PLAN 1010 MIDTERM

Toronto

"Density Creep Neighborhood Alliance" Formed to Fight Midrise Housing in Toronto _Sherwood Park_ *Laneway Suites:* Secondary suites are an important part of rental housing supply in Toronto. Secondary suites incrementally, responsibly, and "invisibly" increase density, while preserving neighbourhood character and scale. By allowing secondary suites to be located on laneways, privacy from the main house is improved, and it allows the secondary suite more access to light, air, and views.

The Spiral Tower

"Designed for the people who occupy it, The Spiral ensures that every floor of the tower opens up to the outdoors creating hanging gardens and cascading atria that connect the open floor plates from the ground floor to the summit into a single uninterrupted work space." Bjarke Ingels *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* Developed by Tishman Speyer and designed by noted architectural firm Bjarke Ingels Group, The Spiral enhances the emerging skyline at Hudson Yards with 2.85 million square feet of connected and sustainable Class A office space. Green spaces begin their revolution at the base of The Spiral and continue to circle the tower from the High Line to the skyline. The classic Manhattan step-back form takes a step forward as the building gently tapers to the sky, allowing light and air to reach the streets below, and providing lush outdoor space to tenants on each floor. With entrances on Hudson Park and Boulevard, The Spiral draws its sustainable and landscaped inspiration from the acres of newly developed urban green space adjacent to it. The terraces provide each floor with a double-height amenity space that can either be connected to adjacent floors for a dynamic workspace flow, or can serve as a unique meeting space dedicated to one specific floor.

Daniel Burnham

"Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood and probably themselves will not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work." — Daniel Hudson Burnham (1846-1912) *NOTABLE WORKS:* He built some of the first skyscrapers in the world; directed construction of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition that inspired the City Beautiful Movement; and created urban plans for Washington DC, Chicago, Cleveland, San Francisco and Manila—all before the profession of urban planning existed. /In fact, some say that he invented it./ *GOALS:* His work sought to reconcile things often thought opposite: the practical and the ideal, business and art, and capitalism and democracy. At the center of it all was the idea of a vibrant urban community. As an international figure, Burnham believed that an ideal city could be both beautiful and commercially efficient.

Missing Middle Housing

"Missing Middle" was coined by Daniel Parolek of Opticos Design, Inc. in 2010 to define a range of multi-unit or clustered housing types compatible in scale with single-family homes that help meet the growing demand for walkable urban living. Combined together (and sometimes even with single-family homes), Missing Middle building types create a moderate density that can support public transit and services and amenities within walking distance, and make up some of the most popular up-and-coming communities in Denver, Cincinnati, Austin, and San Francisco. /What do Missing Middle building types have in common?/ -Walkable Context -Small-Footprint Buildings -Lower Perceived Density -Smaller, Well-Designed Units -Fewer Off-street Parking Spaces -Simple Construction -Creates Community -Marketable

Settlement Houses

*BASIC DESCRIPTION:* sometimes also called a community or neighborhood center—is a neighborhood-based organization that provides services and activities designed to identify and reinforce the strengths of individuals, families and communities. Most were large buildings in crowded immigrant neighborhoods of industrial cities, where settlement workers provided services for neighbors and sought to remedy poverty. Varying according to the needs of their neighborhoods, settlement programs may include: job training and employment programs, early childhood education, afterschool youth programs, arts education and performances, computer labs, English-as-a-Second-Language and literacy education, citizenship instruction and legal counseling, mental health and home care, housing, senior centers and Meals-on-Wheels. *HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:* Settlement houses were important reform institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and Chicago's Hull House was the best-known settlement in the United States. The settlement idea appealed to young Americans who wished to bridge the gulf of class, help the urban poor, implement "social Christianity," and understand the causes of poverty. As settlement house residents learned more about their communities, they proposed changes in local government and lobbied for state and federal legislation on social and economic problems. *Hull-House Maps and Papers* (1895), a study of housing, employment and wages, prompted other settlements to survey their neighborhoods. Having documented harsh working conditions and bad housing and sanitation, the settlements and their allies pressured city government to provide public bathhouses, neighborhood parks and playgrounds, branch libraries, better waste collection and disposal, and kindergartens and night classes in the public schools.

The High Line

*DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* The High Line is an elevated freight rail line transformed into a public park on Manhattan's West Side. It is owned by the City of New York, and maintained and operated by Friends of the High Line. Founded in 1999 by community residents, Friends of the High Line fought for the High Line's preservation and transformation at a time when the historic structure was under the threat of demolition. It is now the non-profit conservancy working with the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation to make sure the High Line is maintained as an extraordinary public space for all visitors to enjoy.

Skyville @ Dawson public housing that consists of 960 homes in Singapore

*DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* The design was exhibited to the public for feedback and comments, and then redesigned based on the feedback. The Sky Village concept gives a greater sense of community and identity within the large precinct, and is designed to be a social space to enhance cohesiveness. There is a variety of community space. Each home is part of a Sky Village: 80 homes which share a naturally ventilated community terrace and garden. The block is composed of 3 villages, stacked 4 high, for a total of 12 villages. Other community areas include: the Community Living Rooms at ground level, which provides seating areas overlooking the park, and is located on the main entrance route of the development; the Landscaped Park, which retains enormous historic rain trees and provides two community pavilions for weddings and funerals, play and fitness areas, courts and lawns; the Rooftop Park, which houses a 400m jogging track and rooftop pavilions which support a PV array that powers the common lighting; the Urban Plaza, located along a public linear park and provides supermarket, coffee shop and retail spaces. *METHODS:* The design is highly repetitive, and is fully precast and prefabricated, reducing waste and errors on site. Only 5 window types are used in the entire development. The design creates variety through the re-arrangement of the modules, through color, and light and shade. The block is perforated, folded, and studded with gardens to avoid the appearance of a large mass. Rather than luxury of materials, the precast, painted design proposes resolution of social, technical and aesthetic objectives as the creation of the most value.

Pierre L'Enfant's Plan /as seen in Washington, designed in 1791 by Pierre L'Enfant, and mapped the following year/ /a design which remains largely in place/

*DESCRIPTION OF ZONING:* After surveying the site, L'Enfant developed a Baroque plan that features ceremonial spaces and grand radial avenues, while respecting natural contours of the land. The result was a system of intersecting diagonal avenues superimposed over a grid system. The avenues radiated from the two most significant building sites that were to be occupied by houses for Congress and the President. *HISTORICAL & SYMBOLIC IMPORTANCE:* as the capital of a new nation, its position and appearance had to surpass the social, economic and cultural balance of a mere city: it was intended as the model for American city planning and a symbol of governmental power to be seen by other nations. The remarkable aspect of Washington, is that by definition of built-out blocks and unobstructed open space, the plan conceived by L'Enfant is little changed today

Ebenezer Howard and Garden Cities

*DESCRIPTION:* The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom. Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of residences, industry and agriculture. *FEATURES:* Ideally his garden city would accommodate 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,400 ha), planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail. *HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:* The movement succeeded in emphasising the need for urban planning policies that eventually led to the New Town movement.

Home Gr/Own (Milwaukee program)

*GOAL:* Transform targeted neighborhoods by concentrating City and partner resources, catalyzing new, healthy food access and greenspace developments to promote economic development in City neighborhoods and commercial corridors. *HOW:* Make it easier to grow and access local food and re-purpose city-owned vacant lots. We work within City government to streamline processes, permitting, and ordinances, making it easier to grow and distribute healthy food, start new food-based businesses and improve vacant lots into parks, orchards and healthy green spaces, increasing Milwaukee quality of life. Work within Milwaukee's community food system to link local growers to local markets, increase urban food infrastructure (water, access, compost), support new urban farms and increase the number of healthy food retailers and wholesalers.

James Oglethorpe's Plans /Seen in Savannah, Georgia/

*HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:* The Oglethorpe Plan was an embodiment of all of the major themes of the Enlightenment, including science, humanism, and secular government. Georgia became the only American colony infused at its creation with Enlightenment ideals: the last of the Thirteen Colonies, it would become the first to embody the principles later embraced by the Founders. Remnants of the Oglethorpe Plan exist today in Savannah, showcasing a town plan that retains the vibrancy of ideas behind its conception. The plan is fundamentally different from modern town or community plans by allowing for growth in small, interlocking units, or wards, of approximately 10 acres (4 hectares). The exact size of a ward will vary depending on the width of streets that bound it. *ZONING:* The multifaceted plan sought to achieve several goals through interrelated policy and design elements, including the spacing of towns, the layout of towns and eventually their surrounding counties, equitable allocation of land, and limits to growth to preserve a sustainable agrarian economy. Its cellular ward system has been cited as a unique example of fractal, or "organic", city growth in which each ward cell is a microcosm of the entire city. Another way in which the plan is fundamentally different from most designs today is in maximizing lot coverage on buildable lots while minimizing the open space requirement on those lots. Minimizing or eliminating these standards can be done because open space is provided in the public realm.

Tenochtitlan

*HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:* At its peak, it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of the Mexican capital. *ZONING CHOICES:* The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, Nahuatl calpōlli); and each calpulli, or 'big house', was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters to a side, was the ceremonial center. The palace of Montezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals. There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium.

Teotihuacan

*HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:* an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, 25 miles northeast of modern-day Mexico City known today as the site of many of the most architecturally significant Mesoamerican pyramids built in the pre-Columbian Americas *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* Apart from the pyramids, Teotihuacan is also anthropologically significant for its complex, multi-family residential compounds, the Avenue of the Dead and its vibrant murals that have been exceptionally well-preserved. The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead," is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (third largest in the World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula and the Great Pyramid of Giza). Pyramid of the Moon and The Ciudadela with Temple of the Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl are placed at the both ends of Avenue Along the Avenue are many smaller talud-tablero platforms also. The central part of the city, including the Avenue of the Dead, conforms to the orientation of the Sun Pyramid, while the southern part reproduces the orientation of the Ciudadela.

William Penn

*HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE:* served as an early safe haven for religious, racial, and gender equality, Quaker ideals which Penn wove into his concept for the design of Philadelphia. Penn's concept set a precedent for planning in many early American cities. *ZONING:* The plan was centered on a 1,200-acre plot, laid out by surveyor general Thomas Holme in 1682. It was organized into a rectangular grid pattern with lettered and numbered streets perpendicular to each other and broader civic-oriented streets for commerce and transportation forming the grid's main axes. Each quadrant features a public square with open green space, today known as Logan, Franklin, Washington, and Rittenhouse Squares. Evenly spaced lots allowed residents to have private outdoor space for gardens and retain a sense of country living within the rapidly-expanding city.

Portland, OR

*Limiting Growth, Strengthening the Core* -Regional UGB (urban growth boundary) -Portland MAX -Downtown/Center City Plans -Metro Housing Rule/and Goal 10 -Exclusive Farm Use and Forest Use Zones -Regional Greenspaces Plan /Project for Public Spaces:/ Pioneer Courthouse Square Tom McCall Waterfront Park

Linear Metabolism / Circular Metabolism

*Linear Metabolism:* the metabolism of many modern cities is essentially linear, with resources flowing through the urban system without much concern about their origin or the destination of wastes. Inputs and outputs are considered as largely unrelated *Circular Metabolism:* nature essentially has a circular zero-waste metabolism where every output by an organism is also an input which replenishes and sustains the whole living environment

Vancouver, BC

*Living First Policy* *SOLUTIONS:* Tall, thin towers perched on street oriented podiums /Ecodensity Charter:/ A GREENER, DENSER CITY PATTERN -Achieve greater densities smartly and strategically in land-use patterns, locations and designs where carbon footprint improvements and environmental gains are highest (e.g., around fixed transit; walkable shopping, employment and amenity areas; district energy sources), and where affordability and livability are also fostered. -Promote "gentle" (e.g., rowhouses, infill), "hidden" (e.g., laneway housing) or "invisible" (e.g., secondary suites) forms of density in suitable locations across the city with design that respects neighborhood identity and sense of place /Coyotes:/ learning how to deal with them /Straight of Georgia:/ whale watching as a communal activity /walkway thingy/

Dumb-bell tenement design

*ORIGINAL PROBLEM & SOLUTION:* In 1879, sparked by the increasing shortage of adequate housing for New York's poor immigrants, the magazine The Plumber and Sanitary Engineer sponsored a design competition. The dual objective was to create more housing and maximize landlord profits-both of which were constrained by the Manhattan lot size of 25 by 100 feet. The prizewinner was James Ware's "dumbbell" design, so named for its narrow airshafts running through the middle of the building on each side, yet it was essentially a front and rear tenement connected by a long hall. Each dumbbell reached six stories and housed 300 people in its 84 rooms. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & NEW PROBLEMS CREATED:* Although the dumbbell did provide one window per room and airshafts admitted light and air into the floors of tenement buildings, because of the narrowness of the shafts and the height of the buildings, the shafts "simply [became] a stagnant well of foul air." More seriously, "tenants often use the air shaft as a receptacle for garbage and all sorts of refuse and indescribable filth thrown out of the windows, and this mass of filth is often allowed to remain, rotting at the bottom of the shaft for weeks without being cleaned out."

1899 Building Height Law (Washington, DC)

*ORIGINAL PROBLEM:* In 1894, the construction of the 12-story, 164-foot Cairo Hotel building resulted in the tallest privately owned residential building in the District of Columbia. When the building permit was issued for the Cairo Hotel, located at 1615 Q Street, NW, there were no laws or regulations prohibiting a private structure of that height. Neighbors filed several complaints claiming that the building posed a fire hazard and limited light and air. *THE SOLUTION:* In 1899, the U.S. Congress passed a height law (Act) that restricted heights in the District of Columbia to generally the width of the street at the building front. In addition, the Act established maximum height limits of 90 feet in residential areas and 110 feet in commercial areas. In addition, 160-foot wide business streets and avenues were limited to a maximum height of 130 feet.

Frederick Law Olmsted Sr. /Central Park in NYC/

*ORIGINS:* Olmsted and partner Calvert Vaux won a public design competition to build a new Central Park for fast-growing New York City Unlike many of the other submissions that featured formal elements such as statues and fountains, and associational references to subjects including US history and world geography, Olmsted and Vaux's plan—entitled Greensward, an English term for a large, unbroken swath of land—was decidedly naturalistic. The planning of these led to an elementary form of planning: judging how a park would relate to the development of the urban area and its transport provision. This was the route along which a number of landscape architects traveled to become planners. Though aesthetic and romantic in origin, the parks movement was also concerned with meeting the needs for recreation and for relief from the overcrowding of city neighborhoods. The need for local parks assumed a high profile in the mid- and late nineteenth century *DESCRIPTION & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* /The negative impacts of urban living:/ in addition to physical health risks associated with industrial urbanization, city living can compromise mental health and social bonds Overexposure to the artificial sights of the urban environment led to ''excessive nervous tension, over-anxiety, hasteful disposition, impatience, [and] irritability.'' Likewise, the ''restraining and confining'' condition of city streets compels people to ''walk circumspectly, watchfully, jealously ... [and] to look closely upon others without sympathy.'' /Remedy:/ Olmsted advocated for proactively incorporating natural scenery in cities, ''to give the mind a suggestion of rest from the devouring eagerness and intellectual strife of town life.'' Furthermore, public parks would promote democratic values and social life, where people come together, ''with a common purpose ... competitive with none, disposing to jealousy and spiritual or intellectual pride to none, each individual adding by his mere presence to the pleasure of all others.''

Radburn, NJ

*ORIGINS:* Radburn was founded in 1929 as "a town for the motor age". Its planners, Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, and its landscape architect Marjorie Sewell Cautley aimed to incorporate modern planning principles, which were then being introduced into England's Garden Cities, following ideas advocated by urban planners Ebenezer Howard, Sir Patrick Geddes and Clarence Perry. Radburn was explicitly designed to separate traffic by mode, with a pedestrian path system that does not cross any major roads at grade. Radburn introduced the largely residential "superblock" and is credited with incorporating some of the earliest culs-de-sac in the United States. RADBURN HOMES: The design is typified by the backyards of homes facing the street and the fronts of homes facing one another, over common yards. It is an offshoot of American designs from the English garden city movement and culminated in the design of the partly-built 1929 Radburn estate. In the US, the Radburn idea reached its ultimate expression in Los Angeles, California, with the design and construction of Clarence Stein and Robert Alexander's Baldwin Hills Village, now known as 'The Village Green'. It opened as apartments for lease to the public on December 7, 1941. *ENVIRONMENTAL IMPORTENCE:* A study found Radburn design to have important implications for energy conservation: 47% of its residents shopped for groceries on foot, compared to 23% for Reston, Virginia (another Radburn-type development but more car-oriented) and only 8% for a nearby, unplanned community.

Edward Glaeser

*PROPONENT OF URBAN SPRAWL:* "sprawl is ubiquitous and that it is continuing to expand. Using a variety of evidence, we argue that sprawl is not the result of explicit government policies or bad urban planning, but rather the inexorable product of car-based living. Sprawl has been associated with significant improvements in quality of living, and the environmental impacts of sprawl have been offset by technological change. Finally, we suggest that the primary social problem associated with sprawl is the fact that some people are left behind because they do not earn enough to afford the cars that this form of living requires." *ADVOCATE FOR URBAN LIVING:* Glaeser, a leading urban economist, declares that cities are actually the healthiest, greenest, and richest (in both cultural and economic terms) places to live. He travels through history and around the globe to reveal the hidden workings of cities and how they bring out the best in humankind.

Boulder, CO

*Protecting Greenspaces!* Boulder Valley Plan—Urban Service Standards Point systems, annual growth caps, etc. Greenbelt, land acquisition, dedicated sales tax Large-lot zoning in outlying areas City-County growth agreement Protection of natural resources in the city

Shrinking Cities

*Shrinking cities* or *urban depopulation* are dense cities that have experienced notable population loss. Emigration (migration from a place) is a common reason for city shrinkage. Since the infrastructure of such cities was built to support a larger population, its maintenance can become a serious concern. *Ex. Detroit, Michigan* The city's demographic history plays a key role in the present situation of depopulation in Detroit, and how it has become an issue of economic inequality and environmental justice. Some people are harmed more than others: During times of growth and vitality, the poor and politically marginalized need to fight for their seat at the table and attempt to pick up the crumbs of capital that fall to them. During times of decline and disinvestment, there is often not a table at all and certainly few crumbs. When jobs are scarce and city services meagre, the poorest segment of a community often need to struggle to meet their basic needs and are less likely to be able to focus on urban planning processes.

Walking School Bus

*WHAT:* A walking school bus is a group of children walking to school with one or more adults. It can be as informal as two families taking turns walking their children to school or as formal as a well-planned walking route with meeting points, a timetable and a regularly rotated schedule of trained volunteers. *WHY:* When parents are reluctant to allow their children to walk to school, safety is one of the most common reasons given. Providing adult supervision can help address safety concerns for families who live within walking or bicycling distance to school, and a walking school bus program seeks to do just that along with a healthy dose of fun.

Green Streets

*WHAT:* Bowl-shaped, vegetated areas in a green street are rain gardens. They provide a temporary place for water to collect, be filtered by the soil and plants, and soak into the ground or be released into the stormwater system. An underground pipe, or underdrain, is incorporated into their design, connecting the rain garden with the stormwater system. The underdrain allows water in the rain garden to exit to the storm sewer system if underlying soils drain slowly. *WHERE:* Green streets incorporate depressed planted areas, typically located between the roadway pavement and the sidewalk, into the overall design of the street. The planted areas are aesthetically pleasing and are visually similar to a planter box within or adjacent to a roadway.

Brownfields Redevelopment

*WHAT:* Brownfield redevelopment is a broad term used to describe the reuse and revitalization of abandoned, underutilized or stigmatized properties through the use of one or more local, state or federal programs. Brownfield land is an area of land previously used or built upon, as opposed to greenfield land, which has never been built upon. It is a term used in urban planning to describe land within certain legal exclusions and additions, which was previously used for industrial or commercial purposes, where its expansion, redevelopment or reuse may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant. *SIGNIFICANCE:* From a sustainability rationale, Brownfield redevelopment is at its core the recycling of property. Brownfield Redevelopment provides a means to convert (recycle) these properties back into productive use, while simultaneously reducing sprawl and destruction of valuable greenspace. Brownfield redevelopments *return environmentally-impacted and underused properties to productive use, mitigate environmental impacts, provide jobs and tax revenue and revitalize the social foundation of communities.* General benefits of Brownfield Redevelopment center around the avoidance of non-tax generating blighted properties and the stewardship of new productive tax generating properties with the *preservation of greenspace.*

Jane Addams and Hull House

*WHAT:* Hull House, Chicago's first and the nation's most influential settlement house, was established by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr on the Near West Side on September 18, 1889. By 1907, the converted 1856 mansion had expanded to a massive 13-building complex covering nearly a city block. The new structures included a gymnasium, theater, art gallery, music school, boys' club, auditorium, cafeteria, cooperative residence for working women, kindergarten, nursery, libraries, post office, meeting and club rooms, art studios, kitchen, and a dining room and apartments for the residential staff. Attracting thousands of people each week from the surrounding neighborhood, the expanded Hull House complex provided space for the settlement's extensive social, educational, and artistic programs. *LASTING IMPORTANCE AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT:* Under Addams's skillful leadership, Hull House achieved recognition as the best-known settlement house in the United States and became the flagship of a movement that included nearly five hundred settlements nationally by 1920. The Chicago settlements and their allies won many local-level reforms and, in addition, a local juvenile court, partial suffrage for Illinois women in 1913, and, on the federal level, the Children's Bureau and an investigation of wage-earning women and children.

Pioneer Courthouse Square

*WHAT:* Located in the heart of Downtown, Pioneer Courthouse Square is affectionately known as Portland's Living Room. one of the most successfully managed public spaces in the United States. Dozens of events are held at the square each year, including free shows during spring and summer, sponsored by local businesses. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* The bricks used to pave the square were sold to raise funds for the square's construction, and are inscribed with donors' names. However, the bricks were not laid in any discernible order, so people looking for a particular brick must spend time walking around the park, head down. This leads to collisions with others looking for their bricks, and gave the park its nickname, "Bang Heads Park". The square is ranked as the world's fourth-best public square by Project for Public Spaces, bested only by two squares in Venice and one in Siena, Italy.

Ecological Footprint

*WHAT:* The Ecological Footprint is a resource accounting tool used by governments, businesses, educational institutions and NGOs to answer to a specific resource question: How much of the biological capacity of the planet is required by a given human activity or population? The Footprint then can be compared to how much land and sea area is available. *HOW:* measures the amount of biologically productive land and sea area an individual, a region, all of humanity, or a human activity that compete for biologically productive space. This includes producing renewable resources, accommodating urban infrastructure and roads, and breaking down or absorbing waste products, particularly carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel. Biologically productive land and sea includes cropland, forest and fishing grounds, and do not include deserts, glaciers and the open ocean. Calculation methods are standardized so results of various assessments can be compared.

1956 Interstate Highway Act

*WHAT:* The Interstate Highway system was designed to replace a mix of different road types with a network of multi-lane, limited-access roadways built to a uniform design specification *IMPACTS:* Building the Interstate Highway system caused significant changes to the physical, cultural, and historical landscapes of America Wide right- of-ways consumed thousands of acres of land, led to the demolition of historical structures, and in some locations, replaced existing roadways (Kaszynski 2000). Most significantly, the coming of the Interstate Highway dramatically affected older, general- access roads with similar alignments (Hayes 2005). Traveled at lower speeds and lined by businesses with direct access to the roadway, such roads were characterized by distinct vernacular architecture (think roadside cottage colonies) that connected travelers to the communities through which they passed (Liebs 1995). The construction of Interstate Highways fundamentally altered this pattern of commercial development as long-distance travelers abandoned those former routes leaving once-vibrant towns fading into obscurity and busy roadside stores and restaurants struggling to make ends meet (Vale and Vale 1983; Liebs 1995; Kaszynski 2000). With the coming of Interstate, whole architectural genres were driven to extinction by abandonment (Liebs 1995). Fast Interstate travel also sounded the death knell for short-haul train travel (Kaszynski 2000) and completed the process of intimately linking Americans to the personal auto for local and regional transportation (Hayden 2004).

Out of Reach report

*WHAT:* The National Low Income Housing Coalition's (NLIHC) annual report that details the discrepancy between what American workers earn and what they have to pay for rental housing at a fair market rent. *EXAMPLE OF KEY FINDING:* A household in the United States must earn at least $21.21 an hour to afford a modest, two-bedroom rental home without spending more than 30% of their income on rent, according to the Out of Reach 2017 report by the National Low Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC).

Grayfields

*WHAT:* The term has historically been applied to formerly-viable retail and commercial shopping sites (such as regional malls and strip centers) that have suffered from lack of reinvestment and have been "outclassed" by larger, better-designed, better-anchored malls or shopping sites. These particular greyfield sites are also referred to as "dead malls" or "ghostboxes" if the anchor or other major tenants have vacated the premises leaving behind empty shells. *SIGNIFICANCE:* The hidden value, in many cases, comes from underlying infrastructure (such as plumbing and sewerage, electrical systems, foundations, etc.) the presence of which allows a developer to improve the site efficiently through capital expenditures (sometimes quite minor) that may easily lead to increased rents and greater value. Other important potential qualities include parking, a central location, etc. may also be leveraged in a well-executed redevelopment of the site. Some greyfields may also be considered favorable to investors because even if they are outclassed or physically in disrepair, they have revenue in place through long- or short-term leases. The "greyfield" term may also be applied more broadly to urban infill or commercial locations where underuse or outdated (non-retail) uses hamper an otherwise valuable real estate asset.

City Beautiful Movement

*WHAT:* Urban-planning movement led by architects, landscape architects, and reformers that flourished between the 1890s and the 1920s. The idea of organized comprehensive urban planning arose in the United States from the City Beautiful movement, which claimed that design could not be separated from social issues and should encourage civic pride and engagement. Its influence was most prominent in cities such as Cleveland, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Not only enhance the city's appearance but also help the flow of vehicle and pedestrian traffic, the City Beautiful concept focused on incorporating a civic centre, parks, and grand boulevards. *ORIGINS:* The movement first gained ground in 1893 with the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Daniel H. Burnham headed the construction of the fair's temporary city, known to those who attended as the "White City," a semi-utopia in which visitors were meant to be shielded from poverty and crime. The landscape of the Columbian Exposition, which included lagoons and big green expanses, was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., famous for his winning design of New York City's oasis, Central Park, which broke ground in 1857.

Climate adaptation

*WHAT:* a response to global warming that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming. *WHY:* Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, global warming and its effects should last many years, and adaptation would be necessary to the resulting changes in climate. Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming.

Pearl District (Portland)

*WHAT:* an area of Portland, Oregon, formerly occupied by warehouses, light industry and railroad classification yards and now noted for its art galleries, upscale businesses and residences. The area has been undergoing significant urban renewal since the mid-1980s when it was reclassified as mixed use from industrial,including the arrival of artists, the removal of a viaduct and construction of the Portland Streetcar. It now mostly consists of high-rise condominiums and warehouse-to-loft conversions. *SIGNIFICANCE:* the Pearl District has earned a worldwide reputation for urban renaissance

Transbay (transit center)

*WHAT:* an intermodal transit station in downtown San Francisco. It serves as the primary bus terminal - and future rail terminal - for the San Francisco Bay Area. The centerpiece of the San Francisco Transbay development, the construction is governed by the Transbay Joint Powers Authority (TJPA). The 1,430-foot (440 m)-long building is located one block south of Market Street, San Francisco's primary commercial and transportation artery. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* The Transbay Transit Center Project is a visionary transportation and housing project that transforms downtown San Francisco and the San Francisco Bay Area's regional transportation system by creating a "Grand Central Station of the West" in the heart of a new transit-friendly neighborhood. The first phase of the project will create a new five-story Transit Center with one above-grade bus level, ground-floor, concourse, and two below-grade rail levels serving Caltrain and future California High-Speed Rail. The new Transit Center will feature a 5.4 acre park on the roof of the bus and rail station. A new elevated bus ramp that will enter the Transit Center from the west will eliminate the need for the seismically deficient east bus loop while maintaining direct bus connections to and from the Transbay Transit Center and the Bay Bridge.

Climate mitigation

*WHAT:* consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change.[3] *HOW:* Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation.

Urban Infill

*WHAT:* defined as new development that is sited on vacant or undeveloped land within an existing community, and that is enclosed by other types of development. The term most commonly refers to building single-family homes in existing neighborhoods but may also be used to describe new development in commercial, office or mixed-use areas. *SIGNIFICANCE:* it is more efficient to use existing infrastructure and services than it is to extend infrastructure and services farther afield Infill development can also help a community achieve or sustain thresholds of population density necessary for amenities such as park space, community services, retail establishments, and affordable housing. In communities where undeveloped, run-down, or vacant properties are eyesores or safety hazards, infill development can remove the blight of these properties. Many urban infill lots have remained undeveloped because they are the least desirable lots to build on due to size, undesirable locations, topographical restraints, or environmental contamination (brownfields).

Monacans

*WHO:* The Monacan tribe is one of eleven Native American tribes recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. They are located primarily in the Piedmont, in Amherst County, Virginia near Lynchburg. As of 2009 there are approximately 2,000 members of the tribe. *INTERACTIONS with TJ:* "In the 1750's, Thomas Jefferson described a party of passing Indians on his property (near Monticello) who visited the Monasukapanough burial mound. They stayed at the mound for quite some time, with expressions of sorrow on their faces, and then they returned to 'the high road' and went on their way. This episode shows clearly that the Monacan people traveled through the area and that they knew their ancestors were buried in the mounds and still visited them to grieve."

Kampung Admiralty (Singapore)

*WHY:* As Singapore takes its ranks amongst the demographically oldest countries in the world, WOHA's design for the first integrated public development recognizes graying as elegant and enjoyable. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* Eschewing the traditional approach for each government agency to carve out their own plot of land, this 570,000-square-foot one-stop integrated complex maximizes land use, and is a prototype for meeting the needs of Singapore's aging population. A Vertical Village is devised, with a People's Plaza in the lower stratum, a Medical Centre in the mid stratum, and a Community Park with studio apartments for seniors in the upper stratum. The close proximity to healthcare, social, commercial and other amenities supports intergenerational bonding and promotes active aging in place. These three distinct stratums juxtapose the various building uses to foster diversity of cross-programming and frees up the ground level for activity generators.

Jane Jacobs

--Bottom-Up Planning --Social Capital --Ballet of the Sidewalk --Eyes on the Street --Cities as Ecosystems --Mixed-use Development --Case for Higher Density --Border Vacuums Her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) argued that urban renewal did not respect the needs of city-dwellers. It also introduced the sociological concepts "eyes on the street" and "social capital". Jacobs organized grassroots efforts to protect neighborhoods from "slum clearance", in particular Robert Moses' plans to overhaul her own Greenwich Village neighborhood. She was instrumental in the eventual cancellation of the Lower Manhattan Expressway, which would have passed directly through SoHo and Little Italy. After moving to Toronto in 1968, she joined the opposition to the Spadina Expressway and the associated network of expressways in Toronto planned, and under construction. Greenwich village is in many ways an effective case study not just of Jacobs' ideals at the time, but of the results of her theories. Many have criticized her ideas for apparently ignoring—even incubating—the processes of gentrification which in the intervening years have become one of the central challenges for cities. However, others have countered that when she made her arguments, in the era of modernization and suburban expansion, it was inconceivable that preservation of old neighborhoods would eventually lead to an increase in desirability and value.

Accessory Dwelling Unit (ADU)

-Accessory and adjacent to a primary housing unit. -Significantly smaller than the average US house. -tend to be one of two units owned by one owner on a single family residential lot. -tend to be primarily developed asynchronously from the primary house by homeowner developers. -A large range of municipal land use and zoning regulations differentiate ADU types and styles, and dramatically affect their allowed uses -Vast numbers of informal ADUs exist compared to permitted ADUs. *EXAMPLES:* -Detached, new construction ADUs, also sometimes called backyard cottages, granny flats, laneway houses, or DADUs, depending on the jurisdiction: -Garage conversion ADUs - ADUs above a garage or workshop, or attached to it. In some areas, these may be called garage apartments or carriage houses -Addition ADUs or "bump-out ADUs" -Basement conversion ADUs, also commonly called basement apartments, mother-in-law units, in law units, secondary suites, English basements, accessory apartments, and a host of other names.

Zoning

/Zoning is the way the governments control the physical development of land and the kinds of uses to which each individual property may be put./ Zoning laws typically specify the areas in which residential, industrial, recreational or commercial activities may take place. Besides restricting the uses that can be made of land and buildings, zoning laws also may regulate the dimensional requirements for lots and for buildings on property located within the town, the density of development, and whether you can have pigeons, dogs, sheep or llamas. Some zoning ordinances also regulate the extraction of natural resources from land within the zoned area, others provide space for hospitals, parks, schools, and open space and still others protect places of historical significance within the community. /Zoning is a purely a county, city, or municipal affair./ Though such laws are somewhat universal, the classifications used to describe zoning are not uniform from place to place.

New York Zoning Ordinance of 1916

1916, New York the first zoning law in America *ORIGINS:* because New Yorkers did not want to cap the height of skyscrapers, they decided that they would regulate the shape of skyscrapers. The idea was that that light and air would reach the sidewalk; light and air were a major issue. The law stated that you could build right up to the lot line on your building and you could rise up to a certain height and The height that you could build up to depended upon the width of the street on which your building was located A Commission on Heights of Buildings reported in 1913, and recommended that height, area, and use should be regulated in the interests of public health and safety, and that the regulations should be adapted to the varying needs of the different districts - a radical innovation. This reflected the increasing criticism that tall buildings cast shadows and deprived surrounding properties of sunlight and air. The city and the state legislature accepted these proposals, and the city charter was amended to include 'districting' provisions. In 1916, a comprehensive zoning code was adopted for the whole city. The code also separated incompatible land use such as factories from residential areas and the encroachment of industrial uses on the office and department store district.

Thermal Delight

1979 Book by Lisa Heschong argues that we should think about our perception of temperature as a sense. Just like any other sense, temperature can cause us discomfort but it can also give us a lot of pleasure — the feeling of a warm fire in the winter or a cool breeze on a hot summer night. But these experiences require change — they don't happen in a thermally neutral environment. These days, architects and engineers around the world generally use thermal comfort standards set by the the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. These have historically dictated a rather narrow range for ideal temperatures, which in turn requires more heating and cooling. Some architects, like Lisa Heschong, see this as problematic — "you will never achieve a static environment where 100 percent of the people are happy," she says. "There is a huge amount of individual variation in what people experience and what they prefer," based on factors like age, sex and the kind of climate we are used to. All of this runs against the idea of targeting a single static indoor temperature.

Rachel Carson

A marine biologist and nature writer, Rachel Carson catalyzed the global environmental movement with her 1962 book Silent Spring. Outlining the dangers of chemical pesticides, the book led to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides and sparked the movement that ultimately led to the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). second woman hired by the US Bureau of Fisheries, Editor-in-Chief of all publications for the US Fish and Wildlife Service Chemical companies sought to discredit her as a Communist or hysterical woman. Many pulled their ads from the CBS Reports TV special on April 3, 1963, entitled "The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson." Still, roughly 15 million viewers tuned in, and that, combined with President John F. Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee Report—which validated Carson's research—made pesticides a major public issue. Interesting fact: Carson kept her cancer secret because she was a private person, but also because she didn't want to give the chemical companies the chance to dismiss her work as having been motivated by her illness, and perhaps because, when the time came, she didn't want them to pull their punches; the harder they came after her, the worse they'd look. This required formidable stoicism.

Rotterdam's Water Plazas

A once-empty, monotonous square now holds three large rainwater collection ponds which, when the weather is dry, can be used as amphitheatres, basketball and volleyball courts, or skateboarding rinks.

JANE JACOBS + James Rouse (Columbia, MD) + Daniel Burnham

According to current urbanist thinking, which grew out of Jacobs's ideas, Columbia gets almost everything wrong. It is diffuse rather than dense and planned around cars. Streets dead-end instead of connect and offer little worth looking at. Public transportation is bare bones. The architecture is short on old rowhouses and even on the stylish glass walls and butterfly roofs of mid-century modernism, but long on brown brick and '70s mock-chalets. And of course, it's 15 whole miles from the nearest big city. In 1980, Rouse shared a stage at a conference with the influential urbanist Jane Jacobs, who wrote "The Death and Life of Great American Cities." She detested the likes of Columbia as sterile experiments in social engineering. Real cities, she argued, develop an organic complexity and diversity over time, no thanks to overweening planners. At the conference, Rouse approvingly quoted the famous words of architect Daniel Burnham: "Make no little plans, for they have no magic to stir men's blood." Jacobs responded: "Funny, big plans never stirred women's blood. Women have always been willing to consider little plans." She brought down the house.

Levittown

America's prototypical postwar planned community - has outlived its heartiest supporters and harshest detractors to stand today as something more complicated than a monument to the glory of the American dream, or to the blandness and conformity to which that dream led. The development had helped thousands of families realize the American dream of home ownership. Levitt, who did not start the mass production trend in housing, is the best known of the mass builders, but he was not unique. Many others experimented with various forms of inexpensive prefabrication. Like so much else in 20th-century America, Levittown began as a shrewd business move. The homebuilding firm of Levitt and Sons had specialised in upper middle class dwellings on New York's Long Island before the second world war, only to be curtailed by the conflict's enormous consumption of construction resources. A variety of non-union subcontractors and "unskilled" workers moved from house to house, each performing one of 26 highly specialised steps in the overall assembly process - all using thoroughly standardised materials, all purchased directly from their manufacturers. "We are not builders," said straight-talking Levitt, the operation's mastermind. "We are manufacturers." He even went so far as to declare his company "the General Motors of the housing industry" William Levitt called his product - which first sold for $7,990 with a 5% down payment (0% for veterans) and came with a built-in television set and hi-fi - "the best house in the US"

Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC)

As part of President Roosevelt's New Deal legislation, Congress passed the Homeowners Loan Act of 1933, which in turn created the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) This federal agency's main task was to refinance home mortgages that were in default or at risk of foreclosure due to the 1929 crash and the collapse of the housing industry by 1934 about one in five mortgages in America were owned by the corporation Before the HOLC, most mortgage contracts lasted between three and five years and homeowners had high interest rates in addition to paying off the principal However, HOLC's implementation of the 15-year amortizing loan led to a new direction for mortgage finance, allowing homeowners to pay off their loans in monthly installments over many years with the principal reduced over time This would eventually lead to the typical 25- or 30-year mortgage

Hotspot Cities

Author *Richard Weller* calls for additional land to be protected in the world's "hotspots", where biodiversity is threatened by urban sprawl. In his text, he discusses why regional ecology is an issue for urban planning. The same way our libraries store and protect culture, hotspots store life's genetic inheritance. Integrating cities into the broader ecology of their regions is a land-use planning and urban design issue. of the 422 cities (population centers of 300,000 or more people) in the hotspots, 383 are growing on a direct collision course with endangered species

Pruit Igoe

Built during the height of Modernism this nominally innovative collection of residential towers was meant to stand as a triumph of rational architectural design over the ills of poverty and urban blight; instead, two decades of turmoil preceded the final, unceremonious destruction of the entire complex in 1973. The fall of Pruitt-Igoe ultimately came to signify not only the failure of one public housing project, but arguably the death knell of the entire Modernist era of design. *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* It took the combination of unfortunate design choices, deep-seated racism, and poorly-structure housing policy to produce the twenty-year fiasco that was Pruitt-Igoe. A forest has since grown on the land where the 33 towers once stood, disguising the physical rift they left after their destruction in the 1970's. Their legacy is not so easily disguised, however, and whomever one chooses to blame for its eventual downfall, the name Pruitt-Igoe remains synonymous with the failure of an entire design philosophy. Initially planned in the twilight of the United States' Jim Crow segregation laws, the project was to be divided along racial lines: black residents would live in the Wendell Olliver Pruitt homes, while their white counterparts would occupy the James Igoe apartments. However, as the project was not completed until 1954—after the ruling in the Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education made "separate but equal" segregation illegal in the United States—it was integrated into a single complex, Pruitt-Igoe.[2] Whereas the federal government had provided the funds to build Pruitt-Igoe, its maintenance was to be supported directly by the tenants' rent. With the apartments occupied almost exclusively by a dwindling number of low-income residents, a number of whom subsisted on welfare, there was little money to keep up the 33 towers, and they subsequently fell into disrepair. The situation became a vicious cycle: poor maintenance drove out more tenants, bleeding out the already-strained budget and allowing the buildings to become more and more derelict, repelling even more tenants.[8,9] It was in this atmosphere that Pruitt-Igoe became a hotbed for criminal activity. In 1972, the federal government finally determined that Pruitt-Igoe was beyond rescue. Over the next few years, the 33 towers were demolished by means of dynamite implosions, leaving behind a vast urban wasteland in the fabric of St. Louis which, to this day, has yet to be filled.

Jan Gehl

Danish architect and urban design consultant based in Copenhagen whose career has focused on improving the quality of urban life by re-orienting city design towards the pedestrian and cyclist. Gehl's book *Public Spaces, Public Life* describes how incremental improvements have transformed Copenhagen from a car-dominated city to a pedestrian-oriented city over 40 years. Copenhagen's Strøget carfree zone, one of the longest pedestrian shopping areas in Europe, is primarily the result of Gehl's work. In 2007-08 he was hired by New York City's Department of Transportation to re-imagine New York City streets by introducing designs to improve life for pedestrians and cyclists. To come up with the priniples of human-centered urbanism, Gehl spent months documenting where and how people walked, stood, sat, and talked in places, and defining what attributes about the spaces prompted this activity. The success of public spaces, Gehl found, was intricately connected to the levels of pedestrian flow and stationary activity that prompted social interaction. Gehl found that short distances between destinations complemented by street furniture like benches encourage people to linger. He found that "soft edges" between parks and public areas, especially places where people could sit and face the pedestrian flows, created some of the most vibrant areas of the city. These observations turned into his seminal 1971 book *"Life Between Buildings".*

Janette Sadik-Khan

FROM PUBLISHER OF HER BOOK: "Like a modern-day Jane Jacobs, Janette Sadik-Khan transformed New York City's streets to make room for pedestrians, bikers, buses, and green spaces. Describing the battles she fought to enact change, Streetfight imparts wisdom and practical advice that other cities can follow to make their own streets safer and more vibrant." *SPECIFIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS:* At NYC DOT, Janette oversaw a $2.8 billion budget, delivering transformative projects including the pedestrianization of Times Square and redesigning 2.3 miles of Broadway from Columbus Circle to Union Square; the planning and launch of seven Select Bus Service routes; and the nation's largest bike share program. She added nearly 400 miles of bicycle lanes and installed 60 plazas across the city. She also developed and published New York City's first-ever Street Design Manual and Street Works Manual, defining *new standards for creating more resilient and attractive streets.*

Greenfields

Greenfield land is undeveloped land in a city or rural area either used for agriculture or landscape design, or left to evolve naturally. These areas of land are usually agricultural or amenity properties being considered for urban development. Greenfield land can be unfenced open fields, urban lots or restricted closed properties, kept off limits to the general public by a private or government entity.

Impervious cover

Impervious cover is any surface in the landscape that cannot effectively absorb or infiltrate rainfall includes driveways, roads, parking lots, rooftops, and sidewalks. When natural landscapes are intact, rainfall is absorbed into the soil and vegetation

Willis Carrier

In 1902, Willis Carrier patented the air conditioner, a device that would impact factory productivity, building design, population trends, and, ultimately, the growth of cities. In 1902, Carrier designed a mechanical humidity controller for a printing shop in Brooklyn. Once Carrier's device removed humidity from the workshop, the printing inks stopped bleeding and running. He founded the Carrier Engineering Corporation in 1915. Slowly air conditioning made its way from factories into hotels, theaters, stores, and other public places. Soon after the Second World War, the nation experienced a construction and consumer boom that put home air conditioners on the must-have lists of many Americans. The spread of artificial climate control in the second half of the 20th century triggered major, long-term demographic and architectural trends. Sun Belt cities like Atlanta, Georgia, and Houston, Texas, boomed, attracting businesses and workers by the thousands. House design shifted from features that facilitated natural cooling -- porches, high ceilings, cross ventilation -- to spectacular additions like glass doors and large windows. And iconic, modern glass-walled skyscrapers rose across the nation.

Redlining

In the 1930s, government surveyors graded neighborhoods in 239 cities, color-coding them green for "best," blue for "still desirable," yellow for "definitely declining" and red for "hazardous." The "redlined" areas were the ones local lenders discounted as credit risks, in large part because of the residents' racial and ethnic demographics. They also took into account local amenities and home prices. Homeownership is the number-one method of accumulating wealth, but the effect of these policies that create more hurdles for the poor is a permanent underclass that's disproportionately minority The Federal Housing Administration institutionalized the system of discriminatory lending in government-backed mortgages, reflecting local race-based criteria in their underwriting practices and reinforcing residential segregation in American cities. The discriminatory practices captured by the HOLC maps continued until 1968, when the Fair Housing Act banned racial discrimination in housing.

Columbia, MD

In the 1960s, developer James Rouse had conceived of Columbia, which was to be built on open land between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., as a 14,000-acre (5,700 ha) new town of ten villages, including its designated Town Center. When he set out to build the town in the 1960s, suburbs were already seen as soulless sprawl. Rouse's vision was a response to that. more varied racially and economically than many revitalized urban neighborhoods in cities like New York, Washington and San Francisco, which have become islands of extreme wealth. It turns out that stable, diverse, flourishing communities can exist without short city blocks, warehouses-turned-lofts and beer gardens — and Columbia is the proof. Rouse was also ahead of his time in his pursuit of an ecologically sensitive, mixed-income and colorblind community in an era when redlining was common. Instead of laying Columbia out as a grid, chief planner Morton Hoppenfeld followed the planning trends that were popular in the 1960s: he created curvilinear village pods which were separated by the stream valleys the developer was committed to preserving. Three four- to six-lane divided-median parkways define the 400-acre (162 ha) Town Center and divide it into three loops around three major areas—the Columbia Mall, the Lake Kittamaqundi lakefront, and Symphony Woods. Elevation changes further separate the areas. The mall occupies the high ground about 60 feet (18 m) above the lakefront and 30 feet (9 m) above the parkway that separates them.

Image of the City (by Kevin Lynch)

In this book, Lynch argues that people in urban situations orient themselves by means of mental maps. He compares three American cities (Boston, Jersey City, and Los Angeles) and looks at how people orient themselves in these cities. A central notion in this book is that of legibility (also called imageability and visibility)

Robert Moses

Known as the "master builder" of mid-20th century New York City, Long Island, Rockland County, and Westchester County, he is sometimes compared to Baron Haussmann of Second Empire Paris, and was one of the most polarizing figures in the history of urban development in the United States. His decisions favoring highways over public transit helped create the modern suburbs of Long Island and influenced a generation of engineers, architects, and urban planners who spread his philosophies across the nation despite his not having trained in those professions.[3] Moses would call himself a "coordinator" and was referred to in the media as a "master builder" was never elected to any public office (he ran only once, for governor of New York as a Republican in 1934 and lost to Herbert H. Lehman). Nevertheless, he created and led numerous public authorities that gave him autonomy from the general public and elected officials. Through these authorities, he controlled millions of dollars in income from his projects, such as tolls, and he could issue bonds to borrow vast sums for new ventures with little or no input from legislative bodies. This removed him from the power of the purse as it normally functioned in the United States, and from the process of public comment on major public works. As a result of Moses' work, New York has the United States' greatest proportion of public benefit corporations, which are the prime mode of infrastructure building and maintenance in New York and account for most of the state's debt. Moses' projects were considered by many to be necessary for the region's development after the Great Depression. During the height of his powers, New York City built campuses to host two World's Fairs: one in 1939 and the other in 1964. Moses also helped persuade the United Nations to locate its headquarters in Manhattan, instead of Philadelphia, by helping the state secure the money and land needed for the project. Moses vocally opposed allowing black war veterans to move into Stuyvesant Town, a Manhattan residential development complex created to house World War II veterans.[38][9] In response to the biography, Moses defended his forced displacement of poor and minority communities as an inevitable part of urban revitalization, stating "I raise my stein to the builder who can remove ghettos without moving people as I hail the chef who can make omelets without breaking eggs."[35]

Legibility of the City

Legibility means the extent to which the cityscape can be 'read'. People who move through the city engage in way-finding. They need to be able to recognize and organize urban elements into a coherent pattern. "In the process of way-finding, the strategic link is the environmental image, the generalized mental picture of the exterior physical world that is held by an individual. This image is the product both of immediate sensation and of the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret information and to guide action"

mental maps (required for *legibility and imageability of the city!*) consist of five elements: proposed by *Kevin Lynch - The Image of the City*

Lynch proposes that these mental maps consist of five elements: (1) paths: routes along which people move throughout the city (2) edges: boundaries and breaks in continuity (3) districts: areas characterized by common characteristics (4) nodes: strategic focus points for orientation like squares and junctions (5) landmarks: external points of orientation, usually an easily identifiable physical object in the urban landscape. Of these five elements, paths are especially important according Lynch, since these organize urban mobility.

The Neighborhood Concept (Clarence Perry)

Perry's neighborhood unit concept began as a means of insulating the community from the ill-effects of burgeoning sea of vehicular traffic. Major arterials and through traffic routes should not pass through residential neighborhoods. Instead *these streets should provide boundaries of the neighborhood:* • Interior street patterns should be designed and constructed through use of cul-de-sacs, curved layout and light duty surfacing so as to encourage a quiet, safe and low volume traffic movement and preservation of the residential atmosphere • The population of the neighborhood should be that which is required to support its elementary school • The neighborhood focal point should be the elementary school centrally located on a common or green, along with other institutions that have service areas coincident with the neighborhood boundaries • The radius of the neighborhood should be a maximum of one quarter mile thus precluding a walk of more than that distance for any elementary school child • Shopping districts should be sited at the edge of neighborhoods preferably at major street intersections

Perth, Western Australia

Perth is now climate-proofed - the first Australian city to successfully introduce wind-powered desalination. A remarkable turnaround from the earlier dire predictions. *1955 Plan for the Metropolitan Region Perth and Fremantle (Stephenson-Hepburn Plan):* • Low density growth framework (90% low density growth) with higher density flats in some inner suburban locations. • Superior road network to provide for increased car use (projected to be one car per 3.5 people by 2000) and to improve safety. • The designation of major highways and regional roads including eight major regional highways and 136 kilometres of highway reserve. • Rigid zoning regime to provide for orderly growth. • Perth as the primary regional centre and Fremantle as the secondary centre. • The development of two new rail lines to service Perth's northern suburbs. • The development of accessible industrial areas on the urban fringe. • A firm line to be drawn to limit lateral expansion of the built up area

Leiden

Principle of Connectivity; interconnected neighborhoods and urban space Permeability of streets and neighborhoods Legibility of urban landscape Accessibility; importance of proximity Mixed-uses, activities Compact urban form Third places (Ray Oldenburg's term) Urban ecology; urban greening Traffic Calming; de-emphasizing the private automobile Pedestrian-friendly, walkable city Multi-generational urban landscape Importance of the Civic Realm, public and civic uses and spaces Sense of Place; sense of urban identity; building on unique history Landmarks; visual and other Organic urban development, evolution Beauty and visual diversity Human-scale; importance of intimate spaces Security, safety Recycling and reuse as key elements of city development Low-energy houses and built environment

Death and Life of Great American Cities

The Death and Life of Great American Cities is Jane Jacob's single-most influential book and possibly the most influential book on urban planning and cities. Published in 1961, this book was widely read by both planning professionals and the general public, the book is a strong critique of the urban renewal policies of the 1950s, which, she claimed, destroyed communities and created isolated, unnatural urban spaces. Jacobs advocated the abolition of zoning laws and restoration of free markets in land, which would result in dense, mixed-use neighborhoods and frequently cited New York City's Greenwich Village as an example of a vibrant urban community. The first use of the term "social capital" she explained that the dense social networks that existed in older, mixed-use urban neighborhoods constituted a form of social capital and were far more responsible for cleanliness, absence of street crime, and other quality-of-life measures than were formal institutional factors like police protection.2 critiqued the short-sightedness of urban planners in the 1950s and argued that their assumptions about what makes a good city are actually detrimental to the human experience. For example, she contended that the creation of automobile infrastructure results in the unnatural division of pre-existing neighborhoods, creating unsafe environments and thereby severing community connections. In the years leading up to her death, she discussed ways in which communities could recover what they lost as a result of poor foresight in earlier city planning efforts.

Eco-Density

The EcoDensity program was part of the City of Vancouver's efforts to meet modern challenges - bringing the potential of design, density, and land use to serve as catalysts for environmental sustainability, affordability, and livability. *CENTRAL THEMES:* 1. how can we grow in a way that reduces our impact on the environment? 2. how can we grow in a way that maintains our livability? 3. how can we grow in a way that creates more affordable types of housing?

Copenhagen /Five Finger Plan/ /Transportation Innovations/

The Five Finger Plan, developed in 1947 through Urban Planning Labratory in collaboration with urban planners Steen Eiler Rasmussen and Christian Erhardt "Peter" Bredsdorff, is an urban development plan that focuses on both metropolitan train lines and the green spaces in between. The idea is that the train lines (s-tog) spread like fingers on a hand from the "palm" of central Copenhagen. At the time of it's inception, the Five Finger Plan did not go into Amager, which did not have the infrastructure to support its inclusion. Now, Amager is a much more developed area of Copenhagen and is considered to be the "extra finger." The 170 km s-tog lines of the Five Finger Plan, along with an extensive bus system, four lines of waterbuses and a small but efficient metro (2002-2007), make up Copenhagen's city public transportation system. *PUBLIC SPACING AND BIKES:* So widespread are cycles and cycle lanes throughout the city that the term "Copenhagenize" has come to meet adding bicycle infrastructure to a city. Copenhagen's urban design has taken on the idea of creating urban gathering spaces all over the city, including the now-world famous Superkilen by Bjarke Ingels Group.

Spanish Laws of the Indies

The Laws of the Indies (Spanish: Leyes de Indias) are the entire body of laws issued by the Spanish Crown for the American and Philippine possessions of its empire. They regulated social, political, religious, and economic life in these areas. plans which set forth in detail on every facet of creating a community, including town planning *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING CHOICES:* the city must: "be in an elevated and healthy location; [be] with means of fortification; [have] fertile soil and with plenty of land for farming and pasturage; have fuel, timber, and resources; [have] fresh water, a native population, ease of transport, access and exit; [and be] open to the north wind; and, if on the coast, due consideration should be paid to the quality of the harbor and that the sea does not lie to the south or west; and if possible not near lagoons or marshes in which poisonous animals and polluted air and water breed. They [Colonists] shall try as far as possible to have the buildings all of one type for the sake of the beauty of the town. Within the town, a commons shall be delimited, large enough that although the population may experience a rapid expansion, there will always be sufficient space where the people may go to for recreation and take their cattle to pasture without them making any damage The site and building lots for slaughterhouses, fisheries, tanneries, and other business which produce filth shall be so placed that the filth can easily be disposed of

Social LIfe of Small Urban Spaces /William (Holly) Whyte/

The book describes cities as inherently messy places, but the human interaction and commerce that takes place on the street cultivates an inviting, engaging environment unlike the bland, car-dominated milieu of the suburb "I end then in praise of small spaces. The multiplier effect is tremendous. It is not just the number of people using them, but the larger number who pass by and enjoy them vicariously, or even the larger number who feel better about the city center for knowledge of them. For a city, such places are priceless, whatever the cost. They are built of a set of basics and they are right in front of our noses. If we will look." Whyte wrote that the social life in public spaces contributes fundamentally to the quality of life of individuals and society as a whole. He believed that we have a moral responsibility to create physical places that facilitate civic engagement and community interaction.

Silent Spring /Rachel Carson/

The book primarily focuses on pesticides' effects on ecosystems, but four chapters detail their impact on humans, including cancer. She also accused the chemical industry of spreading misinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically. Carson had wanted to write about the destruction of the environment ever since the bombing of Hiroshima and the first civilian use of DDT, in 1945. It launched the environmental movement; provoked the passage of the Clean Air Act (1963), the Wilderness Act (1964), the National Environmental Policy Act (1969), the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act (both 1972); and led to the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency, in 1970.

Vauban (eco-neighbrohood in Freiburg)

The district was planned around green transportation because, besides consumption, transportation is the hardest ecological impact of development to reduce. While the district includes streets, cars hardly ever pass through, and car parking is not catered for. Residents who do own vehicles can park in a community lot on the edge of the district, unsubsidized by the car-free households. Pedestrian and bicycle paths form a highly-connected, efficient, green transportation network with every home within walking distance of a tram stop, and all schools, businesses, and shopping centers located within walking distance. When moving into Vauban, 57% of the households that previously owned a car decided to let their car go. All in all, 70% of the inhabitants live without a car in Vauban. All buildings must meet minimum low energy consumption standards of 65 kWh/m2a (i.e., at least half the average German energy standards). Public energy and heat are generated by a highly efficient woodchip-powered combined heat and power generator. Organic household waste is treated with an anaerobic digester. Grey-water is cleaned in biofilm plants and returned to the water cycle.

Strands of the City Buetiful Movement

The strands which joined together to create the City Beautiful movement were many - some of which have already been touched upon. Following Wilson's analysis, seven of them can be singled out as being of particular importance. First, as the name suggests, there was a desire to make cities beautiful. The origins here were the landscape, park, and municipal art movements, which, at least initially, were essentially aesthetic in conception, though they sometimes exhibited a degree of social awareness and even ideas of municipal efficiency. This was particularly apparent in a second strand: a perception of beauty which incorporated some concept of public or private profit. The idea that 'good design pays' is only a short step from the contention that 'good design is not more expensive than bad design' - a contention that is frequently heard in architectural circles. The argument went further, however, since it incorporated the idea that beautiful designs were more efficient. Black smoke pouring from a factory chimney was both ugly and inefficient (an idea which has achieved a new formulation in contemporary environmental policy). Similarly, a graceful design has palpable utilitarian features; an imposing boulevard has an effectiveness in accommodating traffic; an elegant road scheme is an efficient distributor of traffic. One enthusiast went so far with the conceptual marriage of beauty and utility as to coin the term 'beautility'. This mercifully failed to gain currency, but it was a neat epitome. A third strand was the importance attached to expertise. Efficiency required experts, and there was a rapidly growing number of them at the end of the nineteenth century. It is not too much of an exaggeration to describe the time as 'the age of the expert'. The achievements of nineteenth-century capitalism had led to a belief in the great potential of business-like methods of production and control. This extended to the rapidly growing middle-class cadre of professionals: doctors, dentists, teachers, social workers, architects, and planners. The early beginnings of a technocratic society needed, and could afford, these new skills. Leading later to the conceptual transformation of the City Beautiful into the City Efficient, this belief in the expert, wedded to ideas of progress, had important implications for municipal government and planning. There was a class element in this (which constitutes the fourth of our selected strands): the expanding middle class attracted a respect and achieved a position which gave them a power to influence the course of events unsurpassed in later times. They were the high priests of the cult of expertism; they might not have an answer to every technical problem, but they knew that there was one to be found. They could also advise on what provisions should be made for the lower working classes: whether these be in the form of parks for recreational relief from the toil of everyday labor, or of beautiful landscapes to raise their spirits. The professional classes knew what was best, and they made some attempt to bridge the chasm between their ideals and the realities of the nineteenth-century city. One element in this paternalism was fear of open class conflict. Industrial strife was well known, and there were fears that this might turn into something more sinister. But the prevailing philosophy was essentially confident and optimistic. This fifth strand in the current ideology prevailed over fears of revolt, though not always easily. At least for New Yorkers, there was the vivid memory of the riots of 1863, 'when the poor streamed out from their gloomy haunts to burn, murder and pillage' (Lubove 1962: 12). More broadly, there were widespread concerns about the waywardness, the unruliness, the depravity of the working class. The belief in individual responsibility, the antagonism to socialistic ideas, the fears of immigrants were all too clear to see. These views played themselves out mainly in other arenas, but they impinged upon the City Beautiful movement by way of a belief in righteousness and reform. There was a fervor in this which might have belied deeper fears. Certainly, some of the language used was exaggerated, to say the least. Charles Mulford Robinson was perhaps the most florid in his Modern City Art, or the City Made Beautiful, where he foresaw: the adjustment of the city to its needs so fittingly that life will be made easier for a vast and growing proportion of mankind, and the bringing into it of that beauty which is the continual need and rightful heritage of men and which has been their persistent dream. (Robinson 1903: 375) Every movement needs its poet. Robinson, however, was an effective poet, not only in inspiring an awareness of the quality of what we would now call the environment, but also in inspiring large numbers of people to do something about it. His 1907 book, The Improvement of Towns and Cities, was a best-seller, and stimulated the formation of large numbers of 'local improvement' societies. Part of Robinson's beguiling effervescence stemmed from the sixth strand: the 'American rediscovery of Europe'. Though huge numbers of immigrants had forsaken the beauties of Europe for the more prosaic benefits of the New World, its architectural treasures were models to copy. So were some of its city governments: European cities were seen to work in a way in which American cities did not. Frederick C. Howe's (1913) European Cities at Work extolled the superiorities of German expertise, though later others, more realistically, were critical of German, enterprisecrushing bureaucracy. Finally, there was the new acceptance of the American city. With a heavy dose of wishful thinking, American cities were regarded as being capable of major improvement: all that was needed was the same dynamism in civic improvement that had proved so successful in the industrialization of the economy. These and other influences that created the City Beautiful movement are of more than historical interest. The movement itself was only a name, not a concerted campaign; but its elements remain important not only for an understanding of the historical background to planning but also for an appreciation of the forces which still affect the conception and the operation of US planning.

Vinegar Hill

Throughout the early part of the twentieth century, Vinegar Hill emerged as an important center of commerce for the black community of Charlottesville. Sanborn maps clearly indicate a wide range of small scale industrial and service businesses that were located in this area. In addition, many small detached homes and at least three churches occupied the irregular sites between Main Street and Preston Avenue. Vinegar Hill was largely demolished in the mid-1960's as a part of Charlottesville's "urban renewal" campaign. The political forces within the city saw a derelict slum that had developed on the hillside immediately adjoining the downtown district. At the same time, peripheral areas beyond downtown had begun to draw commerce away from the central district and some form of revitalization was seen as necessary to staunch the flow. In addition, there was no smooth north-south connection through the downtown area of Charlottesville, and ease of automobile and bus transportation was seen as a high priority, especially for the Greyhound franchise which stood at the top of Vinegar Hill on Main Street. All of these factors combined with available federal money and a very thinly disguised racist agenda of slum clearing in an area so close to the reputable downtown business district to produce the nearly wholesale destruction of a neighborhood that was uncommonly rich in its own heritage, traditions and lore within Charlottesville.

Developing in /Greenfields + Greyfields + Brownfields/

Unlike brownfields, which feature actual or perceived levels of environmental contamination, greyfields typically do not require remediation in order to unlock value to an investor. Some greyfields may also be considered favorable to investors because even if they are outclassed or physically in disrepair, they have revenue in place through long- or short-term leases Greyfields with short-term leases may work well for an investor/developer who has a strategy involving intensive real estate asset management. By actively managing the greyfield in a short-term lease environment, rents may be increased after improvements are made.

Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density, monofunctional and usually car-dependent communities, in a process called suburbanization. In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. *Negative Effects:* Increase in Public Expenditure Increased Traffic Health Issues Environmental Issues Impact on Social Lives

Majora Carter

Vaulted from working as a volunteer for what was a nascent organization called the Point Community Development Corporation and knowing almost nothing about environmental issues to becoming a nationally known advocate for environmental justice. "I am proud to have started one of the first green-collar job training programs," (In 2003, along with Mr. Hogan and Annette Williams, Ms. Carter started a green jobs training program at Sustainable South Bronx.) She won a MacArthur Foundation award for her work at the Point and at Sustainable South Bronx, a nonprofit organization she founded

Via Verde (the Bronx)

Via Verde is an affordable, sustainable residential development It reflects a public commitment to create the next generation of social housing and seeks to provide a setting for healthy, sustainable living *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* comprising 222 apartments in three distinct building types—a 20-story tower at the north end of the site, a 6- to 13-story mid-rise duplex apartment component in the middle, and 2- to 4-story townhouses to the south. A dynamic garden serves as the organizing element for the community. The garden begins as a ground level courtyard and then spirals upwards through a series of programmed, south-facing roof gardens, creating a promenade for residents. A terrace and community room at the top floor of the tower offers dramatic views. The multifunctional gardens create opportunities for active gardening, fruit and vegetable cultivation, recreation and social gathering, while also providing the benefits of storm water control and enhanced insulation. The building takes the form of a "tendril" rising from grade to the tower, enclosing the courtyard and emphasizing a relationship to the natural world. Via Verde's design, incorporating a shared courtyard and large windows, promotes cross ventilation between two outside exposures - increasing the natural circulation of fresh air in the homes and reducing reliance on air conditioning.

Reston, VA

When Robert E. Simon Jr. bought the land and planned his flagship project, he insisted on walkability, density, access to nature and green space, and diversity of races and income levels. This brand of suburban development, with mixed-use, dense housing around central plazas and transit hubs, has come to dominate new development. At a time when suburban development generally meant rambling streets of single-family homes, Simon decided to build Reston as a series of dense village centers that just happened to be in the middle of the countryside. Each would have its own architectural style and a central plaza with shops and things to do. Concentrating the development around these points also let Reston preserve more of the surrounding woodlands. Part of the success of these new developments is owed to the innovative planning tools that Reston developed with Fairfax County. When Reston began, suburban planning used fairly crude zoning ordinances to separate swaths of land into different, supposedly incompatible uses. The Reston designers convinced the county to allow more flexibility in the zoning for density and use. The villages were designed with a range of housing units available for people in different income brackets. This was both inclusive and economical: Simon wanted a place where families could spend their whole lives, swapping up as their incomes rose. He also insisted on the principle of racial equality: Reston welcomed anyone who wanted to live there, at a time when racial housing covenants were plentiful.

William (Holly) Whyte

While working with the New York City Planning Commission in 1969, Whyte began to wonder how newly planned city spaces were actually working out - something that no one had previously researched. This curiosity led to the *Street Life Project*, a pioneering study of pedestrian behavior and city dynamics. He argued that the spatial layout of homes, parking, yards and common spaces is a key factor in promoting or inhibiting social contacts, helping to account for patterns of friendships versus isolation. He taught a generation of urban designers to view cities as habitats for people, rather than simply as economic machines, transportation nodes, or grandiose architectural stage-sets.

Half-Earth (E.O. WIlson's idea)

a 2016 book by E. O. Wilson proposes that half of the Earth's land should be designated a human-free natural reserve to preserve biodiversity. Wilson noted that the term "Half-Earth" was coined for this concept by Tony Hiss in his Smithsonian article "Can the World Really Set Aside Half the Planet for Wildlife?"

Urban Renewal

a program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay. Modern attempts at renewal began in the late 19th century in developed nations, and experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric of reconstruction. The process has had a major impact on many urban landscapes, and has played an important role in the history and demographics of cities around the world. Urban renewal has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control. It may enhance existing communities. Under the powerful influence of multimillionaire R.K. Mellon, Pittsburgh became the first major city to undertake a modern urban-renewal program in May 1950. a process where privately owned properties within a designated renewal area are purchased or taken by eminent domain by a municipal redevelopment authority, razed and then reconveyed to selected developers who devote them to other uses. Until 1970, the displaced owners and tenants received only the constitutionally-mandated "just compensation" specified in the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This measure of compensation covered only the fair market value of the taken property, and omitted compensation for a variety of incidental losses like, for example, moving expenses, loss of favorable financing and notably, business losses, such as loss of business goodwill. In the 1970s the federal government and state governments enacted the Uniform Relocation Assistance Act which provides for limited compensation of some of these losses. However the Act denies the displaced land owners the right to sue to enforce its provisions, so it is deemed an act of legislative grace rather than a constitutional right. Historically, urban redevelopment has been controversial because of such practices as taking private property by eminent domain for "public use" and then turning it over to redevelopers free of charge or for less than the acquisition cost (known as "land write-down"). Large scale urban renewal projects in the US started in the interwar period. Prototype urban renewal projects include the design and construction of Central Park in New York and the 1909 Plan for Chicago by Daniel Burnham. Similarly, the efforts of Jacob Riis in advocating for the demolition of degraded areas of New York in the late 19th century was also formative. The redevelopment of large sections of New York City and New York State by Robert Moses between the 1930s and the 1970s was a notable and prominent example of urban redevelopment. Moses directed the construction of new bridges, highways, housing projects, and public parks.

Urban Growth Boundary (UGB)

a regional boundary, set in an attempt to control urban sprawl by, in its simplest form, mandating that the area inside the boundary be used for urban development and the area outside be preserved in its natural state or used for agriculture. Legislating for an "urban growth boundary" is one way, among many others, of managing the major challenges posed by unplanned urban growth and the encroachment of cities upon agricultural and rural land. As a result, proponents say, cities are more compact and have avoided being connected by miles of low-density suburbia. *Portland* has become a nationally acclaimed model of effective urban planning, and Oregon's agricultural land continues to coexist with its developing cities, sometimes showing impressive growth (such as in vineyards). (In 1979, a regional government, Metro, was created by Portland-area voters. One of its responsibilities is to manage the UGB in the three-county metropolis (Multnomah, Clackamas, and Washington)).

Park(ing) Day

an annual international event where the public collaborates to temporarily transform metered parking spaces into small parks to elicit a reconsideration of the designation of public space. This global project evolved out of the implementation of a local project in San Francisco in 2005. The art and design studio, Rebar, transformed a parking spot into a temporary park to draw attention to a lack of open space. Out of this initial local project evolved the now global PARK(ing) Day event, which commences every third Friday of September

Ian McHarg

born in Scotland and was educated in landscape architecture and city planning at Harvard after serving in World War II. He has been called a *"true pioneer of the environmental movement,"* perhaps because he vehemently believed that design should be concerned with and respect the natural environment, as well as the needs and desires of humans. He founded the University of Pennsylvania's Department of Landscape Architecture. His 1969 book, Design with Nature, a work revered in the environmental movement as well as in planning, laid out his ideas on land use planning, landscape architecture, and ecological planning. The book also explored some of the basic concepts that would later become Geographic Information Systems (GIS). frequently credited as the forefather and one of the first in the design profession to advocate *symbiotic design with the natural world in the context of nature as a major concept fit to rival humanity in importance* While McHarg did have physical projects both completed and interrupted, his works were more manifestation of his conceptual theories. In refining a method of assessing all aspects of a plot of land by using a ''layer cake'' of stacked transparent Mylar maps, he foreshadowed procedures that are now a universal part of the environmental impact reviews required before a construction project proceeds. He was also an early advocate of restricting plantings to native species, both for philosophical reasons and because introducing a foreign species can sometimes disrupt the ecology of an area.

Liuzhan forest city (China)

designed by the Italian firm Stefano Boeri Architetti to be built in southern China 342-acre, self-contained neighborhood will comprise more than 70 buildings -- including homes, hospitals, hotels, schools and offices -- all of which will be covered with 40,000 trees and almost a million plants. "(This is) the first experiment of the urban environment that's really trying to find a balance with nature," firm principal Stefano Boeri Underneath the trees, the building's curvilinear shape will channel what Boeri calls the "poetics of architecture" to become "a place where nature is flowing"

Design With Nature /Ian McHarg/

essentially a book of step-by-step instructions on how to break down a region into its appropriate uses. He promoted an ecological view, in which the designer becomes very familiar with the area through analysis of soil, climate, hydrology, etc. Was the first work of its kind "to define the problems of modern development and present a methodology or process prescribing compatible solutions" Sharply critical of the French Baroque style of garden design, which McHarg saw as a subjugation of nature, and full of praise for the English picturesque style of garden design. Following the publication of Design with Nature, Wallace McHarg Roberts & Todd (WMRT) worked in major American cities - Minneapolis, Denver, Miami, New Orleans, and Washington (DC) - and created environmentally-based master plans for Amelia Island Plantation and Sanibel Islands in Florida.

The Happiest Kids in the World

examines the unique social environment and culture that they live in, to understand the special features that allow the Dutch to turn out such contented, well-adjusted and healthy kids. Is it that they go to school on bicycles, or that children are allowed the freedom to play outside without supervision?

Southern Megalopolis

groups of densely populated metropolitan areas were blending together to combine a new urban form - a 'megalopolis'. To the common eye, cities and metropolitan areas have appeared to merge. It is impossible to tell where one city begins and ends and another city starts. *FROM:* The Southern Megalopolis: Using the Past to Predict the Future of Urban Sprawl in the Southeast U.S /Adam J. Terando , Jennifer Costanza, Curtis Belyea, Robert R. Dunn, Alexa McKerrow, Jaime A. Collazo/ *FINDINGS:* The Southeast has experienced explosive growth over the past 60 years, with a rate of population increase nearly 40% larger than the rest of the United States The region also contains high levels of plant and animal diversity, and many ecological communities in need of additional conservation In addition, while climatic change in the Southeast is expected to be modest when compared to some other regions, the Southeast is at a high risk of the effects of sea level rise along its long, low-lying coast Results point to a future where urban areas occupy a much greater portion of the landscape of the Southeast U.S. The projected region-wide increase in urban area would constitute a doubling or tripling of land devoted to urban and suburban uses. With this increase will come greater need for urban infrastructure, but also an increase in all of those ecological features associated with urbanization including urban run-off, urban warming and habitat fragmentation.

Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty (1926)

held that comprehensive zoning was valid under the U.S. Constitution *HISTORICAL CONTEXT:* At the time of Euclid, zoning was a relatively new concept, and indeed there had been rumblings that it was an unreasonable intrusion into private property rights for a government to restrict how an owner might use property. the litigants disagreed on the constitutionality of zoning by small municipalities in metropolitan areas and disagreed as to whether zoning decisions are inherently arbitrary and capricious, hence unconstitutional *IMPORTANCE:* The court, in finding that there was valid government interest in maintaining the character of a neighborhood and in regulating where certain land uses should occur, allowed for the subsequent explosion in zoning ordinances across the country. The Euclid decision had the important social implication that apartment living could be a 'use' category for the purposes of land use planning. Thus another dimension was added to the exclusionary nature of land use regulation. /The Euclid opinion did not make a limitless grant of power to municipalities:/ the court recognized that there may be instances where the general public interest would outweigh the interest of the municipality to zone. In addition, although the court recognized that planning studies could be used to document the public purpose rationale for zoning, the decision did not establish that planning studies would be a prerequisite to the exercise of zoning

Monte Albán

in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca one of the earliest cities of Mesoamerica, *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* The partially excavated civic-ceremonial center of the Monte Albán site is situated atop an artificially-leveled ridge in addition to the monumental core, the site is characterized by several hundred artificial terraces, and a dozen clusters of mounded architecture covering the entire ridgeline and surrounding flanks

Greenbelt, MD

largest of the three garden-city inspired towns built during Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. Agricultural economist Rexford Guy Tugwell convinced the president that settling a displaced rural population into new towns outside of major cities was more preferable to a back-to-the-land approach, and the U.S. Resettlement Administration was created for him. Greenbelt, with the help of avid personal support from Eleanor Roosevelt, was the most complete of the towns developed The nuclear family was the essential building block of the design, not to mention the overall experiment in New Deal social engineering The town is designed in a crescent shape around a central community and business area, which is within walking distance of all dwellings Many of the businesses are still functioning as community co-ops, although the federal government has long since left the picture Pedestrian underpasses are used to connect this central area with the trail systems weaving throughout the superblocks of surrounding residences The planners were certainly intent on strictly separating cars from people. Although there is an obvious symmetry and geometric orderliness to the plan, the abundant use of green space and scattered trees still gives it an informal feel. True to the name, natural amenities were an integral part of the plan.

*Sky City* in the Acoma Pueblo

pueblo approximately 60 miles (97 km) west of Albuquerque, New Mexico in the United States. The Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity. MAY BE the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in North America *DESCRIPTION OF ARCHITECTURE & PURPOSE OF DESIGN CHOICES:* built atop a sheer-walled, 367-foot sandstone bluff in a valley studded with sacred, towering monoliths

Street permeability

refers to the capacity of connections to carry people or vehicles. Widening roads within a network that lead to destinations would increase the network's permeability, but leave its connectivity unchanged. Conversely, transforming existing streets that are part of a grid plan into permeable, linked culs-de-sac, as was done in Berkeley, CA and Vancouver, BC, retains their connectivity intact but limits their permeability to pedestrians and bicycles only, while it "filters" out motorized transport.

Freiburg Bächle

small water-filled runnels or formalised rills in the Black Forest city of Freiburg. They are supplied with water by the Dreisam and can be seen along most streets and alleyways in the old city, being one of the city's most famous landmarks.

/Richard Louv's/ Last Child in the Woods

spotlights the alienation of children from the natural world, coining the term nature-deficit disorder and outlining the benefits of a strong nature connection—from boosting mental acuity and creativity to reducing obesity and depression, from promoting health and wellness to simply having fun. brings together a new and growing body of research indicating that direct exposure to nature is essential for healthy childhood development and for the physical and emotional health of children and adults

Gentle Density

the concept of building well-designed ground level housing with a similar scale to stacked townhouses, rowhouses and other smaller spaces. These have minimal impacts, especially when compared to the usual thought of concept of adding to the housing supply with numerous condos and apartments.

Third Places

the third place is the social surroundings separate from the two usual social environments of home ("first place") and the workplace ("second place"). Examples of third places would be environments such as churches, cafes, clubs, public libraries, or parks. In his influential book The Great Good Place, Ray Oldenburg (1989, 1991) argues that third places are important for civil society, democracy, civic engagement, and establishing feelings of a sense of place.