow rate of transport along axons

<8mm per day

priming

A TYPE OF NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY Also called repetition priming. The phenomenon by which exposure to a stimulus facilitates subsequent responses to the same or a similar stimulus. PRIMING A change in the processing of a stimulus, usually a word or a picture, as a result of prior exposure to the same stimulus or related stimuli is referred to as priming (or repetition priming). For example, if a person is shown the word stamp in a list and later is asked to complete the word stem STA-, they are more likely to reply "stamp" than is a person who was not exposed to that word. Priming does not require declarative memory of the stimulus—Henry Molaison and other people with amnesia have shown priming for words they don't remember seeing previously. In contrast to skill learning, researchers have found that priming is not impaired by damage to the basal ganglia.

skill learning

A TYPE OF NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY Learning to perform a task that requires motor coordination. SKILL MEMORY In skill learning, participants learn how to perform a challenging task by practicing it over and over again. Experimental tests like the mirror-tracing task performed by Henry Molaison (see Figure 17.3) or learning to read mirror-reversed text (see Figure 17.4) are examples of skill learning. So too are the everyday skills we acquire, like learning to ride a bike or to juggle (well, okay, maybe juggling isn't an "everyday" skill, but you get the idea).

associative learning

A TYPE OF NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING Learning that involves relations between events—for example, between two or more stimuli, between a stimulus and a response, or between an action and its consequence—is called associative learning. A type of learning in which an association is formed between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response. It includes both classical and operant conditioning.

Retrograde labeling

A TYPE OF TRACT TRACING Axon terminals -> Cell bodies When a different kind of tract tracer is injected into a region of interest, it is taken up by axon terminals and then transported back to their originating cell bodies.

Anterograde Labeling

A TYPE OF TRACT TRACING Cell bodies -> Axon terminals The tract tracer is injected near the dendrites and cell bodies of a region of neurons in the region under study

nerve growth factor (NGF)

A TYPE OF TROPHIC FACTOR A substance that markedly affects the growth of neurons in spinal ganglia and in the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)

A brain disorder in humans, leading to dementia and death, that is caused by improperly folded prion proteins; the human equivalent of mad cow disease.

Lateral Tegmental Area

A brainstem region that provides some of the norepinephrine-containing projections of the brain

Cushing's syndrome

A condition in which levels of adrenal glucocorticoids are abnormally high. People who have very high levels of circulating glucocorticoids such as cortisol are prone to depression. This condition, called Cushing's syndrome, may have several different causes, including hormone-secreting tumors or therapeutic treatments with synthetic glucocorticoids. In more than 85% of people with Cushing's syndrome, depression appears quite early, even before other typical signs, such as obesity or unusual growth and distribution of body hair (Krystal et al., 1990). These observations suggest that dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Figure 16.23A) may be involved in depression, perhaps as part of a depression-inducing stress reaction (Herbert, 2013).

Klüver-Bucy syndrome

A condition, brought about by bilateral amygdala damage, that is characterized by dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety. Early support for the limbic model of emotion came from studies of monkeys following removal of large portions of their temporal lobes (Klüver and Bucy, 1938). The animals' behavior changed dramatically after surgery; the highlight of this behavioral change was an extraordinary taming effect, part of what became known as the Klüver-Bucy syndrome

C fiber

a small, unmyelinated axon that conducts pain information slowly and adapts slowly

C fiber

a small, unmyelinated axon that conducts pain information slowly and adapts slowly This is the slow, dull pain of capsacin

anterolateral system or spinothalamic system

a somatosensory system that carries most of the pain information from the body to the brain

dorsal column system

a somatosensory system that delivers most touch stimuli via the dorsal columns of spinal white matter to the brain

photopic system

a system in the retina that operates at high levels of light, shows sensitivity to color, and involves the cones

scotopic system

a system in the retina that operates at low levels of light and involves the rods

Meissner's corpuscle

a type of mechanoreceptor. They are a type of nerve ending in the skin that is responsible for sensitivity to light touch. In particular, they have highest sensitivity (lowest threshold) when sensing vibrations lower than 50 Hertz. They are rapidly adaptive receptors.

Pacinian corpuscle

a type of nerve ending located in the subcutaneous layer that is sensitive to pressure; also described as "lamellated"

Merkel's disc

a type of sensory-nerve ending in the glabrous skin of the hands and feet and in the hairy skin

spectrally opponent cell

a visual receptor cell that has opposite firing responses to different regions of the spectrum

NaV1.7

a voltage gated sodium channel used almost exclusively by nociceptors to initiate action potentials

neuropathic pain

abnormal processing of pain message; burning, shooting in nature

neurofibrillary tangle

abnormal whorls of neurofilaments, including a protein called Tau, that form a tangled array inside the cell. The more tangles, the more brain damage

Binaural Cues

cues to sound location that involve both ears working together Consist of interaural intensity differences and Interaural temporal differences

feature search A search for an item in which the target pops out right away because it possesses a unique attribute.

conjunction search A search for an item that is based on two or more features (e.g., size and color) that together distinguish the target from distracters that may share some of the same attributes.

AMPA receptor A glutamate receptor that also binds the glutamate agonist AMPA.

protein kinase An enzyme that adds phosphate groups (PO4) to protein molecules, altering the protein's function.

encoding A stage of memory formation in which the information entering sensory channels is passed into short-term memory.

consolidation A stage of memory formation in which information in short-term or intermediate-term memory is transferred to long-term memory.

organ of Corti

converts vibration (from sound) into neural activity A structure in the inner ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve.' It consists of three main structures: (1) the auditory sensory cells, called hair cells (Figure 9.2E), which are embedded in the basilar membrane; (2) an elaborate framework of supporting cells; and (3) the auditory nerve terminals that transmit neural signals to and from the brain.

filopodia

extend from the growth cone

hemispatial neglect A syndrome in which the person fails to pay any attention to objects presented to one side of the body and may even deny connection with that side.

extinction Short for extinction of simultaneous double stimulation. In the context of neurology, an inability to recognize the double nature of stimuli presented simultaneously to both sides of the body. People experiencing extinction report the stimulus from only one side.

The canals of the cochlea are filled with

fluid

secondary sensory cortex

for a given sensory modality, the cortical regions receiving direct projections from primary sensory cortex for that modality

synaptogenesis

formation of synapses

tetanus An intense volley of action potentials.

long-term potentiation (LTP) A stable and enduring increase in the effectiveness of synapses following repeated strong stimulation.

hypodermis

loose connective tissue layer of skin below the dermis

Cortical area V5 (aka the medial temporal area or MT) has many cells that respond preferentially to

motion

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye / smooth muscle portion of the ciliary body, which contracts to assist in near vision

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

myopia

nearsightedness; lack of foresight

sensory pathway

nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons

task switching The shifting of attention and behavior from one task to a new one.

perseverate To continue to show a behavior repeatedly.

tactile

pertaining to the sense of touch

optic chiasm

point at which optic nerve fibers cross in the brain

reconsolidation The process by which a retrieved memory may be strengthened or altered before being returned to long-term memory.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Formerly called combat fatigue, war neurosis, or shell shock. A disorder in which memories of an unpleasant episode repeatedly plague the victim.

executive function A neural and cognitive system that helps develop plans of action and organizes the activities of other high-level processing systems.

prefrontal cortex The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe.

cingulate cortex

primary cortical component of the limbic system, involved in emotional and cognitive processing

pancreas

produces insulin and glucagon, enzymes, and sodium bicarbonate

adaptation

progressive loss of response when stimulation is maintained Adaptation means that there is a progressive shift in neural activity away from accurate portrayal of physical events.

Endogenous Opioids

endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins mu (μ) receptor is most affected by morphine

chemoaffinity hypothesis

The notion that each cell has a chemical identity that directs it to synapse on the proper target cell during development.

Frequency

The number of cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz). The number of cycles per second in a sound wave; measured in hertz (Hz).

diurnal

The opposite of nocturnal

adrenal cortex

The outer rind of the adrenal gland, which secretes steroid hormones, including cortisol.

External Ear

The part of the ear that we readily see (the pinna) and the canal that leads to the eardrum.

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

The part of the thalamus that receives information from the optic tract and sends it to visual areas in the occipital cortex.

lateral inhibition

The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons' responses.

Two

The peripheral nervous system has ___ divisions. The Somatic Nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Lateral Inhibition

The phenomenon by which interconnected neurons inhibit their neighbors, producing contrast at the edges of regions. Responsible for optical illusions Lateral inhibition occurs where the neurons in a region—in this case, retinal cells—are interconnected, either through their own axons or by means of interneurons, and each neuron tends to inhibit its neighbors (Figure 10.9).

inhibition of return

The phenomenon in which detection of stimuli at the former location of a cue is impaired for latencies of about 250 ms or more.

A

The phenomenon in which one neuron sends signals to many other neurons is called Answers: A. divergence. B. convergence. C. lateral interaction. D. Both a and c

genetic polymorphisms

The phenomenon in which there exist multiple (sometimes many) different alleles at an individual locus within a gene. ome of the variability in patients' responses to particular drugs can be explained by a collection of genetic polymorphisms—individual small variations within certain genes—so perhaps screening for specific combinations of polymorphisms could guide individualized selection and dosing of antidepressant medications

rhodopsin

The photopigment in rods that responds to light. The photons that strike the discs are captured by special photopigment receptor molecules. In the rods this photopigment is rhodopsin

According to John Cacioppo, evidence for autonomic differentiation within categories of emotions remains inconclusive.

The polygraph, which is claimed to serve as a lie detector, measures autonomic activity

blind spot

The portion of the visual field from which light falls on the optic disc. Because there are no receptors in this region, light striking it cannot be seen.

vestibular system

The position and movement of the head are detected by the vestibular system, which is part of the inner ear, attached to the adjacent cochlea within a hollow in the temporal bone The inner ear system that encodes the orientation and acceleration of the head in three axes, crucial for the sense of balance.

Stimulus Location

The position of an object or event, either outside or inside the body TONIC RECEPTORS: DO NOT ADAPT PHASIC RECEPTORS: Adapt

Fundamental Frequency

The predominant frequency of an auditory tone or a visual scene

The thoracic and lumbar regions

The preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are found in the middle parts of the spinal cord

attention

The process by which we select or focus on one or more specific stimuli for enhanced processing and analysis Also called selective attention. A state or condition of selective awareness by which specific stimuli are selected for enhanced processing. Posterior Parietal lobe is important for attention Cingulate Cortex has also been implicated in attention

sensory transduction

The process in which a receptor cell converts the energy in a stimulus into a change in the electrical potential across its membrane.

brain self-stimulation

The process in which animals will work to provide electrical stimulation to particular brain sites, presumably because the experience is very rewarding. This phenomenon, called brain self-stimulation, can also happen in humans. Effective stimulation sites for self-stimulation are especially concentrated in a large axon tract that ascends from the midbrain, projecting through the hypothalamus before terminating in multiple forebrain sites: the medial forebrain bundle. One important target for the axons is the nucleus accumbens, a major component of the brain's reward circuitry (see Chapter 4). Dopaminergic stimulation of this site appears to be very pleasurable.

accommodation

The process of focusing by the ciliary muscles and the lens to form a sharp image on the retina (by pulling on it).

entrainment

The process of synchronizing a biological rhythm to an environmental stimulus.

coding

The rules by which action potentials in a sensory system reflect a physical stimulus. Limited by the fact that action potentials are all the same. Thus, sensory information is coded by number, frequency, rhythm, etc... of action potentials

5. Neuronal Cell death

The selective death of many nerve cells

cocktail party effect

The selective enhancement of attention in order to filter out distracters, such as while listening to one person talking in the midst of a noisy party. Despite the high levels of background noise, you would probably find it relatively easy to focus on what your friend was saying, even if speaking quietly, because paying close attention would enhance your processing of your friend's speech and help filter out distracters. This selective enhancement is known as the cocktail party effect

anterolateral system

The sensations of pain and temperature are transmitted separately by the anterolateral, or spinothalamic system.

flavor

The sense of taste combined with the sense of smell.

attentional spotlight

The shifting of our limited selective attention around the environment to highlight stimuli for enhanced processing. So, our limited selective attention generally acts like an attentional spotlight, which shifts around the environment, highlighting stimuli for enhanced processing. It's an adaptation that we share with many other species because, like us, they are confronted with the problem of extracting important signals from a noisy background (Bee and Micheyl, 2008).

dichotic presentation

The simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to the right and the left ears.

Depression and sleep

The sleep of people with major depressive disorders is marked by a striking reduction in stage 3, slow-wave sleep and a corresponding increase in sleep stages 1 and 2 (Figure 16.24A). People with depression enter REM sleep much sooner after sleep onset (Figure 16.24B)—the latency to REM sleep correlates with the severity of depression—and their REM sleep is unusually vigorous. urthermore, the temporal distribution of REM sleep is altered, with an increased amount of REM sleep occurring during the first half of sleep, as though REM sleep were displaced toward an earlier period in the night (Palagini et al., 2013).

taste pore

The small aperture through which tastant molecules are able to access the sensory receptors of the taste bud.

minimal discriminable frequency difference

The smallest change in frequency that can be detected reliably between two tones. The detectable difference is about 2 Hz for sounds up to 2000 Hz; at higher frequencies, larger differences are required.

individual response stereotypy

The tendency of individuals to show the same response pattern to particular situations throughout their life span. Even as newborns, people differ in their emotional reactivity and physiological responses to emotional situations—a characteristic known as individual response stereotypy

photoreceptor adaptation

The tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match ambient levels of illumination. Thus, the visual system is concerned with differences, or changes, in brightness—not with the absolute level of illumination.

D

The term "hyperpolarization" refers to Answers: A. movement of the resting membrane potential toward 0 mV. B. greater positivity inside the neuron. C. graded potentials. D. movement of the resting membrane potential away from 0 mV.

Positive Symptoms

The term positive symptoms refers to behavioral states that have been gained; examples include hallucinations, delusions, and excited motor behavior. The term negative symptoms refers to behavioral functions that have been lost—for example, slow and impoverished thought and speech, emotional and social withdrawal

Cognitive Attribution Theory

The theory that our emotional experience results from cognitive analysis of the context around us, such that physiological changes may accentuate emotions but not specify which emotion we experience. Under Schachter's cognitive attribution theory, however, emotional labels (e.g., anger, fear, joy) are attributed to relatively nonspecific feelings of physiological arousal. Which emotion we experience depends on cognitive systems that assess the context—our current social, physical, and psychological situation. (ADRENALINE (NOREPINEPHRINE) EXPERIMENTS) These results suggest that cognitive analysis of the situation affects what emotion we experience. Thus, sympathetic activation may increase the intensity of emotion we experience, but it does not completely determine which emotion we experience.

James-Lange theory

The theory that our experience of emotion is a response to the physiological changes that accompany it.

Delta, Kappa, Beta

The three main kinds of opiate receptors

nonprimary motor cortex Frontal lobe regions adjacent to the primary motor cortex that contribute to motor control and modulate the activity of the primary motor cortex.

The traditional account of nonprimary motor cortex emphasizes two main regions: the supplementary motor area (SMA), which lies mainly on the medial aspect of the hemisphere, and the premotor cortex, which is anterior to the primary motor cortex (Figure 11.19).

3. Differentiation

The transformation of precursor cells into distinctive types of neurons and glial cells

vanilloid receptor 1 ?

The transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1, also known as the capsaicin receptor and the vanilloid receptor 1, is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the TRPV1 gene.

cornea

The transparent outer layer of the eye, whose curvature is fixed. It bends light rays and is primarily responsible for forming the image on the retina.

Neurons (nerve cells) and Glia

The two most important parts of the nervous system

magnocellular

The two ventral, or inner, layers of the primate LGN are called magnocellular because the neurons there are large.

visual field

The whole area that you can see without moving your head or eyes.

The classical serial recall function is U-shaped.

There are several successive processes in memory formation; the first stage is called encoding

MOTOR CONTROL MECHANISMS

There are two types of motor control mechanisms. Closed-Loop mechanisms maximize ACCURACY; information from what is being controlled flows back to the controlling device Open-loop mechanisms maximize SPEED: no external feedback; the activity is pre-programmed (ballistic movements).

Perseverate

To repeat something insistently or redundantly (nodding the head, finger movements, hand flapping

Innervate

To supply with nerves

Epidermis

Top layer, Thinnest

Hair follicle Receptor

Touch

Rostral

Toward the nose

Ventral

Towards the belly

Motor nerves (part of the PNS)

Transmit information from the spinal cord and brain to the muscles, organs, and glands.

Which of the following terms does not belong with the others?

Turbinate papillae

Monoamines

Two principal classes of neurotransmitters. They are MODIFIED AMINO ACIDS.

Astrocyte, Microglial Cell, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells

Types of Glial Cells

At some point, feed that contained protein derived from sheep with scrapie was fed to some cows in England and caused the cow version of the prion protein to fold abnormally. The result was a bovine version of scrapie called bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or mad cow disease) because the massive brain degeneration leaves the brain "spongy" (figure).

Unfortunately, before BSE was detected, infected cows provided beef for Britons and caused a similar disorder called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), infecting over 100,000 people in the United Kingdom. CJD is fatal, causing widespread brain degeneration and therefore dementia, sleep disorders (see Chapter 14), schizophrenia-like symptoms, and death. Although a few cases of BSE have now been detected in North American cattle, currently they are believed to pose little risk to human health, thanks to changes in screening and feed production procedures.

Dendritic,

Unipolar Neurons differ from multipolar and bipolar neurons in two ways 1. The integration zone is _________ instead of axonal. 2. The cell body is located in the conduction zone

Vasopressin, ADH, AVP

Urine Formation is Inhibited by

Amplitude (intensity)

Usually measured as sound pressure level, in dynes per square centimeter (dyne/cm^2). Our perception of amplitude is termed LOUDNESS, expressed in DECIBELS (dB)

Illusory contours are responded to by cells located in

V2

Size

Vertebrate nerve cell bodies vary tremendously in ____, ranging from as small as 10 micrometers (μm) to as large as 100 micrometers (μm) in diameter.

infrasound

Very low-frequency sound; in general, below the threshold for human hearing, at about 20 Hz.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)

Very similar to NGF A protein, found in the BRAINS of animals, that can keep some classes of neurons alive.

extrastriate cortex

Visual cortex outside of the primary visual (striate) cortex. These different cortical regions work in parallel to process different aspects of visual perception, such as form, color, location, and movement, In striate cortex, as well as most extrastriate regions, there is a topographic projection of the retina, which means there's a topographic projection of the visual field, discussed next.

The frontal eye field and IPS make up the cortical network called C. the dorsal frontoparietal system.

Voluntary attention is also called _______ attention. endogenous

Motor Proteins

Walk vesicles along microtubules inside the axon to get them to the axon terminals. This process is called AXONAL TRANSPORT

12

We each have __ pairs of cranial nerves - one left-sided and one right-sided nerve in each pair - that serve the sensory and motor systems of the head and neck

Where are iconic memories stored? sensory buffers This is a correct answer

We use declarative memory to answer ____ questions. "what" This is a correct answer

35 - QuizPatient K. C.'s memory deficits were probably due to damage to the 20 sec cortex. This is a correct answer

We use declarative memory to answer _____ questions. 20 sec "what" This is a correct answer

What does the EMG measure? 20 sec skeletal muscle activity This is a correct answer

What does the EOG measure? 20 sec eye movements This is a correct answer

Confabulation is most closely associated with _____ disease. 20 sec Korsakoff's This is a correct answer

When you retrieve information from long-term storage, they can become 20 sec distorted, plastic, and reconsolidated. This is a correct answer

Modulatory Site

Where a noncompetitive ligand binds

Choose the correct sequence. 20 sec photoreceptor - bipolar cell - ganglion cell - optic nerve This is a correct answer

Where are action potentials first generated? 20 sec ganglion cells This is a correct answer

Area V4 cells enable us to perceive 20 sec color, orientation, and spatial frequency. This is a correct answer

Where does opponent processing begin? 20 sec ganglion cell This is a correct answer

Conduction Zone (Part of a Neuron Structure)

Where information can be electrically transmitted over great distances Axons carry information away from the cell body

Where does crossover of retinal axons occur? 20 sec optic chiasm This is a correct answer

Where is the greatest density of cones in the retina? 20 sec fovea This is a correct answer

Input Zone (Part of Neuron Structure)

Where neurons collect and process information, either from the environment or from other cells At cellular extensions called dendrites, neurons receive information via synapses from other neurons. Dendrites may be elaborately branched to accommodate synaptic contacts from many other neurons The soma is the cell body and dendrites are cellular extensions that receive information

Integration Zone (Part of Neuron Structure)

Where the decision to produce a neural signal is made Cell body integrates information at the axon hillock

Axon Hillock

Where the neuron adds together graded positive and negative potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs)

locus coeruleus

Which brainstem nuclei are the source of most noradrenergic neurons?

Where does the pyramidal tract cross the midline? 20 sec medulla This is a correct answer

Which cortical region encodes information about movements and muscles? 20 sec primary motor cortex This is a correct answer

mesostriatal

Which dopamine pathway targets the basal ganglia?

The first investigation of instrumental learning was published by A. Edward Thorndike.

Which drug treatment has been proposed as a means of preventing the development of posttraumatic stress disorder? A. Beta-adrenergic antagonists

Oxytocin

Which hormone is responsible for the contractions of the uterus during childbirth?

Golgi Stain

Which neuroanatomical method provides an outline of entire neurons, including all of the cell's processes (axons and dendrites)? Labels only a small minority of neurons in a sample, but the affected cells are stained very deeply and completely, revealing fine details of cell structure such as the branches of dendrites and axons PRECISE, FOCUSED. SMALL PICTURE. EXACT.

ACTH

Which of the following hormones does not originate in the hypothalamus

LIP stands for C. lateral intraparietal area.

Which of the following is a component of an averaged-out ERP waveform? D. All of the above

5 - QuizThe frontal eye field and IPS make up the cortical network called the 20 sec dorsal frontoparietal system. This is a correct answer

Which of the following is a component of an averaged-out ERP waveform? N2, P1, and P3 This is a correct answer

The drug Prozac is an example of a Selected Answer:D. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

Which of the following is not a positive symptom of schizophrenia? Selected Answer:D. Social withdrawal

A major difficulty with the cognitive theory of emotions is that there may be a specific pattern of autonomic arousal for each emotion.

Which of the following is not an aspect of emotions? B. Hunger

C

Which of the following presynaptic events are presented in correct chronological order? Answers: A. Exocytosis, calcium ion influx, action potential reaches axon terminal, membrane depolarization B. Action potential reaches axon terminal, calcium ion channels open, neurotransmitter diffusion, exocytosis C. Action potential reaches axon terminal, calcium ion channels open, exocytosis, diffusion of neurotransmitter D. Calcium ion influx, action potential reaches axon terminal, vesicle fuses with membrane, diffusion of neurotransmitter

A viewer presented with two videos projected onto the same screen will be aware of only one at any given moment due to an attentional phenomenon called A. inattentional blindness.

Which of the following structures has/have been shown to be involved in sustained attention? BOTH A AND B: Superior colliculus and Lateral geniculate nucleus

Endocrine to neural

Which of the following types of interaction is responsible for the effect of testosterone on the excitability of the brain?

Which statement is correct? 20 sec The cornea is mainly responsible for refracting light. This is a correct answer

Which of these enables us to perceive edges? 20 sec lateral inhibition This is a correct answer

Which measures the electrical potentials generated by eye movements? 20 sec EOG This is a correct answer

Which of these is the most powerful zeitgeber? 20 sec light This is a correct answer

When light is absorbed by a photoreceptor, this results in _____ and _____. 20 sec hyperpolarization; less neurotransmitter release This is a correct answer

Which prevents a scene from disappearing when we fixate on an image? 20 sec saccades This is a correct answer

In a peripheral spatial cuing task, a valid unexpected stimulus enhances the detection of targets when the interval between the stimulus and the target is C. short.

Which researcher was most influential in addressing the issue of the binding problem? A. Anne Treisman

The brain's main biological clock is located in the 20 sec suprachiasmatic nucleus This is a correct answer

Which retinal cells detect the light that regulates circadian rhythms? 20 sec ganglion This is a correct answer

Which protects us against excessive muscle contraction? Golgi tendon organs This is a correct answer

Which signal extrafusal fibers to contract? alpha motor neurons This is a correct answer

retinal

a chemical synthesized from vitamin A; joins with an opsin to form a photopigment

Catecholamine

a class of amines that includes the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine

amblyopia

a dimness of vision or the partial loss of sight, especially in one eye, without detectable disease of the eye (lazy eye?)

caspases

a family of proteases (protein-dissolving enzymes) that cut up proteins and nuclear DNA.

opponent-process hypothesis

a hypothesis of color perception stating that different systems produce opposite responses to light of different wavelengths

trichromatic hypothesis

a hypothesis of color perception stating that there are three different types of cones, each excited by a different region of the spectrum and each having a separate pathway to the brain

range fractionation

a hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities

analgesia

a lessening of pain without loss of consciousness

transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1)

a member of the transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channel family, is a nonselective cation channel that is widely expressed in sensory nerve fibers and nonneuronal cells, including certain vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells.

periaqueductal gray

a midbrain region involved in pain perception

spatial-frequency filter model

a model of pattern analysis that emphasizes Fourier analysis of visual stimuli

simple cortical cell

a neuron in the visual cortex that responds best to bars of a particular orientation

top-down process

a process in which higher-order cognitive processes control lower-order systems, often reflecting conscious control

β-amyloid

a protein that accumulates in senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease

tonic receptor

a receptor in which the frequency of action potentials declines slowly or not at all as stimulation is maintained

phasic receptor

a receptor in which the frequency of action potentials drops rapidly as stimulation is maintained

Piezo2

a receptor protein in touch receptors that responds to mechanical stretch by opening channels to let cations in to depolarize the cell

opioid receptor

a receptor that responds to endogenous opioids and/or exogenous opiates

transient receptor potential type M3 (TRPM3)

a receptor, found in some free nerve endings, that opens its channel in response to rising temperatures

on-center bipolar cell

a retinal bipolar cell that is excited by light in the center of its receptive field

off-center bipolar cell

a retinal bipolar cell that is inhibited by light in the center of its receptive field

off-center ganglion cell

a retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the periphery, rather than the center, of the cell's receptive field

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

superior colliculi Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive visual information and are involved in direction of visual gaze and visual attention to intended stimuli.

pulvinar In humans, the posterior portion of the thalamus, heavily involved in visual processing and direction of attention.

hard problem of consciousness The problem of how to read people's subjective experience of consciousness and determine the qualia that accompany perception.

qualia Singular quale. Purely subjective experiences of perception.

primary somatosensory cortex (S1)

receives touch information from the opposite side of the body

on-center/off-surround

referring to a concentric receptive field in which stimulation of the center excites the cell of interest while stimulation of the surround inhibits it

off-center/on-surround

referring to a concentric receptive field in which stimulation of the center inhibits the cell of interest while stimulation of the surround excites it

coding

refers to the way in which information is changed and stored in memory.

primary sensory cortex

regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses

placebo

something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect

optic ataxia

spatial disorientation in which the patient is unable to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance

temporal resolution The ability of an imaging technique to track changes in the brain over time.

spatial resolution The ability to observe the detailed structure of the brain.

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Sensory Buffers

the briefest memories are held in sensory buffers, and store sensory impressions that only last a few seconds

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

labeled lines

the concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information

congenital insensitivity to pain

the condition of being born without the ability to perceive pain

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

wavelength

the distance between two adjacent crests of vibratory activity The length between two peaks in a repeated stimulus such as a wave, light, or sound.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

specific nerve energies

the doctrine that the receptors and neural channels for the different senses are independent and operate in their own special ways and can produce only one particular sensation each

sympathetic nervous system

the fight-or-flight system that generally activates the body for action A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

rhodopsin

the pigment in rod cells that causes light sensitivity

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

acupuncture

the practice of inserting fine needles through the skin at specific points to cure disease or relieve pain

sensory transduction

the process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into slow, graded receptor potentials

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

extrastriate cortex

the region of cortex bordering the primary visual cortex and containing multiple areas involved in visual processing

receptive field

the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron

photoreceptor adaptation

the tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match ambient levels of illumination

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

adequate stimulus

the type of stimulus for which a given sensory organ is particularly adapted

visual field

the whole area that you can see without moving your head or eyes

attention Also called selective attention. A state or condition of selective awareness by which specific stimuli are selected for enhanced processing.

vigilance The global, nonselective level of alertness of an individual.

marijuana

weed haha

short-term memory (STM) A form of memory that usually lasts only for seconds, or as long as rehearsal continues, especially while being used during performance of a task.

working memory A type of short-term memory that holds a limited amount of information available for ready access during performance of a task.

stress

Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance.

opioids

Any drug or agent with actions similar to morphine.

Tetratogen

Any factor that can cause a birth defect

Ligand

Any substance that binds to a receptor

Diablo

Apoptosis appears to begin with a sudden influx and release of calcium (Ca2+) ions that cause the mitochondria inside the cell to release a protein called, devilishly enough, Diablo

Damage to nonmotor zones of the cerebral cortex, such as some regions of parietal or frontal association cortex, produces more-complicated changes in motor control. One condition characterized by such damage is apraxia (from the Greek a-, "not," and praxis, "action"), the inability to carry out complex movements even though paralysis or weakness is not evident and language comprehension and motivation are intact. Apraxia is illustrated in the following example: When asked to smile, a patient is unable to do so, although he certainly attempts to. If asked to use a comb placed in front of him, he seems unable to figure out what to do.

Apraxia - An impairment in the ability to begin and execute skilled voluntary movements, even though there is no muscle paralysis.

Which visual area helps us to perceive movement? 20 sec V5 This is a correct answer

Area ____ helps form mental images. 20 sec V1 This is a correct answer

Sensory Nerves (part of the PNS)

Arise from sensory surfaces and convey information from the body to the spinal cord and brain.

MRI studies of the brains of people with Tourette's syndrome have revealed that, on average, Tourette's patients have _______ compared to normal subjects. Selected Answer:C. smaller motor cortex

Compared with the data from controls, PET scans of patients with depression show Selected Answer:A. increases in blood flow in the frontal cortex and amygdala.

At what age is it assumed infants begin to understand rules of grammar? B. 7 months

Neurogenesis occurs primarily in the _______ region of the hippocampus. A. dentate gyrus

Gross Neuroanatomy

Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, axons, and glia mass together to form the tissues that define the gross anatomy of the nervous system - the neural structures that are visible to the unaided eye.

Contiguous

Neurons are __________, that is, close together but not joined

Diverse

Neurons are very _______(Diverse)

Sacral Nerves

S1-S5. Pelvis.

perceptual load

The immediate processing challenge presented by a stimulus.

nociceptor

, pain receptor, Send pain signals to CNS. Detect damage to body

Neuron Doctrine

-The brain is composed of independent cells (structurally, metabolically, and functionally independent). -Information is transmitted from cell to cell across synapses (tiny gaps). (Synapses can be chemical or electrical and involve unidirectional or bidirectional

Aδ fiber

A large, myelinated, and therefore fast-conducting axon, usually transmitting acute pain information.

phasic receptor

A receptor in which the frequency of action potentials drops rapidly as stimulation is maintained.

complex cortical cells

. Like the simple cells, complex cortical cells have elongated receptive fields, but in addition they show some latitude for location; that is, they respond to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a larger area of the visual field.

Using binaural detection, people can localize the source of a sound to within about _______ degree(s).

1

2 - QuizWhich signal extrafusal fibers to contract? 20 sec alpha motor neurons This is a correct answer

1 - QuizWhich protects us against excessive muscle contraction? 20 sec Golgi tendon organs This is a correct answer

Fast rate of transport along axons

200-400 mm per day

23 - QuizNeuroleptic drugs that reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia blockade ___ receptors. 20 sec D2 This is a correct answer

22 - QuizThe reduced prefrontal cortex metabolism when schizophrenics re-sort WCST cards is called 20 sec hypofrontality. This is a correct answer

Antidepressants that target serotonin reuptake are called 20 sec SSRIs. This is a correct answer

24 - QuizWhich drug blockades glutamate receptors to produce schizophrenic symptoms? 20 sec PCP

Benzodiazepines like Valium bind at allosteric sites on the ____ receptor. 20 sec GABA-A This is a correct answer

26 - QuizBenzodiazepines are prescribed to manage brief episodes of 20 sec anxiety. This is a correct answer

What best characterizes atypical antipsychotics? 20 sec They present a reduced risk of motor side effects. This is a correct answer

28 - QuizHistorically, psychiatrists have treated classic bipolar disorder with 20 sec lithium. This is a correct answer

4 - QuizWhich cortical region encodes information about movements and muscles? 20 sec primary motor cortex This is a correct answer

3 - QuizWhere does the pyramidal tract cross the midline? 20 sec medulla This is a correct answer

What does episodic memory contain? experiences This is a correct answer

30 - QuizExtended typical antipsychotic treatment is most likely to produce 20 sec tardive dyskinesia. This is a correct answer

15 - QuizThere is a negative correlation between aggression and ______ activity. 20 sec serotonin This is a correct answer

4 - QuizBrain self-stimulation sites are located within the 20 sec medial forebrain bundle. This is a correct answer

Neuroleptic drugs that reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia blockade ___ receptors. 20 sec D2 This is a correct answer

4 - QuizWhich drug blockades glutamate receptors to produce schizophrenic symptoms? 20 sec PCP This is a correct answer

Paracrine

A cell that releases a hormone that affects the cell next to it is engaged in _______ communication

stimulus

A change in an organism's surroundings that causes the organism to react

adaptation

A characteristic that improves an individual's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

benzodiazepines

A class of antianxiety drugs that bind with high affinity to receptor molecules in the central nervous system. One example is diazepam (Valium).

ganglion cells

A class of cells in the retina whose axons form the optic nerve. there are only 1 million ganglion cells to transmit information from rods and cones to the brain, so a lot of processing is in the eye

opiates

A class of compounds that exert an effect like that of opium, including reduced pain sensitivity.

antipsychotics

A class of drugs that alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia, typically by blocking dopamine receptors.

bipolar cells

A class of interneurons of the retina that receive information from rods and cones and pass the information to retinal ganglion cells.

G Proteins

A class of proteins that reside next to the intracellular portion of a receptor and that are activated when the receptor binds an appropriate ligand on the extracellular surface.

polioviruses

A class of viruses that destroy motor neurons of the spinal cord and brainstem. Polioviruses destroy motor neurons of the spinal cord and, in more severe types of the disease, cranial motor neurons of the brainstem. Because the muscles are no longer called on to contract, they atrophy. If the muscles controlling breathing deteriorate sufficiently, the person must rely on a ventilator to stay alive.

taste bud

A cluster of 50-150 cells that detects tastes. Taste buds are found in papillae.

medial forebrain bundle

A collection of axons traveling in the midline region of the forebrain. Effective self-stimulation sites are concentrated here

orientation column

A column in the visual cortex that contains neurons with the same orientation preference.

orientation column

A column of visual cortex that responds to rod-shaped stimuli of a particular orientation.

glomerulus

A complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells. The olfactory bulb is organized into many roughly spherical neural circuits called glomeruli (singular glomerulus, from the Latin glomus, "ball"), within which the axon terminals of olfactory receptor neurons synapse on the dendrites of the specialized mitral cells of the olfactory bulb (see Figure 9.28).

dimer

A complex of two proteins that have bound together. Cells in the SCN make the two proteins Clock and Cycle (actually, it is called Cycle in DrosophilaFRUITFLIES and Bmal1 in mammals). These two proteins bind together to form a dimer (a pair of molecules joined together). This dimer binds to the cell's DNA to promote the transcription of two other genes (per and cryptochrome [cry]). The resulting Per and Cry proteins dimerize, and then they inhibit expression of the Clock/Cycle genes that began the whole process.

dissociative thinking

A condition, seen in schizophrenia, that is characterized by disturbances of thought and difficulty in relating events properly. Eugen Bleuler (1857-1939) introduced the term schizophrenia (from the Greek schizein, "to split," and phren, "mind") in 1911 (Bleuler, 1950 translation). Despite the name he chose, Bleuler was not thinking of a "split personality." Rather, he identified the key symptom as dissociative thinking, a major impairment in the logical structure of thought, as well as emotional disturbance, delusions, and hallucinations.

Parkinson's disease

A degenerative neurological disorder, characterized by tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and reduction in voluntary movement, that involves dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. Parkinson's disease afflicts almost 1% of the U.S. population age 65 and older,

amphetamine psychosis

A delusional and psychotic state, closely resembling acute schizophrenia, that is brought on by repeated use of high doses of amphetamine.

coincidence detector

A device that senses the co-occurrence of two events.

hue

A dimension of light perception, varying around the color circle through blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

muscular dystrophy (MD)

A disease that leads to degeneration of and functional changes in muscles. Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the most prevalent form of MD, strikes almost exclusively boys, beginning at the age of about 4 to 6 years and usually leading to death in early adulthood. Studies of family pedigrees show that the disorder is a simple Mendelian trait—caused by a single gene—carried on the X chromosome. When the gene was identified, it was named dystrophin. In some ways the name is unfortunate because the dystrophin protein, when normal, does not lead to dystrophy. Dystrophin is normally produced in muscle cells and is part of a vital structural component of muscle fibers. Because a woman has two X chromosomes, even if one carries the defective copy of the dystrophin gene, the other X chromosome can still direct production of sufficient normal dystrophin. But about 50% of her sons will receive the defective gene and, because they have only the one X chromosome, will be afflicted with the disease. In an effort to halt the loss of muscle fibers in Duchenne, scientists are trying to use gene therapy to induce the muscles of boys with this disease to produce normal dystrophin. One approach, using CRISPR (see Appendix Figure A.5) to insert the dystrophin gene into muscle, worked in a dog model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (Amoasii et al., 2018), so hopes are high.

autoimmune disorder

A disorder caused when the immune system mistakenly attacks a person's own body, thereby interfering with normal functioning.

myasthenia gravis

A disorder characterized by a profound weakness of skeletal muscles. It is caused by a loss of acetylcholine receptors. This disorder is characterized by a profound weakness of skeletal muscles. The disease often first affects the muscles of the head, producing symptoms such as drooping of the eyelids, double vision, and slowing of speech. In later stages, paralysis of the muscles that control swallowing and respiration becomes life-threatening. The weakness happens because the neuromuscular junctions are not working—the muscles aren't getting the message to contract. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder: most cases result when antibodies develop and attack a patient's own ACh receptors, disrupting neuromuscular junctions. In other cases, the antibodies are directed toward other proteins that are associated with the ACh receptor. Treatment often consists of suppressing the immune system with drugs (Dalakas, 2019) or of surgically removing the thymus (Cataneo et al., 2018), one source of antibodies.

amusia

A disorder characterized by the inability to discern tunes accurately.

Bell's palsy

A disorder, usually caused by viral infection, in which the facial nerve on one side stops conducting action potentials, resulting in paralysis of one side of the face. Sometimes viruses infect the facial nerve and damage it enough to cause paralysis of facial muscles. This condition, known as Bell's palsy, usually affects just one side, resulting in a variety of symptoms, including drooping eyelid and mouth (Figure 15.11). There is no standard treatment, but happily most people recover on their own within a few weeks, and almost everyone recovers within 6 months.

l-dopa

A drug for Parkinson's disease that contains the precursors to dopamine so that once it is in the brain, it will be converted to dopamine.

reserpine

A drug that causes the depletion of monoamines and can lead to depression.

Partial Agonist

A drug that has submaximal efficacy

general anesthetic

A drug that renders an individual unconscious. While some general anesthetics are glutamate antagonists and therefore block neuronal excitation throughout the brain, virtually all general anesthetics are noncompetitive agonists at GABAA receptors (Figure 14.28).

delusion

A false belief strongly held in spite of contrary evidence.

T2R

A family of bitter taste receptors.

Endogenous Opioids

A family of peptide transmitters that bind to opioid receptors and act like opiates. They have been called the body's own narcotics. The three kinds are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins.

endogenous opioids

A family of peptide transmitters that have been called the body's own narcotics. The three kinds are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins.

T1R

A family of taste receptor proteins that, when particular members heterodimerize, form taste receptors for sweet flavors and umami flavors.

Myelin

A fatty, insulating substance, giving the axon the appearance of a string of slender beads

Transsynaptically

A few specialized retrograde tract tracers (such as labeled pseudorabies virus) can even work _________________: They jump backward across synapses and work their way "upstream," back toward higher levels of the nervous system, leaving visible molecules of label all along the way

attentional bottleneck

A filter that results from the limits intrinsic to our attentional processes, with the result that only the most important stimuli are selected for special processing.

A fiber

A form of complex carbohydrates from plants that humans cannot digest

Alzheimer's Disease

A form of dementia that may appear in middle age but is more frequent among the elderly. Cannot be diagnosed until after death

death gene

A gene that is expressed only when a cell becomes committed to natural cell death (apoptosis).

cortisol

A glucocorticoid stress hormone of the adrenal cortex.

tuning curve

A graph of the responses of a single auditory nerve fiber or neuron to sounds that vary in frequency and intensity.

amygdala

A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe. the amygdala is a key structure in the mediation of fear Located at the anterior medial portion of the temporal lobe, the amygdala is composed of about a dozen different nuclei, each with a distinct set of connections. Recall that lesions of the entire amygdala seemed to abolish fear in monkeys. Lesioning just the central nucleus of the amygdala has the same effect, preventing blood pressure increases and freezing behavior in response to a conditioned fear stimulus. Subsequent research has confirmed that the amygdala is crucial not only for aversive conditioning but also appetitive learning: conditioned positive emotional reactions to attractive stimuli, such as to sex-related stimuli, or other pleasurable signals. In both cases, the amygdala is thought to help form associations between emotional responses and specific memories of stimuli that are stored elsewhere in the brain (Janak and Tye, 2015; Paton et al., 2006).

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

A hypothalamic region involved in eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors.

trichromatic hypothesis

A hypothesis of color perception stating that there are three different types of cones, each excited by a different region of the spectrum and each having a separate pathway to the brain. Helmholtz predicted that blue-sensitive, green-sensitive, and red-sensitive receptors would be found; that each would be sharply tuned to its part of the spectrum; and that each type would have a separate path to the brain.

range fractionation

A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities.

muscle fiber

A large cylindrical cell that can contract in response to neurotransmitter released from a motor neuron.

G-protein coupled receptors

A large family of cell-membrane-spanning receptors that, when activated extracellularly, use G proteins on their intracellular surface to affect the receiving cell.

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. It has been suggested that the cerebellum elaborates neural "programs" for the control of skilled movements, particularly rapid, repeated movements that become automatic.

Decibels (dB)

A measure of sound intensity. The decibel scale is logarithmic: 1dB is the threshold for human hearing, a faint whisper is about 20 dB, and a jet airliner 500 feet overhead (140 dB) is about a million times as intense. Normal conversation is about 60 dB

basilar membrane

A membrane in the cochlea that contains the principal structures involved in auditory transduction.

opsin

A membrane protein bound to a light-absorbing pigment molecule.

round window

A membrane separating the cochlear duct from the middle-ear cavity.

tectorial membrane

A membrane that sits atop the organ of Corti in the cochlear duct.

Korsakoff's syndrome

A memory disorder, related to a thiamine deficiency, that is generally associated with chronic alcoholism. The importance of medial thalamus and the mammillary bodies for forming declarative memories is reinforced by studies of people with Korsakoff's syndrome—named for its nineteenth-century discoverer, Russian neurologist Sergei Korsakoff—who also have anterograde amnesia for declarative memories. People with Korsakoff's syndrome frequently deny that anything is wrong with them, and they often confabulate—that is, fill a gap in memory with a falsification that they seem to accept as true.

declarative memory

A memory that can be stated or described. 1.Declarative memory is what we usually think of as memory: facts and information acquired through learning. It is memory we are aware of accessing, which we can declare to others. This is the type of memory Henry could no longer acquire. Tests of declarative memory take the form of requests for specific information that has been learned previously, such as a story or word list. It is the type of memory we use to answer "what" questions—and thus is difficult to test in animals.

cognitive map

A mental representation of a spatial relationship. The early work indicated that rats and other animals don't just learn a series of turns but instead form a cognitive map (an understanding of the relative spatial organization of objects and information) in order to solve a maze (Tolman, 1949). Animals apparently learn at least some of these details of their spatial environment simply by moving through it, a phenomenon that was termed latent learning (Tolman and Honzik, 1930).

stapedius

A middle-ear muscle that is attached to the stapes.

early-selection model

A model of attention in which the attentional bottleneck filters out stimuli before even preliminary perceptual analysis has occurred. A possible resolution to the debate over early versus late selection involves the concept of perceptual load—the immediate processing challenge presented by a stimulus. According to this view, when we focus on a complex stimulus that requires a lot of perceptual processing, no perceptual resources remain for use on competing unattended items (N. Lavie et al., 2004). So in this case, attention exerts early selection and excludes other stimuli from the outset.

late-selection model

A model of attention in which the attentional bottleneck filters out stimuli only after substantial analysis has occurred. SUPPORTED BY THE FACT THAT YOUR ATTENTION IS GRABBED BY YOUR NAME But when we focus on simpler stimuli, there is enough perceptual capacity to allow for processing of other stimuli, right up to the level of semantic meaning, recognition, and awareness (and thus, late selection) (N. Lavie et al., 2009). In other words, if we view attention as a limited resource, then we only have enough of it to do one complex task at a time, or a few very simple ones These studies thus indicate that attention is continually rebalanced between early and late selection, according to the difficulty of the task at hand..

spatial-frequency filter model

A model of pattern analysis that emphasizes Fourier analysis of visual stimuli.

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A modified form of MRI in which the diffusion of water in a confined space is exploited to produce images of axonal fiber tracts.

extrapyramidal system

A motor system that includes the basal ganglia and some closely related brainstem structures. In addition to the corticospinal outflow from primary and nonprimary motor cortices through the pyramidal tract, many other motor tracts run from the forebrain to the brainstem and spinal cord. Because these tracts are outside the pyramids of the medulla, they and their connections are called the extrapyramidal system.

muscle spindle

A muscle receptor that lies parallel to a muscle and sends action potentials to the central nervous system when the muscle is stretched. THE MUSCLE SPINDLE The muscle spindle is a complicated structure consisting of both afferent and efferent elements. Each spindle (a tapered cylinder) contains small muscle fibers called intrafusal fibers (from the Latin intra, "within," and fusus, "spindle"); the ordinary muscle fibers that lie outside the spindles are called extrafusal fibers

antagonist

A muscle that counteracts the effect of another muscle. Around a joint, different muscles are arranged in a reciprocal fashion: when one muscle group contracts, it stretches the other group; that is, the muscles are antagonists.

Neuromodulator

A naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid

mirror neuron

A neuron that is active both when an individual makes a particular movement and when that individual sees another individual make that same movement.

grid cell

A neuron that selectively fires when an animal crosses the intersection points of an abstract grid map of the local environment.

place cell

A neuron within the hippocampus that selectively fires when the animal is in a particular location. We now know that, in parallel with its role in other types of declarative memory, the hippocampus is a crucial neural participant in spatial learning. Within the rat hippocampus are found many neurons that selectively encode spatial location (Leutgeb et al., 2005; O'Keefe and Dostrovsky, 1971). These place cells become active when the animal is in—or moving toward—a particular location (Pastalkova et al., 2008) (Figure 17.16A). If the animal is placed in a new environment, its place cell activity indicates that the hippocampus remaps to the new locations (Moita et al., 2004). Lesions of this part of the hippocampus severely impair spatial learning in rats (McNaughton et al., 1996) and humans (Bartsch et al., 2010).

acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons, by motor neurons, and by neurons throughout the brain. Each axonal branch carries an action potential to its axon terminal, which then (in vertebrates) releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Muscle fibers respond to the ACh by producing action potentials of their own. The action potentials travel along the muscle fibers, permitting sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) ions to enter and then trigger the molecular changes in actin and myosin that produce contraction.

substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

photon

A particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum of energy

dermatome

A patch of skin innervated by a particular spinal nerve.

natriuretic polypeptide B (Nppb)

A peptide neurotransmitter used by neurons reporting itch to the spinal cord.

substance P

A peptide transmitter implicated in pain transmission. Injection of capsaicin into the skin provides a specific painful stimulus that leads to the release of substance P in the dorsal horn.

patient K.C.

A person who sustained damage to the cortex that rendered him unable to retrieve autobiographical memories. Upon his death we learned that his name was Kent Cochran. One striking case study indicates that the cortex is crucial for storing memories once they are formed and also illustrates an important distinction between two subtypes of declarative memory. Profiled in numerous scientific reports as patient K.C., Kent Cochran sustained serious brain damage in a motorcycle accident at age 30. For more than 30 years, from his accident until the day he died in 2014 at age 62, Kent was unable to retrieve any personal memory of his past, although his general knowledge remained good. He conversed easily and played a good game of chess (Figure 17.11), but he could not remember where he learned to play chess or who taught him the game.

patient H.M.

A person who, because of damage to medial temporal lobe structures, was unable to encode new declarative memories. Upon his death we learned his name was Henry Molaison.

Excitotoxicity

A phenomenon in which neural injury, such as a stroke or trauma, provokes an excessive release of glutamate that overexcites neurons, eventually killing them

Stimulus

A physical event that triggers a sensory response.

marijuana

A plant whose leaves, buds, and flowers are usually smoked for their intoxicating effects

naloxone

A potent antagonist of opiates that is often administered to people who have taken drug overdoses. It blocks receptors for endogenous opioids. The researchers gave the opioid antagonist naloxone to other patients, who were also administered the placebo. Patients given the placebo and naloxone did not experience pain relief; this result implies that placebo relieves pain by causing the release of endogenous opioids. Acupuncture doesn't control pain when endogenous opioids are blocked by nalaxone.

top-down process

A process in which higher-order cognitive processes control lower-order systems, often reflecting conscious control.

Top-Down Process

A process in which higher-order cognitive processes control lower-order systems, often reflecting conscious control. SUPPRESSION OF LOWER PARTS OF THE SENSORY HIERARCHY (receptors) BY HIGHER PARTS (brain)

macular degeneration

A progressive loss of central vision due to death or obstruction of photoreceptors in the retina.

α-synuclein

A protein implicated in Parkinson's disease. Most cases of Parkinson's disease are not inherited (Trinh and Farrer, 2013), but in one large Italian family, Parkinson's disease develops in members who inherit a defective copy of the gene that encodes α-synuclein (S. A. Schneider and Alcalay, 2017), a protein normally expressed in the basal ganglia.

huntingtin

A protein produced by a gene called HTT that may contain too many trinucleotide repeats. When it does, the protein causes Huntington's disease in a carrier. In Huntington's disease, the huntingtin protein that is produced is abnormally lengthened because of a series of three nucleotides, CAG (see the Appendix), that is repeated over and over in the HTT gene. If the gene contains fewer than 30 of these trinucleotide repeats, no symptoms appear, but if there are 35 or more CAG trinucleotide repeats in the HTT gene, the person will develop Huntington's disease (Squitieri, 2013).

prion

A protein that can become improperly folded and thereby become an infectious agent, spreading diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

Parkin

A protein that has been implicated in Parkinson's disease. Another family with inherited Parkinson's disease turned out to have a defective copy of another gene, named parkin, which encodes the protein parkin (Corti et al., 2011).

depression

A psychiatric condition characterized by such symptoms as an unhappy mood; loss of interests, energy, and appetite; and difficulty concentrating. Clinically significant depression is characterized by an unhappy mood; loss of interests, energy, and appetite; difficulty in concentration; and restless agitation.

photon

A quantum of electromagnetic energy in the range of wavelengths we call light.

ballistic movement

A rapid muscular movement that is generally preprogrammed. Open-loop controls are needed in systems that must respond so rapidly that there is no time to wait for a feedback signal. For example, once a baseball pitcher begins throwing a fastball, the pitch will be completed as programmed no matter what sensory feedback is received. Such open-loop movements are called ballistic movements.

Rett syndrome

A rare genetic disorder, occurring almost exclusively in girls, of slowing development resulting in intellectual disability, stereotyped movements, and loss of language.

Orphan receptor

A receptor for which an endogenous ligand has not been conclusively identified

tonic receptor

A receptor in which the frequency of action potentials declines slowly or not at all as stimulation is maintained.

evolutionary psychology

A research field that asks how evolutionary selection pressures have shaped the behavior of humans and other animals. Proponents of evolutionary psychology point to additional ways in which emotions are adaptive and could have developed through natural selection (Cosmides and Tooby, 2000). They suggest that emotions are broad motivational programs that coordinate various responses to solve specific adaptive problems, including maintaining cooperative relations with other members of your group, choosing a mate, avoiding predators, and finding food sources.

on-center bipolar cell

A retinal bipolar cell that is excited by light in the center of its receptive field. One group of bipolar cells are called on-center bipolar cells: turning on a light directed at the center of an on-center bipolar cell's receptive field excites the cell because it receives less glutamate, which inhibits on-center bipolar cells (Figure 10.13, left).

off-center bipolar cell

A retinal bipolar cell that is inhibited by light in the center of its receptive field. A second group of bipolar cells are off-center bipolar cells: turning off light in the center of an off-center bipolar cell's receptive field excites the cell because it receives more glutamate, which depolarizes off-center bipolar cells (Figure 10.13, right).

on-center ganglion cell

A retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the center, rather than the periphery, of the cell's receptive field.

Notochord

A rodlike structure that forms along the midline. Releases Sonic Hedgehog

pineal gland

A secretory gland in the brain midline that is the source of melatonin release. For example, the pineal gland of some amphibians and birds is itself sensitive to light (Jamieson and Roberts, 2000) and helps entrain circadian rhythms to light.

cool-menthol receptor 1 (CMR1)

A sensory receptor, found in some free nerve endings, that opens an ion channel in response to a mild temperature drop or exposure to menthol

lateral-line system

A sensory system, found in many kinds of fishes and some amphibians, that informs the animal of water motion in relation to the body surface.

Motor Plan (aka Motor Program)

A set of muscle commands established before an action occurs Feedback from movements informs and fine-tunes the program as it unfolds, but the basic sequence of movements is planned

schizophrenia

A severe psychopathology characterized by negative symptoms such as emotional withdrawal and impoverished thought and also by positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions. Today, the major symptom categories associated with schizophrenia include (1) auditory hallucinations, (2) highly personalized delusions (false beliefs), (3) changes in affect (emotion), and (4) cognitive impairments.

olfactory epithelium

A sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors, that lines the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions, including the septum that separates the left and right nasal cavities.

phase shift

A shift in the activity of a biological rhythm, typically provided by a synchronizing environmental stimulus.

reflex

A simple, highly stereotyped, and unlearned response to a particular stimulus (e.g., an eye blink in response to a puff of air).

motor unit

A single motor axon and all the muscle fibers that it innervates. The motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers innervated by its various axonal branches (see Figure 11.8C). When the motor neuron fires, each of the muscle fibers that it innervates is stimulated. The innervation ratio is the number of muscle fibers innervated by one motor neuron. Low innervation ratios characterize delicate muscles involved in fine movements, like those that move the eye—which have one motor neuron for every three fibers (a 1:3 ratio), allowing exquisitely fine gradations of contraction. Motor units of massive muscles such as those of the leg have high innervation ratios, with each motor neuron innervating hundreds of muscle fibers, so a single motor neuron contracts many muscle fibers at once and produces a lot of force.

ocular dominance slab

A slab of visual cortex, about 0.5 mm wide, in which the neurons of all layers respond preferentially to stimulation of one eye.

sleep cycle

A sleep cycle is a period of NREM sleep followed by an episode of REM sleep. A period of slow-wave sleep followed by a period of REM sleep. In humans, a sleep cycle lasts 90-110 minutes. For laboratory rats, one sleep cycle lasts an average of 10-11 minutes; for humans, one cycle lasts 90-110 minutes, as we said earlier.

REM behavior disorder (RBD)

A sleep disorder in which a person physically acts out a dream.

receptor potential

A slow, graded electrical potential produced by a receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus

Second Messenger

A slow-acting substance in a target cell that amplifies the effects of synaptic or hormonal activity and regulates activity within the target cell.

papilla (plural: papillae)

A small bump that projects from the surface of the tongue. Papillae contain most of the taste receptor cells. Three types: 1. Circumvallate papillae -Located in the back 2. Foliate papillae -Located along the sides of the tongue 3. Fungiform Papillae -Contain only about six taste buds each -Resemble button mushrooms in shape -Numbers vary greatly among individuals Each of the relatively few circumvallate papillae and foliate papillae contains many taste buds in its sides.

otolith

A small crystal on the gelatinous membrane in the vestibular system. INSIDE THE UTRICLE AND SACCULE The utricle and saccule detect linear acceleration and static position, aided by tiny crystals, called otoliths, that overlie the hair cells in these structures and maximize the deflection of hair cells in response to movement.

cupula

A small gelatinous structure, containing hair cells that detect fluid movement within the semicircular canals of the vestibular system.

utricle

A small, fluid-filled sac in the vestibular system above the saccule that responds to static positions of the head.

saccule

A small, fluid-filled sac under the utricle in the vestibular system that responds to static positions of the head.

dorsal column system

A somatosensory system that delivers most touch stimuli via the dorsal columns of spinal white matter to the brain. Uses Pacinian corpuscles, MD, MM, and Ruffini

dexamethasone suppression test

A standard method for assessing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function—the dexamethasone suppression test—can reveal a tendency to release excess cortisol. A test of pituitary-adrenal function in which the participant is given dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone, which should cause a decline in the production of adrenal corticosteroids.

Allopregnanolone

A steroid derived from the hormone progesterone. GABA A May mediate some of the calming effect of alcohol

lens

A structure in the eye that helps focus an image on the retina.

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

A structure in the thalamus, part of the midbrain, that receives input from the retinal ganglion cells and has input and output connections to the visual cortex.

Gap Junction

A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.

emotion

A subjective mental state that is usually accompanied by distinctive behaviors, feelings, and involuntary physiological changes.

tastant

A substance that can be tasted.

photopic system

A system in the retina that operates at high levels of light, shows sensitivity to color, and involves the cones. The other system requires more light and, in some species, shows differential sensitivity to wavelengths, enabling color vision. This system uses the cones and is called the photopic system (from the Greek phos, "light"). Compared with the scotopic system, the photopic system has less convergence, as some ganglion cells report information from only a single cone.

sustained-attention task

A task in which a single stimulus source or location must be held in the attentional spotlight for a protracted period. We've seen that through an act of willpower, we can direct our attention to specific stimulus sources without moving our eyes or otherwise reorienting. Early experiments on this phenomenon, like Helmholtz's, employed sustained-attention tasks, in which a single stimulus source or location must be held in the attentional spotlight for a protracted period (see Figure 18.1). Although these tasks are useful for studying basic phenomena, and for assessing attention problems due to neurological disorders, we need something more powerful to address key questions about attention. For example, how do we shift attention around? How does attention enhance the processing of stimuli, and which brain regions are involved? To answer these questions, researchers have devised various clever tasks that employ stimulus cuing to control attention.

shadowing

A task in which the participant is asked to focus attention on one ear or the other while stimuli are being presented separately to both ears.

divided-attention task

A task in which the participant is asked to simultaneously focus attention on two or more stimuli. In general, divided-attention tasks—in which the person is asked to process two or more simultaneous stimuli—confirm that attention is a limited resource and that it's very difficult to attend to more than one thing at a time, particularly if the stimuli to be attended to are spatially separated (Bonnel and Prinzmetal, 1998).

smooth muscle

A type of muscle fiber, as in the heart, that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system rather than by voluntary control.

olfactory receptor neuron

A type of neuron, found in the olfactory epithelium, that senses airborne odorants via specialized receptor proteins. Humans have 6,000,000 (6 million) Dogs have 100-200 million, bloodhounds have 300 million

slow-twitch muscle fiber

A type of striated muscle fiber that contracts slowly but does not fatigue readily. Mixed in with the fast-twitch muscle fibers are slow-twitch muscle fibers, which are not as fast but have greater resistance to fatigue; they are used chiefly to maintain posture.

delayed non-matching-to-sample task

A test in which, on each trial, the participant must select the stimulus that was not seen previously. Publication of Henry Molaison's case prompted an intensive effort to develop methods for systematically studying declarative memory in monkeys and other lab animals. To get around the inability of lab animals to verbally report their memories, the delayed non-matching-to-sample task (Figure 17.6)—a test of object recognition memory—was developed. In this task, monkeys must identify which of two objects was not seen previously, with delays ranging from 8 seconds to 2 minutes (Spiegler and Mishkin, 1981). The important feature of this procedure is that the animal does not reach for the item that previously had a treat under it, because in that case the monkey might unconsciously associate reward with that object even if the animal had no conscious recollection of it. Instead, the monkey declares that it remembers the old object by reaching for the new object, the one that was not associated with a reward previously. Monkeys with extensive damage to the temporal lobe, and thus similar to Henry, are severely impaired on this task, especially with the longer delays.

duplex theory

A theory that we localize sound by combining information about intensity differences and latency differences between the two ears.

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

A therapy to reduce stress that pairs relaxation with efforts to focus attention on the present moment, rather than past or future problems. A program of therapy to deal with stress, partially inspired by various practices of meditation, is mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). MBSR pairs relaxation with efforts to focus attention on the present moment, including current sensations, thoughts, and bodily states, in an open, nonjudgmental way. MBSR is focused on results and does not require practitioners to adopt any particular religious or spiritual views. It has been shown to reduce activity in the amygdala (Goldin and Gross, 2010) and prevent relapses of anxiety disorders or depression

Pure Tones

A tone with a single frequency of vibration

reticulospinal tract

A tract of axons arising from the brainstem reticular formation and descending to the spinal cord to modulate movement. How do these components of the extrapyramidal system communicate with the spinal cord? Their messages are transmitted via two brainstem pathways: the reticulospinal tract, which originates in the reticular formation of the brainstem, and the rubrospinal tract, which originates from the midbrain's red nucleus (the Latin ruber means "red"). Both tracts send axons down the spinal cord to synapse on spinal interneurons.

ear canal

A tube leading from the pinna to the middle ear.

cortical deafness

A type of Central Deafness A hearing impairment that is caused by a fault or defect in the cortex. Cortical deafness is a rare syndrome because it requires bilateral damage to the auditory cortex.

word deafness

A type of Central Deafness The specific inability to hear words, although other sounds can be detected.

mitral cell

A type of cell in the olfactory bulb that conducts smell information from the glomeruli to the rest of the brain.

fear conditioning

A type of classical conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with shock or some other unpleasant experience, causing the individual to act fearful in response to the stimulus.

fear conditioning

A type of classical conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with shock or some other unpleasant experience, causing the individual to act fearful in response to the stimulus. For example, it is very easy to reliably elicit fear by using a type of classical conditioning called fear conditioning (see Chapter 17), in which the person or animal is presented with a stimulus such as light or sound that is paired with a brief aversive stimulus such as mild electrical shock.

Astrocyte

A type of glial cell. Star-shaped cell with numerous processes extending in all directions, weaving among neurons. Some astrocytes form sucker-like END FEET on blood vessels, regulating local blood flow to provide more supplies to neurons when they are active. Astrocytes receive synapses directly from neurons and surround and monitor the activity of nearby neuronal synapses

fast-twitch muscle fiber

A type of striated muscle that contracts rapidly but fatigues readily. . But fibers in the extraocular muscles, which control eye movements, do not have to maintain tension for long periods of time; accordingly, they are mostly fast-twitch muscle fibers. In leg muscles, fast-twitch fibers react promptly and strongly but tire rapidly; they are used mainly for activities in which muscle tension changes frequently, as in walking or running.

basal forebrain

A ventral region in the forebrain that has been implicated in consciousness and sleep.

spectrally opponent cell

A visual receptor cell that has opposite firing responses to different regions of the spectrum.

In the experiments of Merzenich and Jenkins, monkeys trained to maintain finger contact with a rotating disc to obtain a reward showed which of the following changes in the cortical representations of the fingers?

A. Cortical areas associated with the trained finger expanded.

Bipolar cells have receptive fields that

A. are concentric.

Cells in the primate LGN have receptive fields that

A. are concentric.

The olfactory epithelium contains all of the following types of cells except

A. glomerular cells.

Functional MRI studies have revealed that the presence of odorants is especially associated with activation of

A. prepyriform cortex. C. orbitofrontal cortex.

An on-center/off-surround cell responds most strongly when

A. the entire center is illuminated.

RETINAL

Abbreviation for retinaldehyde, also called vitamin A aldehyde. One of the two components of photopigments in the retina. In this book the noun RETINAL, standing for the molecule, is printed in small capital letters to distinguish it from the adjective retinal, meaning "pertaining to the retina." When rhodopsin is hit by light (Figure 10.4A), RETINAL dissociates rapidly from the opsin molecule to reveal an enzymatic site. This altered opsin molecule rapidly activates many molecules of the G protein transducin (Figure 10.4B). Transducin, in turn, acts through an enzyme, phosphodiesterase (PDE), to break apart cyclic GMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate, or cGMP) to 5'-GMP. Cyclic GMP holds channels for sodium ions (Na+) open; stimulation by light initiates a cascade of events that closes these channels. Capture of a single quantum of light can lead to the closing of hundreds of Na+ channels in the photoreceptor membrane, thereby blocking the entry of more than a million Na+ ions (Schnapf and Baylor, 1987). Closing the Na+ channels creates a hyperpolarizing potential (Figure 10.4C).

intermale aggression

Aggression between males of the same species.

tonotopic organization

All levels of the auditory pathway display tonotopic organization; that is, they are spatially arranged in an orderly map according to the auditory frequencies to which they respond. A major organizational feature in auditory systems in which neurons are arranged as an orderly map of stimulus frequency, with cells responsive to high frequencies located at a distance from those responsive to low frequencies.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nervous system parts that are outside the bony skull and spinal column Consists of nerves - collections of axons bundled together, that extend throughout the body.

B lymphocyte

Also called B cell. An immune system cell, formed in the bone marrow (hence the B), that mediates humoral immunity. B lymphocytes (or B cells, because they form in the bone marrow), produce proteins called antibodies (or immunoglobulins).

classical conditioning

Also called Pavlovian conditioning. A type of associative learning in which an originally neutral (conditioned) stimulus acquires the power to elicit the response normally elicited by another (unconditioned) stimulus after the two stimuli are paired. A response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US) is called an unconditioned response (UR); a response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS) alone is called a conditioned response (CR).

NaV1.7

Also called SCN9A. A voltage-gated sodium channel used almost exclusively by nociceptors to initiate action potentials.

T lymphocytes

Also called T cells. Immune system cells, formed in the thymus (hence the T), that include killer T cells, which attack foreign microbes, and helper T cells, which secrete cytokines. T lymphocytes (T cells), so called because they form in the thymus gland, include some that act as killer T cells, forming a strong part of the body's attack against foreign substances. Other T lymphocytes called helper T cells secrete cytokines, cell-signaling proteins that regulate the activity of B lymphocytes and phagocytes. These immune system cells form in the thymus gland, bone marrow,

polygraph

Also called a lie detector. A device that measures several bodily responses, such as heart rate and blood pressure. poor at distinguishing liars from, say, anxious innocents

Adrenocorticoids

Also called adrenal steroids. A class of steroid hormones that are secreted by the adrenal cortex Ex: Cortisol

epinephrine

Also called adrenaline. A compound that acts both as a hormone (secreted by the adrenal medulla under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for action) and as a synaptic transmitter.

pyramidal system

Also called corticospinal system. The motor system that includes neurons within the cerebral cortex that send axons to form the pyramidal tract. Many of the axons of the pyramidal tract originate from neurons in the primary motor cortex (M1), which consists mainly of the precentral gyrus, just anterior to the central sulcus (Figure 11.15B; see also Figure 2.12B). The cell bodies of many of these large neurons are found in layer V of the primary motor cortex.

tympanic membrane

Also called eardrum. The partition between the external ear and the middle ear. Seals the end of the ear canal

reflexive attention

Also called exogenously controlled attention or bottom-up attention. The involuntary reorienting of attention toward the location of an unexpected object or event.

receptor potential

Also called generator potential. A local change in the resting potential of a receptor cell that mediates between the impact of stimuli and the initiation of action potentials. Similar to EPSPs

antibodies

Also called immunoglobulins. Large proteins that recognize and permanently bind to particular shapes, normally as part of the immune system attack on foreign particles. PRODUCED BY B LYMPTO Antibodies latch onto foreign molecules such as viruses or bacteria and summon phagocytes and circulating proteins to destroy the invaders.

Pacinian corpuscle

Also called lamellated corpuscle. A skin receptor cell type that detects vibration. This receptor, which detects vibration, is found throughout the body in skin and muscle. It consists of an axon surrounded by a structure that resembles a tiny onion because it has concentric layers of tissue NA+ enters as a result of vibration 1.Mechanical stimulation deforms the corpuscle. 2.Deformation of the corpuscle stretches the tip of the axon. 3.Stretching the axon opens mechanically gated ion channels in the membrane (Brohawn et al., 2014), allowing positively charged ions to enter (Figure 8.5B). 4.When the receptor potential reaches threshold amplitude, the axon produces one or more action potentials (Figure 8.5C).

loxP

Also called lox. A specific sequence of nucleotides recognized by the enzyme Cre-recombinase. If the enzyme encounters a pair of loxP sites in a gene, it will remove the DNA between the two sites and recombine the gene, usually rendering the gene product dysfunctional. This Cre-lox system can be used to "knock out" particular genes in some cells while leaving the genes alone in other cells in the same mouse.

Cannabis

Also called marijuana. Dried leaves and flowers of the plant Cannabis sativa, typically smoked to obtain THC and CBD. reduce pain by stimulating endogenous cannabinoid receptors (CB1 receptors), both in the spinal cord and in free nerve endings of the nociceptors themselves

scala media (2)

Also called middle canal. The central of the three canals running the length of the cochlea, situated between the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani.

motor neuron

Also called motoneuron. A nerve cell in the brain or spinal cord that transmits motor messages, stimulating a muscle or gland. Movement around a joint requires one set of motor neurons (the neurons that send axons to activate muscle contraction) to be excited while the antagonistic set of motor neurons is inhibited (Figure 11.6). We can lock a limb in position by contracting antagonistic muscles simultaneously.

secondary sensory cortex

Also called nonprimary sensory cortex. For a given sensory modality, the cortical regions receiving direct projections from primary sensory cortex for that modality. RECEIVE FROM THE PRIMARY SENSORY CORTEX

norepinephrine (NE)

Also called noradrenaline. A compound that acts both as a neurotransmitter, produced and released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons to accelerate organ activity, and as a hormone released from the adrenal medulla under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for action.

rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

Also called paradoxical sleep. A stage of sleep characterized by small-amplitude, fast-EEG waves, no postural tension, and rapid eye movements. REM rhymes with "gem."

nondeclarative memory

Also called procedural memory. A memory that is shown by performance rather than by conscious recollection. 2.Nondeclarative memory, or procedural memory—that is, memory about perceptual or motor procedures—is shown by performance rather than by conscious recollection. Examples of procedural memory include learning the mirror-tracing task at which Henry excelled, and the skill of mirror reading, along with more familiar skills such as riding a bicycle or juggling: things that you learn by doing. It is the type of memory we use for "how" problems and is often (but not always) nonverbal. Figure 17.5 illustrates this basic division of types of memory.

attention

Also called selective attention. A state or condition of selective awareness by which specific stimuli are selected for enhanced processing. In general, attention (or selective attention) is the process by which we select or focus on one or more specific stimuli—either sensory phenomena or internal thoughts—for enhanced processing and analysis. It is the selective quality of attention that distinguishes it from the related concept of vigilance, the global level of alertness of the individual.

decorticate rage

Also called sham rage. Sudden intense rage characterized by actions (such as snarling and biting in dogs) that lack clear direction. Early in the twentieth century, decorticate dogs (dogs from which the cortex had been removed) were found to respond to routine handling with sudden intense decorticate rage—snarling, biting, and so on—sometimes referred to as sham rage because it seemed undirected.

paradoxical insomnia

Also called sleep state misperception. Commonly, a person's perception that he has not been asleep when EEG readings and nonresponsiveness indicate that he has. Typically it occurs at the start of a sleep episode. People with paradoxical insomnia, sometimes called sleep state misperception (Rezaie et al., 2018), report that they didn't sleep even when an EEG showed signs of sleep and they failed to respond to stimuli.

primary somatosensory cortex (S1)

Also called somatosensory 1. The gyrus just posterior to the central sulcus, in the parietal lobe, where sensory receptors on the body surface are mapped; primary cortex for receiving touch and pain information. Each S1 receives touch information from the opposite side of the body. The cells in S1 are arranged according to the plan of the body surface (Kell et al., 2005).

secondary somatosensory cortex (S2)

Also called somatosensory 2. The region of cortex that receives direct projections from primary somatosensory cortex. Secondary somatosensory cortex (somatosensory 2, or S2) maps both sides of the body in registered overlay; that is, the left-arm and right-arm representations occupy the same part of the map, and so forth.

primary visual cortex (V1)

Also called striate cortex or area 17. The region of the occipital lobe where most visual information first arrives in the cortex.

subcoeruleus

Also called sublaterodorsal nucleus. A brain region just ventral to the locus coeruleus that is associated with REM sleep.

neurotrophic factor

Also called trophic factor. A target-derived chemical that acts as if it "feeds" certain neurons to help them survive. FEED

scala tympani (3)

Also called tympanic canal. One of three canals running the length of the cochlea.

scala vestibuli (1)

Also called vestibular canal. One of the three parallel canals running the length of the cochlea.

spectral filtering

Alteration of the amplitude of some, but not all, frequencies in a sound. Produced by the hills and valleys of the external ear

The monoamine hypothesis (Schildkraut and Kety, 1967) was suggested by the first antidepressants, which were inhibitors of monoamine oxidase (MAO), the enzyme that normally inactivates the monoamines: norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. The fact that MAO inhibitors raise the level of monoamines present in synapses suggests that depressed people do not get enough stimulation at those synapses. This would also explain why the drug reserpine, which reduces norepinephrine and serotonin release in the brain, can cause profound depression. Inducing the release of monoamines may be the way ECT helps depression. Second-generation antidepressants called tricyclics conform to the monoamine hypothesis because they inhibit the reuptake of monoamines, boosting their synaptic activity.

Among the monoamines, serotonin may play the most important role in depression. A major class of modern antidepressants is the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as Prozac (Table 16.4) (see Chapter 4). These drugs are more effective than MAO inhibitors and tricyclics and have fewer side effects. In rats and mice, SSRIs increase neurogenesis in the hippocampus (Sahay and Hen, 2007; Samuels et al., 2015), which may mediate some of the mood effects of the drugs. SSRI treatment also increases the production of brain steroids (L. D. Griffin and Mellon, 1999), such as allopregnanolone, which may contribute to the effectiveness of SSRIs by stimulating GABA receptors and reducing anxiety.

Regulation

An adaptive response to early injury, as when developing individual cells compensate for missing or injured cells

spinal animal

An animal whose spinal cord has been surgically disconnected from the brain to enable the study of behaviors that do not require brain control.

olfactory bulb

An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, receives axons from olfactory receptor neurons.

chlorpromazine

An antipsychotic drug, one of the class of phenothiazines. in 1954—chlorpromazine (trade name Thorazine)—quickly replaced lobotomy as a treatment for schizophrenia.

treble

An aspect of pitch corresponding to the subjective experience of high-frequency sounds (especially musical sounds, such as cymbals).

bass

An aspect of pitch corresponding to the subjective experience of low-frequency sounds (especially musical sounds, such as bass guitar).

peripheral spatial cuing task

An attention task where a visual stimulus is preceded by a simple sensory stimulus (like a flash) that reflexively captures attention. The effects of reflexive shifts of attention on stimulus processing can be measured using a peripheral spatial cuing task (Figure 18.4A). Again, the participant fixates on a point and is asked to respond as quickly as possible when the target stimulus appears. But instead of a meaningful symbol to direct attention toward a target location, a simple task-irrelevant sensory stimulus (often a flash of light, but it could be a sound or other stimulus) is presented in the location to which attention is to be drawn. After a momentary delay, the target stimulus is presented, either in the same location as the cue (a valid trial) or somewhere else (an invalid trial). Reaction time measures for many such trials are averaged for each participant.

free nerve ending

An axon that terminates in the skin without any specialized cell associated with it and that detects pain and/or changes in temperature.

cochlear implant

An electromechanical device that detects sounds and selectively stimulates nerves in different regions of the cochlea via surgically implanted electrodes. directly stimulate the auditory nerve, thereby bypassing the ossicles and hair cells altogether

sensory buffer

An element of the type of memory that stores the sensory impression of a scene. The span of time that a piece of information will be retained in the brain varies. Evidence suggests that there are as many as four different duration categories for memory. The briefest memories are held in sensory buffers (for visual stimuli, they are sometimes called iconic memories); an example is the fleeting impression of a glimpsed scene that vanishes from memory seconds later. These brief memories are thought to be residual sensory neural activity (Figure 17.17).

lithium

An element that, when administered as a drug, often relieves the symptoms of bipolar disorder.

adenosine

An endogenous neuromodulator that generally reduces neural activity. Caffeine interferes with adenosine binding.

anandamide

An endogenous substance that binds the cannabinoid receptor molecule. functional effects: alterations of memory formation, appetite stimulation, reduced sensitivity to pain, and protection from excitotoxic brain damage

ampulla (plural ampullae)

An enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains the receptor cells (hair cells) of the vestibular system.

ChAT (Choline Acetyltransferase)

An enzyme involved in the synthesis of acetylcholine

Cre-recombinase

An enzyme normally made by bacteria that removes a segment of DNA flanked by two lox sites. This enzyme recognizes certain very specific sequences of nucleotides in DNA called loxP or simply lox.

monoamine oxidase (MAO)

An enzyme that breaks down and thereby inactivates monoamine transmitters.

reticular formation

An extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in arousal (waking) and motor control.

Midline

An imaginary line drawn down the center of the body, dividing it into right and left halves.

phagocyte

An immune system cell that engulfs invading molecules or microbes. The phagocytes ("eating" cells) are specialized to engulf and destroy invading germs (Figure 15.28). But phagocytes rely on other white blood cells (the lymphocytes) to tell them what to attack. B lymphocytes (or B cells, because they form in the bone marrow), produce proteins called antibodies (or immunoglobulins).

Ideational Apraxia

An impairment in the ability to carry out a sequence of actions, even though each element or step can be done correctly. Ideational apraxia is an impairment in carrying out a sequence of actions, although each step can be done correctly (Zadikoff and Lang, 2005). Patients with ideational apraxia have difficulty carrying out instructions for a sequence of acts—"Push the button, then pull the handle, then depress the switch"—but they can do each of these tasks in isolation.

ataxia

An impairment in the direction, extent, and rate of muscular movement. It is often caused by cerebellar pathology.

nocebo

An inert substance that causes discomfort due to the patient's expectations.

fatal familial insomnia

An inherited disorder in which humans sleep normally at the beginning of their life but stop sleeping in midlife and die 7-24 months later.

sensory receptor organ

An organ (such as the eye or ear) specialized to receive particular stimuli.

Sensory Receptor Organs

An organ (such as the eye or ear) specialized to receive particular stimuli. Act as filters

Audioradiography

Animals are treated with radioactive versions of experimental drugs, and then thin slices of the brain are placed alongside photographic film. Radioactivity emitted by the labeled compound in the tissue "exposes" the film's emulsion in the same way that light normally would. HIGHLIGHTS THE SPECIFIC BRAIN REGIONS WHERE THE DRUG HAS BECOME SELECTIVELY CONCENTRATED

range fractionation

Another mechanism for dealing with different light intensities is range fractionation, the handling of different intensities by different receptors—some with high sensitivity (rods) and others with low sensitivity (cones)

First Generation Antipsychotics

Antagonize D2 Receptors

Vasopressin

Based on what we know about meadow voles (i.e., they do not form pair-bonds and they have multiple mating partners), which peptide hormone receptor would you expect to show decreased levels in promiscuous human males in comparison to monogamous human males?

Effects on transmitter production

Can: -Inhibit transmitter synthesis Blocks off the materials that the presynaptic neuron uses to produce neurotransmitters -Block axonal transport Prevents the ability of neurons to store catecholamine transmitters

Coccygeal nerve

Co1. Bottom spinal segments

pattern coding

Coding of information in sensory systems based on the temporal pattern of action potentials.

dorsal column nuclei

Collection of neurons in the medulla that receive somatosensory information via the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. These neurons send their axons across the midline and to the thalamus.

There are three main causes of hearing loss and deafness

Conduction deafness or hearing loss - arises when disorders of the outer or middle ear prevent vibrations produced by auditory stimuli from reaching the cochlea sensorineural deafness or hearing loss - .Even if vibrations are successfully conducted to the cochlea, the sensory apparatus of the cochlea—the organ of Corti—may fail to encode them in the form of action potentials, a problem known as sensorineural deafness or hearing loss Central deafness (hearing loss caused by brain lesions such as stroke)

defective production of receptors to nerve growth factor.

Congenital pain insensitivity is probably heritable, and one version of this disorder appears to be caused by

Somatic Nervous System

Consists of nerves that interconnect the brain and the major muscles and sensory systems of the body The main pathway through which the brain CONTROLS MOVEMENT and receives information from the body and from the sensory organs of the head Nerves that form the somatic nervous system form two anatomical groups: the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Dermis

Contains a rich web of nerve fibers in a network of connective tissue and blood vessels

Soma (Neuron's Cell Body) (Plural: Somata)

Contains critical organelles like mitochondria (produces energy), nucleus (stores genes encoded in DNA), ribosomes (ribosomes assemble proteins)

Neural Plasticity

Continual remodeling of neuronal connections The configuration of synapses on a neuron's dendrites and cell body is constantly changing. Synapses come and go, and dendrites change their shape - in response to new patterns of synaptic activity and the formation of new neural circuits.

Catecholamine Neurotransmitters

Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Eqpinephrine Derived from Tyrosine. Feature a six-sided CATECHOL ring

Vagus Nerve

Cranial Nerve X. Extends far from the head, innervating the heart, liver, and intestines. Its long, convoluted route is the route by which the brain both controls and receives information from many visceral organs. Participates in such varied functions as sweating, digestion, and heart rate Has sensory function (internal organs and throat). Has motor function (Internal organs and throat)

Spinal Accessory Nerves

Cranial Nerve XI. Control neck muscles Has no sensory function. Has motor function (neck and shoulder muscles

Glossopharyngeal Nerve

Cranial Nerves IX. Receive additional taste sensations and sensations from the throat and also control the muscles there. Has no sensory function (Posterior tongue and throat). Has motor function (Posterior tongue and Throat)

Facial Nerves

Cranial Nerves VII. Control facial muscles and receive some taste sensation Has sensory function (tongue). Has motor function (facial muscles).

Hypoglossal Nerves

Cranial Nerves XII. Control the tongue Has no sensory function. Has motor function (tongue muscles)

optic nerve

Cranial nerve II (nerve 2); the collection of ganglion cell axons that extend from the retina to the optic chiasm.

Do not

Cranial nerves __ ___ (Do / Do Not) touch the spinal cord

vestibulocochlear nerve

CranialnerveVIII, which runs from the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei.

In aquatic animals with lateral-line systems, movements of water in relation to the body surface stimulate receptors located in the _______, allowing the animals to detect movements of other animals.

Cupula

Hertz (Hz)

Cycles per second, as of an auditory stimulus.

The vestibular system is believed to have evolved from the _______ system.

D. lateral-line

Mirror neurons were first observed in the _______ region of the monkey brain in response to the observation of motor movements by another monkey.

D. premotor cortex

Among mammals, color vision is

D. weak in some primate species.

VENTRICULAR ABNORMALITIES Many people with schizophrenia have enlarged cerebral ventricles, especially the lateral ventricles (Figure 16.5) (T. M. Hyde and Weinberger, 1990), and ventricular enlargement predicts later development of schizophrenia in adolescents (Y. Chung et al., 2017). The extent of enlargement is also related to responsiveness to antipsychotic drugs: people with more-enlarged ventricles tend to show poorer response to these drugs (Garver et al., 2000).

DIFFERENCES IN BRAIN ACTIVATION People with schizophrenia tend to be impaired on neuropsychological tests that are sensitive to frontal cortical lesions. These findings raised the possibility that frontal cortex was impaired in schizophrenia. Early observations using PET indicated that people with schizophrenia show relatively less metabolic activity in the frontal lobes (compared with their posterior lobes), while controls have more-equal activation of frontal and posterior cortex (M. S. Buchsbaum et al., 1984). This observation, referred to as the hypofrontality hypothesis, fueled interest in the role of the frontal lobes in schizophrenia (Minzenberg et al., 2009; Penadés et al., 2017). In discordant identical twins, reduced frontal blood flow and associated gray matter changes are evident only in the twin with schizophrenia (Andreasen et al., 1986; T. D. Cannon et al., 2002).

Spinocerebellum (Cerebellum's Major Functional Division #1)

Damage here produces characteristic abnormalities of gait and posture, especially ataxia (loss of coordination) of the legs. The centermost part, the spinocerebellum, including a midline ridge called the vermis (for its shape; vermis is Latin for "worm"), receives sensory information about the current spatial locations of the parts of the body and anticipates subsequent movement. The spinocerebellum has rich connections with descending motor pathways, which it modulates. Long-term alcoholism can cause degeneration of the anterior lobe of the spinocerebellum, resulting in characteristic weaving and erratic gait.

Substantra Nigra

Darkly pigmented brainstem structure that innervates the basal ganglia.

hearing loss

Decreased sensitivity to sound, in varying degrees.

C. serotonin.

Descending spinal pathways that inhibit pain transmission in the spinal cord use the neurotransmitter

Retrograde Degeneration

Destruction of the nerve cell body following injury to its axon

Barbiturates

Developed as anxiolytics. GABA.

Fetus

Developing human 10+ weeks after fertilization

Embryo

Developing human during first 10 weeks after fertilization

sleep-onset insomnia

Difficulty in falling asleep. Drugs, as well as neurological and psychiatric factors, seem to cause sleep-maintenance insomnia, a difficulty in remaining asleep. In this type of insomnia, sleep is punctuated by frequent nighttime arousals. This form of insomnia is especially evident in disorders of the respiratory system.

decomposition of movement

Difficulty of movement in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly. It is a symptom of cerebellar lesions.

dyskinesia

Difficulty or distortion in voluntary movement. In days or years, a minority of people taking typical antipsychotics get dyskinesia The condition, called tardive dyskinesia (the Latin tardus means "slow"), is characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements, especially involving the face, mouth, lips, and tongue; a similar phenomenon observed in rats treated with antipsychotics is in use as an animal model of the disorder (Bachus et al., 2012). Elaborate, uncontrollable movements of the tongue are particularly prominent (see figure), including incessant rolling movements and sucking or smacking of the lips. Some people show twisting and sudden jerking movements of the arms or legs.

optic ataxia

Difficulty using vision to reach and manipulate objects. An opposite kind of dissociation had already been reported: damage to the posterior parietal cortex often results in optic ataxia in which patients have difficulty using vision to reach for and grasp objects, yet these patients may retain the ability to correctly identify objects

Reflexive attention is also called B. exogenous attention.

Direction of attention in monkeys to particular locations regardless of stimulus modality is correlated with neural activity in which brain region? D. The LIP

Dementia

Drastic failure of cognitive ability, including memory failure and loss of orientation.

Second Generation Antipsychotics

Drugs that alleviate schizophrenia without producing movement problems. Blockade certain serotonin receptors.

psychosomatic medicine

During the past 50 years, researchers and clinicians have begun to understand some of the ways in which psychological, behavioral, and social factors play a role in health and disease, forming a field known as psychosomatic medicine. A field of study that emphasizes the role of psychological factors in disease.

periaqueductal gray

ELECTRICAL STIMULATION PRODUCES POTENT ANALGESIA The neuronal body—rich region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles. It is involved in pain perception.

Sir Charles Sherrington

First to infer the existence of synapses

primary sensory cortex

For a given sensory modality, the region of cortex that receives most of the information about that modality from the thalamus or, in the case of olfaction, directly from the secondary sensory neurons.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD

Formerly called combat fatigue, war neurosis, or shell shock. A disorder in which memories of an unpleasant episode repeatedly plague the victim.

bipolar disorder

Formerly called manic-depressive illness. A psychiatric disorder characterized by periods of depression that alternate with excessive, expansive moods.

Neural Tube

Forms the central nervous system, part of the ECTODERM. At the end of the neural tube, three subdivisions become apparent,

Cannabinoid Receptors

Found in the substantia nigra, hippocampus, cerebellar cortex, cerebral cortex. At least two types of receptors: CB1 and CB2 CB1 is in the nervous system, CB2 is in the immune system

about 80% of our genes body-wide are expressed in a circadian cycle (Mure et al., 2018).

How does light entrain the molecular clock to the light-dark cycle? In fruit flies, light passes through the fly's body into brain cells to degrade the Cry protein and activate a specialized photopigment (Ni et al., 2017) to synchronize the clock. But things are different in thick- skulled mammals like us. We use the retinohypothalamic tract to get light information to the SCN. The retinal ganglion cells containing melanopsin detect light and release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the SCN.

optic tract

How information from the optic nerve travels to the thalamus.

Ocular dominance is seen especially strongly in which layer of primary visual cortex?

IV

isolated forebrain

If the transection is made higher along the brainstem—in the midbrain—a very different result is achieved. Bremer referred to such a preparation as an isolated forebrain, and he found that the EEG from the brain in front of the cut displayed constant SWS

IEG (cfos)

Immediate early gene. Expressed in only cells that have been recently active. Can be sought out be antibodies to show what parts of the brain were being used at the time of death in animals

Botox injections and Parkinson's disease both provide evidence supporting the _____ of emotion. 20 sec facial feedback hypothesis This is a correct answer

Impartial research estimates that polygraphs are accurate ___ of the time. 20 sec 65% This is a correct answer

Cannon-Bard theory

In the Cannon-Bard theory, the brain decides which particular emotion is an appropriate response to the stimuli. The theory that our experience of emotion is independent of the simultaneous physiological changes that accompany it. According to this model, the cerebral cortex simultaneously decides on the appropriate emotional experience (fear, surprise, joy) and activates the autonomic nervous system to prepare the body, using either the sympathetic system, to ready the body for action, or the parasympathetic system to help the body relax (Figure 15.1C).

Neural Groove

In the ECTODERM, the groove between the neural folds. Becomes the Midline

Protein Hormone Receptors

In the cell membrane, second-messenger system

C

In the extracellular or intracellular fluid, which of the following is an anion? Answers: A. Calcium B. Potassium C. Chloride D. Both a and b

bipolar cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect the rods and cones with the ganglion cells.

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

In wintertime, affected people feel depressed, slow down, generally sleep a lot, and overeat. Come summer, they are elated, energetic, and active, and they become thinner. This syndrome—called seasonal affective disorder (SAD)—appears predominantly in women and generally starts in early adulthood.

Cathinones

Khat Shrub. Synthetic version is "Bath salts"

Induction of LTP in a CA1 neuron will cause B. production of new dendritic spines on the stimulated dendrite.

Knockout mice lacking the gene for CaM kinase II can form short-term memories, but not long-term memories.

Lumbar Nerves

L1-L5. Lower Back

anterior pituitary hormones

LH Prolactin ACTH

Synaptic plasticity can be demonstrated in relatively simple organisms like the Aplysia. Short-term habituation of the gill-withdrawal reflex to repeated stimulation of the siphon has been connected with D. a decrease in the amount of neurotransmitter released at the sensory-motor synapse.

LTP in area CA1 may be blocked by drugs that are _______ antagonists. C. NMDA

retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories that formed prior to an event (such as surgery or trauma) is not uncommon. It is called retrograde amnesia (from the Latin retro-, "backward," and gradi, "to go"). After an accident that damages the brain, people often have retrograde amnesia with regard to events that happened a few hours or days before the accident, or even a year before. (Despite dramatic depictions you may see on TV, it is unlikely that longer-term, or "complete," retrograde memory loss has ever occurred.)

Hypoxia

Low oxygen saturation of the body, not enough oxygen in the blood. This can cause intellectual disability if it is a problem at birth.

Based upon differences between Old and New World Monkeys, which photopigments are thought to have differentiated most recently, in evolutionary terms?

M cones and L cones

Mesostriatal Pathway

MOTOR CONTROL A set of dopaminergic axons arising from the MIDBRAIN and innervating the basal ganglia, including those from the substantia nigra to the striatum Mesostriatal is related to motor control, and therefore might be implicated in parkinson's

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

Mild electrical stimulation through an electrode that is surgically implanted deep in the brain.

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

Mild electrical stimulation through an electrode that is surgically implanted deep in the brain. In deep brain stimulation (DBS), mild electrical stimulation is applied to brain sites through a surgically implanted electrode, directed at several different target regions (Crowell et al., 2014), as a last-ditch effort to relieve depression that resists other treatments (Kringelbach et al., 2007). But despite over 10 years of reports using DBS for depression (Mayberg et al., 2005), double-blind controlled studies are only recently being published, and they call into question whether it is more effective than placebo at reducing depression (Bergfeld et al., 2016; Kisely et al., 2018).

MAO

Monoamine Oxidase Inactivates monoamines (neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, melatonin)

MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors)

Monoamine neurotransmitters accumulate at synapses, improves mood

GABA, Glycine

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

Auditory Cortex

Most of the sounds in nature—vocalizations, footsteps, snaps, crackles, and pops—contain many frequencies and change rapidly. The auditory cortex seems to be specialized for the detection of these more complex "biologically relevant" sounds In other words, the auditory cortex evolved to process the sounds of everyday life.

final common pathway

Motor neurons are sometimes called the final common pathway: the sole route through which the spinal cord and brain can control our many muscles. The information-processing pathway consisting of all the motor neurons in the body. Motor neurons are known by this collective term because they receive and integrate all motor signals from the brain and then direct movement accordingly.

Range Fractionation

Multiple receptor cells acting in a parallel manner provide a broader range for coding the intensity of a stimulus. A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities. Range fractionation takes place when different receptor cells are "specialists" in particular segments, or fractions, of an intensity scale (Figure 8.6B). Added together in coding

Harmonics

Multiples of a particular frequency called the fundamental. For example, a sound made by a musical instrument contains a fundamental frequency plus one or more integer multiples of the fundamental, called harmonics.

D

Myelin increases the speed of conduction because it Answers: A. offers little resistance to the flow of ionic current. B. increases capacitance. C. releases special chemicals that aid conduction. D. offers considerable resistance to the flow of current.

Brain and spinal cord

Myelination is provided by the oligodendrocytes in the _____ ___ ______ ____

event-related potential (ERP) Also called evoked potential. Averaged EEG recordings measuring brain responses to repeated presentations of a stimulus.

N1 effect A negative deflection of the event-related potential, occurring about 100 ms after stimulus presentation, that is enhanced for selectively attended input, compared with ignored input.

dentate gyrus A strip of gray matter in the hippocampal formation.

NMDA receptor A glutamate receptor that also binds the glutamate agonist NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and that is both ligand-gated and voltage-sensitive.

myopia

Nearsightedness; the inability to focus the retinal image of objects that are far away. Myopia develops if the eyeball is too long, causing the eye to focus objects in front of the retina rather than on the retina Considerable evidence suggests that the reason some children develop myopia is that certain environmental factors cause the eyeball to grow excessively. INDOOR LIGHTING IS PROBABLY THE CAUSE

Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves

Nerves that form the somatic nervous system form two anatomical groups: the _______ ______ and the ______ ______

Autonomic Nervous System

Nerves that primarily control the viscera (internal organs) Can be split into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems The brain's main system for controlling the organs of the body.

photoreceptors

Neural cells in the retina that respond to light. There are two kinds of photoreceptors: 1. Rods 2. Cones

central pattern generator

Neural circuitry that is responsible for generating the rhythmic pattern of a behavior such as walking. . The central pattern generators for walking seem much the same in cats, birds, and humans (Dominici et al., 2011). This essential rhythm of walking generated by spinal cord mechanisms is activated and modulated by the brain.

nontasters.

On average, people with 96 taste buds/square cm of the tongue tip are

Depressed patients show _______ in REM sleep. A. increases

On the basis of studies of the properties of phencyclidine, a _______ hypothesis of schizophrenia has been advanced. glutamate

How many cranial nerves report olfactory information to the brain?

One

mammillary body

One of a pair of nuclei at the base of the brain that connect to the hippocampus and play a role in memory. MRI scans of N.A. (Figure 17.9) showed no damage to the medial temporal lobe, but there was damage to several components of the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) that connect to the hippocampus, especially the dorsomedial thalamus, and to both mammillary bodies (see Figure 17.2A), as well as the mammillothalamic tract communicating between them (Squire et al., 1989). Like Henry Molaison, N.A. shows normal short-term memory but is impaired in forming declarative (but not nondeclarative/procedural) long-term memories. The similarity in symptoms suggests that the medial temporal lobe damaged in Henry's brain and the midline diencephalic region damaged in N.A. are normally parts of a larger memory system. Studies of people with surgical lesions of the fornix, which interconnects the hippocampus and mammillary bodies, confirm and extend this idea (Tsivilis et al., 2008).

umami

One of the five basic tastes (along with salty, sour, sweet, and bitter), probably mediated by amino acids in foods.

extraocular muscle

One of the muscles attached to the eyeball that controls its position and movements.

ciliary muscle

One of the muscles that controls the shape of the lens inside the eye, focusing an image on the retina.

extrafusal fiber

One of the ordinary muscle fibers that lie outside the spindles and provide most of the force for muscle contraction.

Golgi tendon organs

One of the receptors located in tendons that send action potentials to the central nervous system reporting muscle tension. MUSCLE TENSION MUSCLE TENSION MUSCLE TENSION THE GOLGI TENDON ORGAN While muscle spindles respond primarily to stretch, the other proprioceptive receptors in muscle—Golgi tendon organs—are especially sensitive to muscle tension

intrafusal fiber

One of the small muscle fibers that lie within each muscle spindle, controlling its length.

semicircular canal

One of the three fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that are part of the vestibular system. Each of the tubes, which are at right angles to each other, detects angular acceleration.

opsin

One of the two components of photopigments in the retina.

Locus Coerulus ("blue spot" in the pons)

One of the two main clusters of brainstem neurons that release norepinepherine PRODUCES NOREPINEPHERINE

outer hair cell (OHC)

One of the two types of cochlear receptor cells for hearing.

inner hair cell (IHC)

One of the two types of cochlear receptor cells for hearing. In three rows. Closer to the central axis of the coiled cochlea

dynorphins

One of three kinds of endogenous opioids, substances that reduce pain perception.

Cortisol

People who commit suicide show very high levels of circulating cortisol (Pompili et al., 2010), and people hospitalized with depression show elevated cortisol levels (Figure 16.23B). These findings suggest that adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released in excessive amounts by the anterior pituitary.

In normal subjects, the substance dexamethasone Selected Answer:D. suppresses cortisol levels.

People with panic disorder show increased metabolic activity of which region of the brain? Parahippocampal gyrus

Myelination

Performed by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells The process of wrapping the axon in multiple layers of myelin

inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)

Phospholipase C signaling pathway

epigenetic regulation

Process affecting the expression of a particular gene or genes without affecting the sequence of nucleotides making up the gene itself. Maternal deprivation exerts this negative effect on adult stress responses by causing long-lasting changes in the expression of adrenal steroid receptors in the brain. This change is termed epigenetic regulation because it represents a change in the expression of the gene, rather than a change in the encoding region of the gene (see Figure 7.21).

gas neurotransmitter

Produced in dendrites Not held in vesicles, they simply diffuse out of the neuron Doesn't interact with receptors, they diffuse into the target cell and stimulates the production of second messagers Can serve as retrograde transmitters

Sonic Hedgehog

Protein released by the notochord that diffuses to the spinal cord directs some (but not all) cells to become motor neurons

Steroid Receptor Cofactors

Proteins that affect the cell's response when a steroid hormone binds its receptor.

cytokines

Proteins that induce the proliferation of other cells, as in the immune system. SECRETED BY HELPER T CELLS cell-signaling proteins that regulate the activity of B lymphocytes and phagocytes. These immune system cells form in the thymus gland, bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes (Figure 15.29), which release the cells into the bloodstream.

QUESTION 9 In the pyramidal system, fibers cross to the opposite side of the body at the level of the A.medulla.

QUESTION 17 A particular gene that has been found to be involved in some cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may involve control of copper/zinc superoxide dismutase.D.dopamine.

QUESTION 3 Duchenne's muscular dystrophy is a type of inherited muscle disorder that involves A.a single gene located on the X chromosome.

QUESTION 4 Huntington's disease is transmitted by A.a single dominant gene.

saccades

Quick movements of the eyes, called saccades, bring various parts of the visual scene to the fovea to take advantage of the sharp visual acuity there. Even when we think we are holding our eyes still to fixate on a scene, they are in fact making tiny saccades (Martinez-Conde et al., 2013), constantly shifting the scene to different parts of the retina to be detected by fresh photoreceptors. Otherwise, the photoreceptors would adapt and stop responding to the light, causing the scene to disappear.

Dendrite

RECEIVE MESSAGES (The input zone) The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Electromyography (EMG)

Records the electrical activity of muscles. Electrodes placed over several muscles gives a record of timing and strength of contraction of muscles involved in a movement.

amnesia

Severe impairment of memory. Amnesia (Greek for "forgetfulness") is a severe impairment of memory, usually as a result of accident or disease.

visual acuity

Sharpness of vision. Visual acuity, the sharpness of vision, is especially fine in the center of the visual field and falls off rapidly toward the periphery.

100,000

Some neurons receive as many as ___,___(100,000) synaptics contacts. A large number of synapses can cover the surfaces of the dendrites and cell body. Although a more common number is about 5,000-10,000

Thousands

Some simple neurons have just a couple of short dendritic branches, while other neurons have huge and complex dendritic trees receiving many _________ of synaptic contacts from other neurons.

Isolated Brain

Sometimes referred to by the French term encéphale isolé. An experimental preparation in which an animal's brainstem has been separated from the spinal cord by a cut below the medulla. Some of the earliest studies of sleep indicated that the system promoting SWS is in the forebrain. These were experiments in which the brain was transected—literally cut into two parts: an upper part and a lower part. The entire brain can be isolated from the body by an incision between the medulla and the spinal cord. This preparation was first studied by the Belgian physiologist Frédéric Bremer (1892-1982), who called it the isolated brain (Bremer, 1938).

psychosurgery

Surgery in which brain lesions are produced in an attempt to alleviate severe psychiatric disorders. Today psychosurgery, surgical modification of the brain to treat psychiatric disorders, involves much smaller lesions and is rarely performed, and then only as a last resort. For example, for some people with severe epilepsy, surgical removal of the damaged brain tissue can help, as we discussed in Chapter 3. Psychosurgery is also being explored for other disorders, as we'll note later in this chapter.

Edema

Swelling that follows brain injury

Dorsal Column nuclei

Synapsed by the neurons of the dorsal column system axons Located in the medulla

serotonin syndrome

Syndrome of confusion, muscle spasms, and fever that may occur when brain levels of serotonin are too high and is a risk of taking SSRIs. Another risk of SSRIs, for people of all ages, is that a variety of over-the-counter drugs may synergize with the drugs to push synaptic serotonin levels too high, triggering serotonin syndrome, which includes confusion, muscle spasms, and fever. Thousands of cases are reported each year, causing over 100 deaths (Dvir and Smallwood, 2008).

Thoracic Nerves

T1-T12. Trunk

Microglial cell

THE BRAIN'S CLEANUP CREW Very small. Remarkably active, continually extending and withdrawing very fine processes that, when they contact a site of damage, form a spherical containment zone around an injury. Apparently may be involved in aspects of pain perception and neuronal remodeling.

psychotomimetic

THE GLUTAMATE HYPOTHESIS Another drug that, like chlorpromazine, was initially developed as an anesthetic has a much different relationship to schizophrenia. Phencyclidine (PCP) was soon found to be a potent psychotomimetic; that is, PCP produces phenomena strongly resembling both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Cell Differentiation

THE PROCESS BY WHICH a given cell expresses a particular subset of genes and BECOMES A PARTICULAR TYPE OF CELL

Axon Hillock

THE ____ _______ IS THE INTEGRATION ZONE, gathering and integrating information from all synapses on the dendrites and cell body, then converting the processed information into a code of electrial impulses that carries the neuron's message down to the axon toward its targets Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.

thalamus

The brain regions at the top of the brainstem that trade information with the cortex. Eventually, sensory pathways reach the cerebral cortex, where the most complex aspects of sensory processing take place. For most senses, information reaches the thalamus before being relayed to the cortex (Figure 8.8).

raphe nuclei

The brain's major serotonin pathway contains the 20 sec

vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)

The brainstem mechanism that maintains gaze on a visual object despite movements of the head.

middle ear

The cavity between the tympanic membrane and the cochlea. Contais the TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (eardrum), sealing the end of the ear canal, and a chain of tiny bones, the ossicles, that mechanically couple the tympanic membrane to the inner ear at a special location called the OVAL WINDOW

Postsynaptic membrane

The cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message Contains a high density of receptors

Preganglionic Autonomic Neurons

The central neurons that INNERVATE THE GANGLIA are known as _____________ _________ _______

spinocerebellum

The central part of the cerebellum, consisting mostly of the vermis and anterior lobe. receives sensory information about the current spatial locations of the parts of the body and anticipates subsequent movement. The spinocerebellum has rich connections with descending motor pathways, which it modulates. Damage here produces characteristic abnormalities of gait and posture, especially ataxia (loss of coordination) of the legs. Long-term alcoholism can cause degeneration of the anterior lobe of the spinocerebellum, resulting in characteristic weaving and erratic gait.

fovea

The central region of the retina, called the fovea (Latin for "pit"), has a dense concentration of cones. The central portion of the retina, packed with the most photoreceptors and therefore the center of our gaze. Species differences in visual acuity also reflect the density of cones in the fovea. For example, hawks, whose acuity is much greater than that of humans, have much narrower and more densely packed cones in the fovea than we do.

timbre

The characteristic sound quality of a musical instrument, as determined by the relative intensities of its various harmonics.

iris

The circular structure of the eye that provides an opening to form the pupil.

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

Inner Ear

The cochlea and vestibular apparatus. The complex structures of the inner ear ultimately convert sound into neural activity.

The basal ganglia are directly involved in C. skill learning.

The concept of cell assemblies is associated with C. D. O. Hebb.

stress immunization

The concept that mild stress early in life makes an individual better able to handle stress later in life. For example, the previously handled rats secreted lower adrenal steroid amounts in response to a wide variety of adult stressors. Researchers dubbed this effect stress immunization because a little stress early in life seemed to make the animals more resilient to later stress.

stretch reflex

The contraction of a muscle in response to stretch of that muscle. "Knee-jerk reflex"

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy to another. The outer parts of the auditory system have been shaped through evolution to capture biologically important sound vibrations and direct them into the inner parts of the ear, which accomplishes the transduction of the mechanical energy of sound into the form of electrical energy—action potentials—that the brain can understand.

electromyography (EMG)

The electrical recording of muscle activity. fine needle electrodes placed in a muscle, or electrodes placed on the skin over a muscle, can detect electrical indications of muscle activity. If electrodes are placed over several different muscles, we get a record of the timing and strength of contraction of the muscles involved in a movement (Hanakawa et al., 2003).

4. Synaptogenesis

The establishment of synaptic connections, as axons and dendrites grow

primary motor cortex (M1)

The executive region for the initiation of movement; primarily the precentral gyrus.

motion sickness

The experience of nausea brought on by unnatural passive movement, as in a car or boat.

Pinnae (singular: Pinna)

The external part of the ear, latin for "wing" Funnel sound waves into the second part of the external ear: the ear canal The shape of the human ear especially increases the reception of sounds between 2000 and 5000 Hz—a frequency range that is important for speech perception.

maternal aggression

The fierce defensive aggression of females defending their offspring. This maternal aggression is typically studied by introducing an intruder mouse, usually a male, into the cage of a mother nursing a litter. In such conditions, she may immediately attack the intruder. Neural circuits in the VMH are again implicated in maternal aggression, along with other hypothalamic regions, including the preoptic area (POA) and the premammillary nucleus (Motta et al., 2013), and serotonergic mechanisms originating from the midbrain raphe nuclei

Huntington's disease is characterized by excessive movement caused by deterioration of the basal ganglia

The first symptoms of Huntington's disease are subtle behavior changes: clumsiness, and twitches in the fingers and face. Subtlety is rapidly lost as the illness progresses; a continuing stream of involuntary jerks engulfs the entire body. Aimless movements of the eyes, jerky leg movements, and writhing of the body turn the routine activities of the day into insurmountable obstacles. Worse yet, as the disease progresses, marked behavior changes include intellectual deterioration, depression, and, in a minority of patients, a psychotic state that resembles schizophrenia. In some patients, cognitive and emotional changes may appear many years before obvious motor impairments do (Wexler et al., 2016). Huntington's disease usually develops over a period of 15-20 years. The neuroanatomical basis of this disorder is the profound, progressive destruction of the basal ganglia, especially the caudate nucleus and the putamen (Figure 11.29). Compared with the control (A), a coronal MRI section through the brain of a patient with Huntington's disease (B) shows marked enlargement of the lateral ventricles, caused by atrophy of the neighboring caudate nucleus and putamen. Note also the shrunken cortical gyri and enlarged sulci of the patient compared with those of the brain of a healthy person. Huntington's disease is transmitted by a single dominant gene on chromosome 4 (Gusella et al., 2014). Because we have two copies of every gene but pass only one of them on to any one child, each child of a person with Huntington's has a 50% chance of inheriting the bad gene and eventually developing the disease. The affected gene, HTT, normally encodes a protein called huntingtin.

Postganglionic Neurons

The ganglionic Neurons that INNERVATE THE BODY are known as ______________ _______.

Cell-Cell Interactions

The general process during development in which one cell affects the differentiation of other, usually neighboring, cells

vigilance

The global, nonselective level of alertness of an individual. vigilance is the global level of alertness of the individual.

Interneurons

The great majority of neurons in the brain, often featuring complex dendrites and relatively short axons (because they convey information only in short distances Receive information from other neurons, process it, and pass the integrated information to other neurons. Receive input from and send input to other neurons

A

The greater the influx of calcium into the presynaptic axon terminal, the greater the Answers: A. release of neurotransmitter. B. magnitude of inhibition. C. rate of reuptake. D. amplitude of the action potential.

80 to 90 billion

The human brain contains __ __ __ _______ neurons

Exogenous attention is BOTH A AND C A. difficult to consciously repress. C. oriented on the basis of sensory events

The human homolog to the LIP is the C. intraparietal sulcus.

monoamine hypothesis

The hypothesis that depression is caused by reduced activity of one or more monoamine transmitters, such as serotonin.

glutamate hypothesis

The hypothesis that schizophrenia may be caused, in part, by understimulation of glutamate receptors. These and other observations prompted researchers to propose a glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia (Moghaddam and Adams, 1998), that schizophrenia results from an underactivation of glutamate receptors (Hardingham and Do, 2016), possibly accounting for the reduction in activity of frontal cortex—hypofrontality—that we mentioned earlier (Marek et al., 2010). If this hypothesis is true, you might ask whether compounds that increase glutamatergic activity would be effective antischizophrenic drugs. Unfortunately, selective NMDA receptor agonists tend to produce seizures, so glutamatergic-boosting compounds are not an option. The glutamate hypothesis has been expanded to suggest that underactivation of all glutamate receptors, not just the NMDA subtype, contributes to schizophrenia (González-Maeso et al., 2008). There are at least eight different subtypes of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR's) (see Chapter 4), so drugs that modify the activity of the proper class of mGluR's might someday provide a third generation of antipsychotics (Stansley and Conn, 2019).

hypofrontality hypothesis

The hypothesis that schizophrenia may result from underactivation of the frontal lobes.

Tripartite Synapse

The idea that a synapse includes not only the pre- and postsynaptic neurons involved but also encompasses many connections with astrocytes

opponent-process hypothesis

The idea that color vision depends on systems that produce opposite responses to light of different wavelengths: blue versus yellow, green versus red, and black versus white

House cats are much better at detecting prey when D. their attention is guided by a combination of cues.

The idea that conjunction searches involve sequential shifts of attention that help coordinate multiple cognitive feature maps is referred to as C. feature integration theory.

Ideomotor Apraxia

The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously. Neurologists studying patients who have experienced strokes have discovered several different types of apraxia. Ideomotor apraxia is characterized by the inability to carry out a simple motor activity, either in response to a verbal command ("Smile" or "Use this comb") or by copying someone else's gesture, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously.

anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories beginning with the onset of a disorder. Patient H.M.—Henry Molaison, whom we met at the start of the chapter (Figure 17.1)—experienced some retrograde amnesia for the time immediately before his surgery, but he also experienced a far more unusual symptom: his apparent inability to retain new material for more than a brief period. The inability to form new memories after an event is called anterograde amnesia (the Latin antero- means "forward"). In Henry's case, most old memories remained intact, but he had difficulty recollecting any events after his surgery.

alarm reaction

The initial response to stress.

adrenal medulla

The inner core of the adrenal gland, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

period

The interval of time between two similar points of successive cycles, such as sunset to sunset A period is the time between two similar points of successive cycles, such as sunset to sunset. Because the free-running period does not quite match the period of Earth's rotation, and because it differs slightly among individual hamsters in the same room, the free-running period cannot simply be reflecting an external cue. So the animal has some sort of endogenous clock, and this clock runs a bit slow in hamsters (and in humans, but not all species)..

cerebrocerebellum

The lateral portions of the cerebellum combined are called the cerebrocerebellum in recognition of its close relationship with the cerebral cortex. The lateral portions of each cerebellar hemisphere. The cerebrocerebellum is implicated in planning complex movements, so damage here can cause diverse motor problems, such as decomposition of movement, in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly. Because the cerebrocerebellum also functions in higher-level cognition, such as motor learning, damage here can also cause cognitive deficits.

Synapse rearrangement

The loss of some synapses and development of others, to refine synaptic connection

Anterograde Degeneration (Wallerian Degeneration)

The loss of the distal portion of an axon resulting from injury of the axon. WHEN THE AXON IS CUT

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

The loss of the insulating myelin sheath from axons in various regions of the brain

medial amygdala

The medial amygdala analyzes olfactory and pheromonal information, allowing male rats and mice to distinguish between male rivals to be attacked and females to be courted. A region of the amygdala involved in processing olfactory and pheromonal stimuli.

Presynaptic membrane

The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane and through which the neurotransmitter vesicles are released

3 - Quiz_____ rhythms last from seconds to minutes. 20 sec Ultradian This is a correct answer

The menstrual cycle is an example of a(n) _____ rhythm. 20 sec infradian This is a correct answer

Inner hair cells _____. 20 sec convert sounds into electrical potentials This is a correct answer

The middle ear _____. 20 sec concentrates sound energies This is a correct answer

1. Neurogenesis

The mitotic division of nonneuronal cells to produce neurons

Amino Acids

The most abundant excitation and inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain are _____ _____

Glutamate, Aspartate

The most plentiful excitatory Neurotransmiters (Both amino acids)

2. Cell Migration

The movements of cells to establish distinct nerve cell populations (brain nuclei, layers of the cerebral cortex, and so on)

tensor tympani

The muscle attached to the malleus that modulates mechanical linkage to protect the delicate receptor cells of the inner ear from damaging sounds.

hypocretins

The mutation responsible for narcolepsy in one of these strains of dogs was found to be in a gene that encodes receptors for the neuropeptide hypocretin (also called orexin) (L. Lin et al., 1999). Mice with the hypocretin gene knocked out also display narcolepsy (Chemelli et al., 1999). Genetically normal rats can be made narcoleptic if injected with a toxin that destroys neurons possessing hypocretin receptors (Gerashchenko et al., 2001).

retinohypothalamic pathway

The projection of retinal ganglion cells to the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Certain retinal ganglion cells send their axons along the retinohypothalamic pathway, splitting off at the optic chiasm to synapse directly within the SCN (Figure 14.4). This tiny pathway carries information about light to the hypothalamus to entrain behavior. Most of the retinal ganglion cells that extend their axons to the SCN do not rely on the traditional photoreceptors—rods and cones—to learn about light. Rather, these retinal ganglion cells are themselves sensitive to light because they contain a special photopigment, called melanopsin (Do et al., 2009).

Efficacy

The propensity of a ligand to ACTIVATE the receptor to which it is bound Agonists have high ________ and antagonists have low ________

retina

The receptive surface inside the eye that contains photoreceptors and other neurons. The first stages of visual-information processing occur in the retina, the receptive surface inside the back of the eye (Figure 10.3A). The retina is only 200-300 micrometers (μm) thick—as thick as 2-3 sheets of paper—but it contains several types of cells in distinct layers (Figure 10.3B). The receptor cells that detect light are called photoreceptors.

TRPV1

The receptor was cloned and found to be a member of a family of proteins called transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels. They named the capsaicin receptor transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), or vanilloid receptor 1, because the crucial component of the capsaicin molecule is a chemical known as vanilloid. ACTIVATED BY PEPPERS. TRPV1 CHANNELS ARE OPENED BY HEAT

Which is a negative symptom of schizophrenia? 20 sec social withdrawal This is a correct answer

The reduced prefrontal cortex metabolism when schizophrenics re-sort WCST cards is called 20 sec hypofrontality. This is a correct answer

primary auditory cortex (A1)

The region of superior temporal cortex in which auditory processing occurs.

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

The region where the motor neuron terminal and the adjoining muscle fiber meet; the point where the nerve transmits its message to the muscle fiber. The region where a motor neuron terminal and adjoining muscle fiber meet is called the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) (Figure 11.8C-E). The NMJ is large and very effective: normally every action potential that reaches an axon terminal releases enough ACh to trigger an action potential and contraction in the innervated muscle fiber.

Dose-Response Curve (DRC)

The relationship between drug doses and observed effects

The stimulus intensity that is just adequate to trigger an action potential.

The stimulus intensity that is just adequate to trigger an action potential.

receptive field

The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system. As we noted in Chapter 8, the receptive field of a sensory cell consists of the stimulus region and the features that excite or inhibit the cell.

receptive field

The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system. The receptive field of a sensory neuron consists of a region of space in which a stimulus will alter that neuron's firing rate. somatosensory receptive fields have either an excitatory center and an inhibitory surround, or an inhibitory center and an excitatory surround

Teratology

The study of prenatal malformations (the effects on the maternal environment during development)

psychoneuroimmunology

The study of the immune system and its interaction with the nervous system and behavior. In the 1980s a new field, psychoneuroimmunology, emphasized that the immune system—with its collection of cells that recognize and attack intruders—interacts with other systems, especially hormone systems and the nervous system (Ader, 2001). Studies of both human and nonhuman subjects now clearly show psychological and neurological influences on the immune system. For example, people with happy social lives are less likely to develop a cold when exposed to the virus (S. Cohen et al., 2006).

loudness

The subjective experience of the pressure level of a sound. Our expression of amplitude is termed loudness, expressed in decibels (DB)

lobotomy

The surgical detachment of a portion of the frontal lobe from the rest of the brain, once used as a treatment for schizophrenia and many other ailments.

Ossicles

Three small bones (incus, malleus, and stapes) that transmit sound across the middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. The OSSICLES mechanically couple the TYMPANIC MEMBRANE to the inner ear at a special location called the oval window.

Synaptic Vesicle

Tiny hollow spheres contained in presynaptic axon terminals 30-140 nm in diameter. Contain neurotransmitters

confabulate

To fill in a gap in memory with a falsification. It often occurs in Korsakoff's syndrome.

refraction

To produce optical images, the eye has many of the features of a camera, starting with the cornea and lens to focus light (Figure 10.2). Light travels through a medium, such as air, in a straight line until it encounters a change in the density of the medium, which causes light rays to bend. This bending of light rays, called refraction, is the basis of such instruments as eyeglasses, telescopes, and microscopes. Like those instruments, the cornea of the eye—the curvature of which is fixed—bends light rays and is primarily responsible for forming the image on the retina.

synergist

With respect to muscles, a muscle that acts together with another muscle.

Ectoderm, Neural Groove, Neural Tube

Within a week, an emerging embryo shows three distinct cell layers that are the beginnings of all tissues. E_______, N_____ G_____, N_____ T___

coincidence detectors

Within the nucleus laminaris of birds, bineural cells act as _______ to detect the location of sound in space.

Damage to the _______ in humans produces difficulties in suppressing unwanted reorientation of the eyes toward peripheral distracters. A. frontal eye field

Woldorff and Hillyard found that in a dichotic tone procedure, selective attention to an auditory stimulus from one ear produced an early positive ERP deflection that was enhanced for the selectively attended input. This phenomenon is called the _______ effect. B. P20-50

AXONAL TRANSPORT

Works in both directions.

1

_ schwann cell ensheathes a limited length of a single axon

Glial Cells

_____ _____ share information processing with neurons and provide support

Patient H. M. suffered from 20 sec anterograde amnesia. This is a correct answer

_____ cells are activated when animals reach specific intersection points on a map. 20 sec Grid This is a correct answer

L-dopa, a dopamine precursor, is administered to patients diagnosed with 20 sec Parkinson's disease. This is a correct answer

_____ detect muscle stretch. 20 sec Muscle spindles This is a correct answer

Which of these midbrain structures is the primary receiving area for auditory information. 20 sec inferior colliculi This is a correct answer

_____ theory proposes that we localize sound using intensity and latency differences. 20 sec Duplex This is a correct answer

Larger

______(larger/smaller) neurons tend to have more complex inputs and outputs, cover greater distances, and/or convey information more rapidly than smaller neurons

Tropic

_______ hormones affect the secretion of other endocrine glands.

D

_______ seizures do not involve the entire brain. Answers: A. Petit mal B. Kindling C. Grand mal D. Complex partial

complex cortical cell

a cell in the visual cortex that responds best to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a particular area of the visual field

pain

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

premotor cortex

area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement

Bálint's syndrome Three co-occurring symptoms—simultagnosia, oculomotor apraxia, and optic ataxia—that may occur after bilateral lesions of cortical attentional systems. Bálint's syndrome (after its discoverer, Hungarian neurologist Rezsö Bálint). There are three principal symptoms: 1.Oculomotor apraxia, a pronounced difficulty in voluntarily steering visual gaze toward specific targets 2.Optic ataxia, a spatial disorientation in which the person is unable to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance 3.Simultagnosia, a profound restriction of attention, often limited to a single item or feature

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A syndrome of distractibility, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity that, in children, interferes with school performance. ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER At least 5% of all children in the United States are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), characterized as difficulty with directing sustained attention to a task or activity, along with a higher degree of impulsivity than other children of the same age. Roughly 75% of affected children are male.

optic radiation

axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex

New olfactory receptor cells are formed from

basal cells

feature integration theory The idea that conjunction searches involve multiple cognitive feature maps—overlapping representations of the search array based on individual stimulus attributes.

binding problem The question of how the brain understands which individual attributes blend together into a single object, when these different features are processed by different regions in the brain.

scotoma

blind spot in vision

Axon collaterals

branches of axon. Allows the neuron to innervate numerous postsynaptic cells

macular degeneration

breakdown or thinning of the tissues in the macula, resulting in partial or complete loss of central vision

mirror neuron

cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated when an animal performs an action or observes it being performed

capsaicin

chemical that stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat

chemorepellents

chemicals that repel growth cones

default mode network The regions of the brain that are active when the brain is awake and at rest and attention is not being directed to external events.

claustrum A thin sheet of neurons, situated within the white matter lateral to the basal ganglia, that has been implicated in conscious awareness.

free nerve ending

dendrites that lack any obvious structural specialization; used to generate sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickle, and itch

transient receptor potential type M3 (TRPM3

detects even higher temperatures than does TRPV1 (Vendewauw et al., 2018). This is an example of range fractionation Does not respond to capsacin Found on "A delta" Aδ fibers

anxiety disorder

diovascular disease and suicide (Kleiman et al., 2017). The DSM-5 distinguishes several major types of anxiety disorders. Phobic disorders are intense, irrational fears that become centered on a specific object, activity, or situation that the person feels compelled to avoid. Anxiety disorders also include generalized anxiety disorder, in which persistent and excessive anxiety and worry are experienced for months, and panic disorder, characterized by recurrent transient attacks of intense fearfulness. Some people who have recurrent panic attacks have temporal lobe abnormalities, and overall temporal lobe volumes tend to be lower in people with panic disorder (van Tol et al., 2010), while hippocampal volumes are normal. Given the special role of the amygdala in mediating fear (see Chapter 15), changes in the amygdala and associated circuitry may underlie the symptoms (Rauch et al., 2003). Other anxiety-related disorders that we'll consider shortly are posttraumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. There is a strong genetic contribution to each of these disorders (Oler et al., 2010; Shih et al., 2004).

Molecules of neurotransmitter generally ____(do/don't) enter the postsynaptic neuron. They simply bind to the receptors momentarily to induce a response, and then detach and diffuse away.

don't

Depressants

drugs that reduce nervous system activity and slow body functions

Short-term memories (STMs)

e.g., memory of what you did this morning

cognitively impenetrable Referring to data-processing operations of the central nervous system that are unconscious.

easy problem of consciousness The problem of how to read current conscious experiences directly from people's brains as they're happening.

Ruffini's ending

found in the superficial dermis of both hairy and glaborous skin where they record low-frequency vibration or pressure. These receptors adapt slowly to pressure that results in stretching of the skin. They record the sustained presence of pressure on the skin. Advanced.

ocular dominance column

functional column in the visual cortex maximally responsive to information coming from one eye

parasympathetic nervous system

generally prepares the body to relax and recuperate A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord.

LGN

lateral geniculate nucleus LGN neurons of all six layers have concentric receptive fields.

nonassociative learning A type of learning in which presentation of a particular stimulus alters the strength or probability of a response according to the strength and temporal spacing of that stimulus. It includes habituation and sensitization.

habituation A form of nonassociative learning in which an organism becomes less responsive following repeated presentations of a stimulus.

The _______ is/are usually the initial site of damage in noise-induced deafness.

hair cells

(((Wiesel)))and Wiesel's theoretical model has been characterized as a _______ model.

hierarchical

prostaglandin

hormone present in many tissues, but first isolated from the prostate gland

standard condition (SC) The usual environment for laboratory rodents, with a few animals in a cage and adequate food and water but no complex stimulation.

impoverished condition (IC) Also called isolated condition. A condition in which laboratory rodents are housed singly in a small cage without complex stimuli.

Dendritic Spines

increase surface area of dendrites, allowing for extra synapses. Immense plasticity, can be increased in number and changed in structure. Some change from minute to minute, while others last a lifetime

trigeminal nerve

innervates muscles that move the jaw (e.g., the temporalis Cranial nerve V, which receives information from the face and controls jaw musculature.

facial nerve

innervates the superficial muscles of facial expression Cranial nerve VII, which receives information from the face and controls the superficial muscles there.

dermatome

instrument used to cut skin

migraines

intense headaches, typically perceived from one half of the head, that recur regularly and can be difficult to treat

prefrontal cortex The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe.

intermediate-term memory A form of memory that lasts longer than short-term memory but not as long as long-term memory.

Steroid Hormone Receptors

internal receptor that turns on specific genes when it is activated by binding a signal molecule

lateral intraparietal area (LIP) A region in the monkey parietal lobe, homologous with the human intraparietal sulcus, that is especially involved in voluntary, top-down control of attention.

intraparietal sulcus (IPS) A region in the human parietal lobe, homologous with the monkey lateral intraparietal area, that is especially involved in voluntary, top-down control of attention.

polymodal

involving several sensory modalities

GABA A

ionotropic GABA receptor (They are ligand-gated ion channels)

GABA C

ionotropic with a chloride channel. Differ from others with their subunits.

Open-loop control mechanisms

maximize speed; there are no external forms of feedback, and the activity is preprogrammed. A control mechanism in which feedback from the output of the system is not provided to the input control.

GABA B

metabotropic GABA receptor. Slow occuring. K+ ion conductance

conditional knockout A gene that can be selectively deactivated in specific tissues and/or at a specific stage of development.

nootropics A class of drugs that enhance cognitive function. as donepezil (Aricept), that inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. The resultant increase in cholinergic transmission in the forebrain has a positive effect on memory and cognition in mild to moderate cases of Alzheimer's (Ringman and Cummings, 2006).

parvocellular

of or consisting of relatively small cells

extraocular muscle

one of the muscles attached to the eyeball that control its position and movements

naloxone

opioid antagonist

enkephalins

opioids that are widespread throughout the brain and dorsal horn of the spinal cord and are believed to reduce pain sensation by inhibiting the release of substance P

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

somatosensory

our sense of touch, temperature, and pain

analgesic

painkiller

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

photoreceptors

respond to light

Interaural intensity differences

result from comparison of the intensity of the sound—the physical property that we consciously perceive as loudness— between the left versus right ears (interaural means "between the two ears").

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond ; the human eye contains about 100 million rods and 4 million cones Rods are distributed differently than cones: rods are absent in the fovea but more numerous than cones in the periphery of the retina (see Figure 10.6A). They are the most concentrated in a ring about 20° away from the center of the retina.

engram The physical basis of a memory in the brain. It is sometimes referred to as a memory trace on the assumption that it involves changes in a neural circuit rather than a single neuron.

retrieval A process in memory during which a stored memory is used by an organism.

dishabituation The restoration of response amplitude following habituation.

sensitization 1. A process in which the body shows an enhanced response to a given drug after repeated doses. 2. A form of nonassociative learning in which an organism becomes more responsive to most stimuli after being exposed to unusually strong or painful stimulation.

inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs)

suicide preventions

Cats are not sensitive to _______ tastes.

sweet

Hebbian synapses

synapses that grow stronger or weaker depending on their effectiveness in driving their target cell

frontal eye field (FEF) An area in the frontal lobe of the brain containing neurons important for establishing gaze in accordance with cognitive goals (top-down processes) rather than with any characteristics of stimuli (bottom-up processes). People with damage to a frontal lobe region called the frontal eye field (FEF) (see Figure 18.15) struggle to prevent their gaze from being drawn away toward peripheral distracters while they're performing a voluntary attention task (Paus et al., 1991). Neurons of the FEF appear to be crucial for ensuring that our gaze is directed among stimuli according to our cognitive goals rather than eye-catching characteristics of the stimuli. In effect, the FEF ensures that cognitively controlled top-down attention gets priority. It's no surprise, then, that the FEF is closely connected to the superior colliculus, which, as we discussed earlier, is important for planned eye movements. Furthermore, researchers using transcranial magnetic stimulation to temporarily disrupt activity of the FEF found that regions of visual cortex involved in processing features like color and motion in target visual stimuli were likewise temporarily impeded (Zanto et al., 2011). This result confirmed, in humans, that top-down attentional systems (namely, in the FEF) act to bias neural activity in visual cortex.

temporoparietal junction (TPJ) The point in the brain where the temporal and parietal lobes meet that plays a role in shifting attention to a new location after target onset.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

attention

the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete stimulus while ignoring other perceivable stimuli.

Amine Hormones

thyroid hormones, catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine)

Neighboring stereocilia are joined by

tip links

function of pain

to warn of actual or potential tissue damage

Several regions of the auditory cortex show _______ mapping.

tonotopic

bottom-up process A process in which lower-order mechanisms, like sensory inputs, trigger additional processing by higher-order systems. There may be no conscious awareness until late in the process.

top-down process A process in which higher-order cognitive processes control lower-order systems, often reflecting conscious control.

Medial

toward the midline

magnocellular

two ventral layers - large cells, large receptive fields

horizontal cells

type of cell that receives input from receptors and delivers inhibitory input to bipolar cells