Physiology Exam 2
What is the range of magnitudes (in millivolts) of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of human cells?
-20 millivolts to -100 millivolts
During muscle contraction, by approximately how much do actin filaments and myosin filaments shorten?
3.65 micrometers to 1.65 micrometers, so 2 micrometers.
How do exocrine glands form, during development of the body?
All of the connecting cells persist to form a duct. Deepest cells secrete hormones
What are Caveoli? How are they related to intracellular vesicles?
"Little Caves" that conduct Transcytosis with intracellular vesicles.
What is a 'fenestra'? Where exactly are they located? What is their function?
"Windows" Located within the endothelial layer. They allow rapid exchange of materials between the ISF and Blood Plasma by expanding and contracting
What is an Intercellular Cleft (or Channel)?
Allow Bulk Flow between ISF and Blood Plasma
List three (3) molecules that are known to signal in a retrograde fashion.
Anandamide, 2-arachidonyl glycerol, nitric oxide
Define retrograde signaling at a synapse.
Chemical is released from the postsynaptic element and travels backwards across the synaptic cleft to active receptors on the presynaptic cell.
At which type of synapse are chemical neurotransmitter molecules secreted or released into the synaptic cleft (usually, but not always) through the process of exocytosis by the presynaptic cell?
Chemical synapse
What happens to the duct of an exocrine gland, if it later develops into an endocrine gland?
Connecting cells disappear, The deep cells still secrete hormones into capillaries.
The periosteum, tendon, fascia, epimysium, perimysium and endomysium are all (which of the four primary tissue types)?
Connective
Name the three (3) different types of capillaries. How do they differ (structurally) from each other?
Continuous: Small Intercellular cleft, No fenestrae Fenestrated: Have small fenestrations Sinusoid: Incomplete basement membrane, Intercellular Gaps (Huge fenestrae) and a large Intercellular cleft
When diffusion of an ion (e.g., K+) across the plasma membrane in response to the transmembrane voltage is equal-and-opposite to diffusion of the same ion in response to the concentration gradient across the PM, the ion is said to be in ___________________ ____________________.
Electrochemical Equilibrium
The Nernst Equation describes the transmembrane voltage that will exist when K+ is in ______________________ ___________________.
Equilibrium
Through which specific cellular, phospholipid bilayer-trafficking process are synaptic vesicles secreted?
Exocytosis
What are the differences between a receptor LIGAND, a receptor AGONIST, and a receptor ANTAGONIST?
Ligand: any molecule that BINDS to a receptor Agonist: any ligand that ACTIVATES the receptor Antagonist: any ligand the PREVENTS receptor activation
What is CaV1.1? Precisely where is it located? What does it do?
Located in the sarcolemma of T-Tubules It acts as a voltage sensor for E-C coupling L-Type VGCC
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Potentially life-threatening dehydration is a loss of 10-15% (equivalent to 4.2L in a 70 kg male) of total body water.
The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber is known as the _____________________.
Sarcolemma
The smallest functional unit (defined by a Z-disc on both ends) of contraction is known as a _________________.
Sarcomeres
In skeletal muscle fibers, MOST of the calcium that triggers contraction is released from the _________________________ ____________________________.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
WHY do APs propagate in only one direction once they are triggered? Why don't they reverse directions once they have started?
To reach the action potential, if it reversed the AP wouldn't be created
What is Transcytosis? How is it related to Caveoli and intracellular vesicles?
Transcytosis is the process of moving certain molecules between the ISF and Blood Plasma via intracellular vesicles (Selective Vesicle-Mediated Transport)
Which is more selective (in terms of selecting/controlling which molecules are transported), bulk flow or transcytosis? Why is this?
Transcytosis; It has specific binding sites/receptors
What roles do Troponin T, Troponin C and Troponin I play in muscle contraction?
Troponin T: Pulls Tropomyosin off of actin Troponin C: Ca2+ binding site, the Ca2+ causes formation of Troponin T. Troponin I: Binds to actin
Why must actin filaments and myosin filaments interdigitate and overlap somewhat in order for tension generation to occur?
When they overlap and begin to pull apart is when maximum tension is created
How do local anesthetics block pain? What is the molecular mechanism?
block inner mouth of VGNCs in sensory neurons to prevent sodium ion conduction(no pain signal can be sent to brain)
From which naturally-occurring drugs are Local Anesthetics derived?
cocaine
Why are APs described as being 'non-decrementing'?
constant amplitude and waveform shape down the axon
The electro-chemical gradient for potassium (K+) is determined by two forces: what are they?
-Concentration Gradient that drives K+ out of the cell -An Electrical Gradient that drives K+ into the cell
Is the inside of the cell electrically negative, or electrically positive, RELATIVE to the extracellular fluid?
-Electrically Negative
Why are potassium (K+) leak channels in the plasma membrane important for establishment of the RMP?
-Equilibrium
What specific feature of the plasma membrane allows extracellular ions to electrostatically interact with fixed intracellular anions?
-It's very thin, 5nm.
The RMP is mostly created by the constant diffusion of _____ ions in _________ directions across the ___________.
-K+ (Potassium) in BOTH directions
Why is it absolutely crucial that potassium leak channels in the PM are always (i.e., constitutively) open?
-Setting up resting membrane potential
True or False? For a typically-sized cell having a total plasma membrane surface area of 1 centimeter squared, only a tiny fraction of the total number of potassium ions within the cytoplasm must become unequally distributed across the plasma membrane in order to establish a resting membrane potential (RMP) of -70 mV.
-True, it only takes 10^-13 mole of K+ ions
How many chemical synapses are present on each individual adult human skeletal muscle fiber?
1
How many presynaptic terminals form chemical synapses with a single skeletal muscle fiber?
1
List five (5) different ion channels, and their order of opening, that are involved in neuromuscular transmission and excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle.
1) Voltage Gated Ca2+ channels: (VGCC) in motor neuron plasma membrane 2) Nicotinic AChRs: in sarcolemma of the postsynaptic muscle fiber 3) Voltage Gated Na+ channels: (VGNC) in the sarcolemma 4) VGCCs: in the T-tubules (they mechanically open RyR1) 5) Ca2+ release channels: (Ryanodine Receptors 1 or RyR1) in the bilayer of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Allows muscle relaxation)
What FRACTION of the potassium (K+) ions in a cell must leave the cytoplasm in order to establish a RMP of -70 mV?
1/100,000,000
How many volts is a millivolt?
1/1000th of a volt or 10^-3
To what approximate concentration must myoplasmic calcium concentration increase (during E-C coupling) in order to trigger contraction?
10-100 micromolar
How fast (i.e., at what speed or velocity) can APs propagate?
100 meters/second , 2ms
What is the approximate diameter of an adult skeletal muscle fiber?
100 micrometers in diameter
What is the approximate concentration of calcium ions within the cytoplasm (myoplasm) of a resting (non-contracting or relaxed) skeletal muscle fiber?
100 nanomolar
Approximately how WIDE is the synaptic cleft? Give the units of measurement. Why is this width thought to be optimal?
12-20 nm across.
What is the approximate width (or length) of a sarcomere?
2.2 micrometers
What is the total volume of water in a 70 kilogram human male?
42 Liters
How many different types of endocrine cells are present with pancreatic Islets of Langerhans?
5
How many transmembrane alpha helices are present within the alpha subunit of a voltage-gated sodium channel (VGNC or VGSC)?
6
What is a TRIAD?
A T-Tubule with 2 flanking terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum They are the anatomical site of excitation/contraction
How much neurotransmitter is typically secreted by a single bouton at Central Synapses?
A very small amount, as little as one per bouton. The process is plastic though, so it depends on the activity being carried out at any given moment.
During cross-bridge cycling, which specific event triggers the power stroke?
ADP
Which specific neurotransmitter molecule does CALHM1 release?
ATP
During cross-bridge cycling, which specific event allows the myosin head to unbind from actin?
ATP binds to the myosin head
What exactly is a T-tubule? What is its functional purpose?
Action Potential from the sarcolemma travels through T-Tubules to the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum causing Ca2+ release
What is functionally special about the Initial Segment of an axon (i.e., the Axon Hillock)?
Action potential is triggered here because the threshold is lower at the axon hillock due to a highly concentrated area of VGNC's
What famous scientist is the Volt named for?
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta
What is a neurohemal organ?
Axon Terminals of HYPOTHALAMIC neurosecretory neurons contact FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES within the infundibulum of the PITUITARY GLAND to form a neurohemal organ.
Why do exocrine glands have ducts?
Because the underlying cells are all connected to each other
Why do all of the skeletal muscle fibers within the same motor unit all contract at the same time?
Because they are all connected to the same somatic motor neuron (All members of the same motor unit)
Which type of endocrine cell within the pancreatic Islets secretes insulin?
Beta cells
How can hydrophobic (lipophilic; lipid-soluble) molecules move across capillary walls?
Bulk Flow
How is Bulk Flow of fluid involved in the exchange of materials between the blood plasma and the ISF?
Bulk flow is non-selective, unlike transcytosis. It allows exchange between ISF and Blood Plasma
What are myofibrils?
Bundles of Actin and Myosin FIlaments
How does the selectivity-filter of an ion-selective channel remove the water molecules from an ion?
By replacing the slightly negative water molecules with slightly negative oxygen molecules through the selectivity filter
In the Video (16.5_Muscle_Contraction) that can be found within the Video Folder in Canvas, the "voltage-sensitive protein that opens the Calcium-Release Channel in the adjacent sarcoplasmic reticulum" corresponds to what entity in the slides?
CaV1.1 pumps
Did Cajal demonstrate that the nervous system is composed of distinct, separate cells rather than a continuous reticulum? What is the significance of this discovery for understanding how the nervous system works?
Cajal proved that the nervous system is composed of distinct single cells that use chemical synaptic transmission to communicate with one another
What is the The Black Reaction? Who invented it?
Camillo Golgi. It is a tissue staining method that proves the nervous system is composed of individual and separate cells with discrete endings. It works by hardening the tissue with potassium bichromate and impregnating it with silver nitrate.
Speaking generally, what is the time-course for a cell's response to thyroid hormones?
Days-to-weeks
What are the potential fates of neurotransmitters after they have entered a synaptic cleft?
Diffuse away from/out of the cleft Degraded by enzymes Reuptake into presynaptic terminal Uptake into surrounding glial cells
What is the difference between diffusion and NET diffusion?
Diffusion is movement of molecules from one location to another (theres an equal amount of solutes on each side). Net diffusion always occurs from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
What does the EDF tell you regarding the various physiological ions?
Direction of Ionic Current
Are synaptic clefts located intracellularly or extracelllularly?
Extracellularly
What type of capillary is found within the glomeruli of the kidneys?
Fenestrated Capillaries
What is a Slit diaphragm?
Gaps between Podocyte Pedicels on the outside of the capillary
Which specific region of a single (i.e., monomeric) myosin II protein contains the ATP-binding and hydrolysis site, and which region contains the actin-binding site?
Head
Why does the presynaptic terminal of a spinal somatic motor neuron secrete a 3-fold excess of acetylcholine onto a skeletal muscle fiber? (This means that only one third of the amount of ACh that is secreted would be sufficient to trigger the muscle fiber to contract.)
High safety factor, ensures that the muscle always contracts
The temporary (transient) positive feedback that occurs at the threshold potential is known as the ___________ Cycle.
Hodgkin Cycle
In order for a cell to respond to a particular hormone, that cell must possess (what?):
Hormone receptors
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Hyperkalemia is when blood Potassium concentration is too high (i.e., elevated).
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In humans, axons can exceed 1 meter in length.
What is Ryanodine Receptor 1 (RyR1)? Precisely where is it located? What does it do?
In the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It acts as a voltage sensor for the Excitatory-Contraction coupling. It is a giant Ca2+ channel Mechanically gated by 4 CaV1.1's
Why (i.e., what is the function of) are there junctional folds of the sarcolemma at a neuromuscular junction?
Increases the surface area, therefore, more ACh receptors
Neurotransmitter X binds to and activates an ionotropic receptor that conducts only potassium ions across the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. Is the effect of neurotransmitter X on the postsynaptic cell going to be excitatory or inhibitory?
Inhibitory
The secretions of endocrine glands move directly into (which specific body fluid compartment)?
Interstitial Fluid (ISF)
Which specific component of the extracellular fluid is present within the synaptic cleft?
Interstitial fluid
What are the differences between an ionotropic neurotransmitter receptor and a metabotropic neurotransmitter receptor?
Ionotropic: contain built-in ion channels. AKA ligand-gated receptors, chemically gated receptors, or neurotransmitter-gated receptors. Metabotropic: lack a built-in ion channel. They INDIRECTLY open or close ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane.
What is a dihydropyridine drug? What is a dihydropyridine receptor?
Is Dihydropyridine receptor is a CaV1.1 receptor. A Dihydropyridine drug eases hypertension
Why must intracellular calcium concentration (i.e., [Ca2+]) increase before myosin heads can bind to actin?
It causes CROSS BRIDGE CYCLING. Myosin binds to actin, power strokes, and unbinds from actin
What is Tropomyosin? Where is it located (and what is it doing) in non-contracting (i.e., relaxed) muscle?
It covers up binding sites for myosin heads on actin
Why is the mammalian neuromuscular junction sometimes called an End Plate?
It has a "platter" like shape
What is acetylcholinesterase, precisely where (at the neuromuscular junction) is it located, and what specific function does it perform?
It hydrolyzes acetylcholine into choline and acetate in the synaptic cleft
How does myelination alter the amount of energy that axons must expend pumping sodium ions (Na+) out of the cytoplasm?
It lowers the required energy
What is a 'basement membrane' (aka basal lamina)? Where is it located? What is it composed of? What function does it perform in the kidneys?
It prevents protein from leaving the Blood Plasma, located external from capillary, composed of Basal Lamina
Why does the peak of an AP occur at less positive voltages when the extracellular sodium concentration is reduced?
It reduces the electro-chemical driving force (EDF) on Na+ and lowers the Nernst potential
What does the intracellular III-IV loop of VGNCs have to do with fast, spontaneous channel inactivation?
It rests in a state similar to the open state, but the III-IV loop holds the Na+ out/in while the cell repolarizes
What important essential feature of the nervous system does the Black Reaction reveal?
It reveals isolated, individual, neuron cell
How will the RMP change if the extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]) increases by 2-fold (i.e., doubles)?
It will create a RMP of -70mv
What are fixed intracellular anions? Precisely where are they located? How do they influence the RMP?
Large Negatively Charged molecules fixed within the Plasma Membrane
What is Loligo ? Why was it useful and important in the early study of action potentials?
Loligo is marine squid. It is usefull because it had a gaint axon, which was usefull to understanding the ionic basic of action potentials.
How does Brevetoxin affect the function of VGNCs?
Lowers the action potential rate - more repetitive firing AP's can occur at more (-) voltages
What condition (depolarization or repolarization?) causes voltage-gated sodium channels (VGNCs) to enter the OPEN STATE from the CLOSED STATE?
Membrane Depolarization
The Electrochemical Driving Force (EDF) on an ion is proportional to the absolute difference between the _____________ and the ______________________ for that ion.
Membrane Potential and the Nernst Potential
Which specific (and relatively simple) tools did the Spanish scientist & physician Santiago Ramon y Cajal use to demonstrate the existence of the synaptic cleft?
Microscope, artistic drawings
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Mild dehydration is the loss of 5% (equivalent to 2.1L in a 70 kg male) of total body water.
A single spinal motor neuron, and all of the skeletal muscle fibers that it innervates, is known as a _________ __________.
Motor Unit
If the myelination is completely removed from an axon (as can occur in the human disease known as multiple sclerosis or MS), what will happen to action potential propagation? Will it continue, or will it fail? Why or why not?
Myelination renders Saltatory to the Nodes, but without the Myelination, the Na+ jumping around from Node to Node diffuses immediately out of the unmyelinated axon
How do you calculate the Electrical Field Strength of the RMP?
Nernst Equation for monovalent cation (K+)
What is the difference between a hormone and a neurohormone?
Neurohormones are secreted by Neurons, Hormones are secreted by endo/exocrine glands
in the inactivated state, can the channel conduct sodium ions (Na+) across the plasma membrane?
No
What mode of neurotransmission does CALHM1 taste receptor mediate (vesicular secretion, non-vesicular release or retrograde release)?
Non-Vesicular
What are THREE DIFFERENT STATES of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGNCs)?
Open, Closed, inactivated
Which mode of signaling involves a local mediator?
Paracrine
What is a 'foot process' or Pedicel? Where exactly are these structures located?
Pedicels are stalk-like structures. Located in the inner layer of the Bowman's Capsule
What specific types of neurotransmitter receptor or transporter proteins are affected by THC, Xanax, Oxycontin, Hydrocodon, caffeine, nicotine, Angel Dust, heroin, morphine?
Phencyclidine (PCP): antagonist at ionotropic glutamate receptors Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): agonist at metabotropic cannabinoid receptors Oxycontin & Hydrocodone: agonists at metabotropic opioid receptors Xanax (Alprazolam) & Valium: modulators that increase sensitivity of ionotropic GABAa receptors to their natural agonist neurotransmitter GABA Heroin & Morphine: agonists at metabotropic opioid receptors Prozac: inhibits reuptake of serotonin by a transporter protein Nicotine: agonist at ionotropic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Cocaine: inhibits reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine by transporter proteins Caffeine: is an antagonist at metabotropic adenosine receptors in the brain
What is the name of the epithelial cells that wrap around capillaries of the Glomerulus?
Podocytes wrap pedicles around the capillaries
What is Ryanodine?
Poisonous chemical found in a south american plant
What is the specific cellular location of the receptor proteins for water-soluble neurotransmitter molecules?
Postsynaptic membrane
List the series of events, in their correct order of occurrence, that occur during chemical synaptic transmission (see Slide #4 of Part Two).
Presynaptic depolarization Presynaptic Ca+ influx through VGCC Exocytosis of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles Binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic receptors Postsynaptic conductance and potential changes Diffusion or reuptake of neurotransmitter Synaptic vesicle membrane retrieved or recycled
What specific electrical event is usually responsible for opening the voltage-gated Calcium channels within the plasma membrane of a presynaptic terminal?
Presynaptic depolarization or action potential
At a chemical synapse, what is a "bouton"?
Presynaptic terminals "buttons"
In which region of the cerebral cortex are primary motor neurons located?
Primary Motor Area
What is the definition of 'threshold potential'?
Probability of an Action Potential being triggered 50% of the time
How does myelination affect the velocity of AP propagation?
Renders Saltatory to the node Speeds up AP propogation Reduces Neurological Expendature
Which specific part of the alpha subunit of a VGNC serves as the 'inactivation gate'? Why does the inactivation gate NOT BIND to the inner mouth of the channel, unless the transmembrane voltage has become more positive?
S6
What is SERCA? What does it do?
SERCA's are Ca2+ ATPase pumps that pump all of the Ca2+ released by the SR, back into itself.
Which specific transmembrane proteins and protein structures connect adjacent cells at electrical synapses?
SIX CONNEXIN form one connexon. TWO CONNEXONS form one GAP JUNCTION that connect two cells
What does it mean that AP propagation along a myelinated axon is 'saltatory'?
Saltatory means jumping. AP jumps from node to node
Name two different toxins that are produced by marine plankton (dinoflagellates) and that may become concentrated in the flesh of filter-feeding marine shellfish (e.g., clams and mussels) during a Red Tide, and can poison animals?
Saxitoxin, Brevetoxin
What are Schwann Cells and what material do they form around axons?
Schwann Cells are Glial PNS cells. They form Myelin around axons
Speaking generally, what is the time-course for a cell's response to catecholamines such as epinephrine (aka adrenaline)?
Seconds-to-minutes
How does Saxitoxin affect the function of VGNCs?
Similar to TTX, it blocks VGNC's so no action potentials an be taken
What is a sinusoid? Where are they located? What is their function?
Sinusoid is located in the Liver, they have huge fenestrae and intercellular clefts
Signaling by the endocrine system tends to be (faster or slower) and (shorter-lasting or longer-lasting) than signaling by the nervous system.
Slower and Longer Lasting
Name five (5) different types or classes of molecules known to function as neurotransmitter molecules.
Small Molecules ---- acetylcholine Amines ---- dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin Amino Acids ----glutamate Peptides ---- insulin, glucagon Lipids ---- anandamide
Why does the diameter of myofibrils need to be small?
So Ca2+ from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum can diffuse rapidly across all myofibrils causing synchronized contraction and maximum force generation
Which specific membrane transport protein is responsible for maintaining a high intracellular concentration of K+?
Sodium Potassium Pumps
What kinds of cells form the walls of capillaries? What is the shape of those cells?
Squamous epithelium, Caveoli and Transport Vesicles
Many drugs produce their effects by altering ____________________________________.
Synaptic Transmission
Which alpha helix within each transmembrane domain (i.e., repeats) serves as the voltage-sensing mechanism of the channel?
The S4 segments serve as the voltage sensors for the channel (alpha subunits)
What is the neuromuscular junction?
The contact between the Somatic Motor Neuron and the Skeletal Muscle Fiber (NMJ)
What is a myosin II dimer?
The head that contains the two proteins
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The process by which an action potential within the T-Tubule Bilayer induces the SR to release calcium ions into the myoplasm is known as Excitation-Contraction coupling.
What is endocrinology?
The study of hormones
At many chemical synapses, neurotransmitter molecules such as acetylcholine are water-soluble (i.e., hydrophilic). How are such neurotransmitters typically stored inside cells? Where inside cells are they stored?
They are stored in the end of an axon or the "presynaptic nerve terminal" inside of vesicles.
What happens to the distance between Z-disks during contraction?
They get closer to each other
Spinal Nerves are said to be 'mixed'. What does this mean?
They have both sensory and motor axons
What is a THICK FILAMENT? How is it related to myosin II dimers?
Thick Filament = Myosin Filament. The head of the thick filament is where Myosin II Dimers reside
A single motor neuron cell body within the spinal cord forms chemical synapses with (approximately how many) presynaptic terminals?
Thousands
Why does the peak of an action potential overshoot 0 mV?
To assure that the actoin potential happens, the cell becomes intracellularly positive
Why do VGNCs need to have three states? Why can't they just have OPEN and CLOSED states?
To make sure action potentials travel unidirectionally so they don't go backwards
It is important that the RMP be relatively large and negative (e.g., -90 mV) BECAUSE this large, negative transmembrane voltage is important for keeping ______________________ in the closed-and-ready-to-open state.
VCNC's (Voltage Gated Sodium Channel)
Within a presynaptic terminal, what is a 'synaptic vesicle'?
Vesicle that carries neurotransmitter molecules out to the synaptic cleft
APs are created by the transient opening of ________________ - gated _____________ _ channels.
Voltage-gated ion channels
For which famous scientist is the Nernst Potential named?
Walther Nernst
Which type of endocrine cell within the pancreatic Islets secretes glucagon?
alpha cells
When VGNCs are in the inactivated state and the transmembrane voltage is +40 mV, where are the voltage-sensing S4 segments positioned in relation to the cytoplasm?
away from the cytoplasm and close to extracellular space
Electrical gradients (such as the transmembrane voltage or RMP) only affects what kind of molecules?
ions
Extracellular K+ concentration is maintained at ~ 5 millimolar by the _________________.
kidneys
Action potentials (APs) travel _____________ _______________ and trigger _____________ .
long distances, neurosecretion by axon terminals
Ions in solution are surrounded by a cloud of water molecules which form the ion's _______________ ___ ____________.
sphere of hydration
During contraction, myosin II heads row toward the __________ end of the actin filament.
opposite
What is tetrodotoxin? Name some animals that contain it. How does it block action potentials? How is the mechanism of block different from that produced by local anesthetics?
tetrodoxin is toxin in putter fish. Some Animals that contain this are blue ringed octopus, rough skinned newt and moon snails. It blocks transmission of action potentials by blocking extracellular mouth of VGNCs pore
The RMP has a very high Electrical Field Strength, because the plasma membrane is very _________.
thin
In order for voltage-gated sodium channels (VGNCs) to recover from inactivation (i.e., re-enter the closed-and-ready- to-open state) following an action potential, they require two conditions. What are they?
time and negative membrane potential. (1-10 ms, the higher (-) MP of the cell the faster it will repolarize)
True or False? The Electrical Field Strength of the resting membrane potential is approximately 6 times stronger than the Electrical Field Strength of lighting in the Earth's atmosphere.
true
