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Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "the Great Charter of the Liberties"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "(the) Great Charter"),[a] is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215.[b] First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name Magna Carta, to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes; his son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England's statute law. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States.[c] Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times - the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot".[4] In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, held by the British Library and the cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses" of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 13th century 1.1.1 Background 1.1.2 Great Charter of 1215 1.1.2.1 Lists of participants in 1215 1.1.3 Great Charter of 1216 1.1.4 Great Charter of 1217 1.1.5 Great Charter of 1225 1.1.5.1 Witnesses in 1225 1.1.6 Great Charter of 1297: statute 1.1.7 Magna Carta's influence on English medieval law 1.2 14th-15th centuries 1.3 16th century 1.4 17th-18th centuries 1.4.1 Political tensions 1.4.2 Glorious Revolution 1.4.3 Use in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States 1.5 19th-21st centuries 1.5.1 Interpretation 1.5.2 Repeal of articles and constitutional influence 1.5.3 Modern legacy 1.5.4 Celebration of the 800th anniversary 2 Content 2.1 Physical format 2.2 Exemplifications 2.2.1 1215 exemplifications 2.2.2 Later exemplifications 2.3 Clauses 2.3.1 Clauses in detail 2.3.2 Clauses remaining in English law 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links History 13th century Background Main article: John, King of England An illuminated picture of King John riding a white horse and accompanied by four hounds. The King is chasing a stag, and several rabbits can be seen at the bottom of the picture. King John on a stag hunt Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain.[5][6] John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas, or "force and will", taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law.[6] Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so.[6] John had lost most of his ancestral lands in France to King Philip II in 1204 and had struggled to regain them for many years, raising extensive taxes on the barons to accumulate money to fight a war which ended in expensive failure in 1214.[7] Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace and pay compensation.[8] John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides.[9][10][11] A triumph would have strengthened his position, but in the face of his defeat, within a few months after his return from France John found that rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule.[12][13] The rebels took an oath that they would "stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm", and demanded that the King confirm the Charter of Liberties that had been declared by King Henry I in the previous century, and which was perceived by the barons to protect their rights.[14][13][15] The rebel leadership was unimpressive by the standards of the time, even disreputable, but were united by their hatred of John;[16] Robert FitzWalter, later elected leader of the rebel barons, claimed publicly that John had attempted to rape his daughter,[17] and was implicated in a plot to assassinate John in 1212.[18] A contemporaneous mural of Pope Innocent III John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring.[19] Both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute.[20] During the negotiations, the rebellious barons produced an initial document, which historians have termed "the Unknown Charter of Liberties", which drew on Henry I's Charter of Liberties for much of its language; seven articles from that document later appeared in the "Articles of the Barons" and the subsequent charter.[21][22][23] It was John's hope that the Pope would give him valuable legal and moral support, and accordingly John played for time; the King had declared himself to be a papal vassal in 1213 and correctly believed he could count on the Pope for help.[24][20] John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict.[19] In a further move to shore up his support, John took an oath to become a crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law, even though many felt the promise was insincere.[25][26] Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction. They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter.[27] John's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London, they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from the royalists.[28] The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, but this was not attractive to the rebels.[29] Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, had been working with the rebel barons on their demands, and after the suggestion of papal arbitration failed, John instructed Langton to organise peace talks.[28][30] Great Charter of 1215 The Articles of the Barons, 1215, held by the British Library John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage.[31][32] Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the 'Articles of the Barons'.[28][30][33] Stephen Langton's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter".[34][30][33] By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued.[33][30] Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory", it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform.[28][35] It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent.[36][12] It focused on the rights of free men—in particular the barons.[35] However, the rights of serfs were included in articles 16, 20, and 28.[37][d] Its style and content reflected Henry I's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers.[40][41] Under what historians later labelled "clause 61", or the "security clause", a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter.[42] If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made.[43] Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King.[44] The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications".[45] The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive.[43] John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord.[42][46] The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised.[47][48][49] Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction.[50] Clause 61 of Magna Carta contained a commitment from John that he would "seek to obtain nothing from anyone, in our own person or through someone else, whereby any of these grants or liberties may be revoked or diminished".[51][52] Despite this, the King appealed to Pope Innocent for help in July, arguing that the charter compromised the Pope's rights as John's feudal lord.[53][50] As part of the June peace deal, the barons were supposed to surrender London by 15 August, but this they refused to do.[54] Meanwhile, instructions from the Pope arrived in August, written before the peace accord, with the result that papal commissioners excommunicated the rebel barons and suspended Langton from office in early September.[55] Once aware of the charter, the Pope responded in detail: in a letter dated 24 August and arriving in late September, he declared the charter to be "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust" since John had been "forced to accept" it, and accordingly the charter was "null, and void of all validity for ever"; under threat of excommunication, the King was not to observe the charter, nor the barons try to enforce it.[56][50][57][54] By then, violence had broken out between the two sides; less than three months after it had been agreed, John and the loyalist barons firmly repudiated the failed charter: the First Barons' War erupted.[58][59][50] The rebel barons concluded that peace with John was impossible, and turned to Philip II's son, the future Louis VIII, for help, offering him the English throne.[60][50][e] The war soon settled into a stalemate. The King became ill and died on the night of 18 October, leaving the nine-year-old Henry III as his heir.[61] Lists of participants in 1215 Counsellors named in Magna Carta [show] The Council of Twenty-Five Barons [show] Excommunicated rebels [show] Great Charter of 1216 Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England.[68] William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then oversaw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October.[69][70][71] The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels.[72][73] He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels.[74] Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord.[75][69] Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom.[69] As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome.[69] The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress.[76][77] John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country.[78][77] Henry's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons.[79][80] The move was not successful, and opposition to Henry's new government hardened.[81] Great Charter of 1217 See also: First Barons' War, Charter of the Forest, and English land law The Charter of the Forest, 1217, held by the British Library In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements.[82] In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade.[83] This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour.[84] Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May.[85][86] Meanwhile, support for Louis' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost.[87] He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year.[88] The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion.[89] In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France.[89] When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich.[90] Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217.[90] The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216.[91] Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end.[87] A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217.[92] The charter resembled that of 1216, although some additional clauses were added to protect the rights of the barons over their feudal subjects, and the restrictions on the Crown's ability to levy taxation were watered down.[93] There remained a range of disagreements about the management of the royal forests, which involved a special legal system that had resulted in a source of considerable royal revenue; complaints existed over both the implementation of these courts, and the geographic boundaries of the royal forests.[94] A complementary charter, the Charter of the Forest, was created, pardoning existing forest offences, imposing new controls over the forest courts, and establishing a review of the forest boundaries.[94] To distinguish the two charters, the term magna carta libertatum, "the great charter of liberties", was used by the scribes to refer to the larger document, which in time became known simply as Magna Carta.[95][96]

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composed of the Greek elements hydro- and -gen meaning 'water-forming' 1 1 1.0082 3 4 9 0.00008988 14.01 20.28 14.304 2.20 1400 2 He Helium the Greek helios, 'sun' 18 1 4.002602(2)2 4 0.0001785 0.956 4.22 5.193 - 0.008 3 Li Lithium the Greek lithos, 'stone' 1 2 6.942 3 4 5 9 0.534 453.69 1560 3.582 0.98 20 4 Be Beryllium beryl, a mineral 2 2 9.0121831(5) 1.85 1560 2742 1.825 1.57 2.8 5 B Boron borax, a mineral 13 2 10.812 3 4 9 2.34 2349 4200 1.026 2.04 10 6 C Carbon the Latin carbo, 'coal' 14 2 12.0112 4 9 2.267 3800 4300 0.709 2.55 200 7 N Nitrogen the Greek nitron and '-gen' meaning 'niter-forming' 15 2 14.0072 4 9 0.0012506 63.15 77.36 1.04 3.04 19 8 O Oxygen from the Greek oxy-, both 'sharp' and 'acid', and -gen, meaning 'acid-forming' 16 2 15.9992 4 9 0.001429 54.36 90.20 0.918 3.44 461000 9 F Fluorine the Latin fluere, 'to flow' 17 2 18.998403163(6) 0.001696 53.53 85.03 0.824 3.98 585 10 Ne Neon the Greek neos, meaning 'new' 18 2 20.1797(6)2 3 0.0008999 24.56 27.07 1.03 - 0.005 11 Na Sodium the English word soda (natrium in Latin)[3] 1 3 22.98976928(2) 0.971 370.87 1156 1.228 0.93 23600 12 Mg Magnesium Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece 2 3 24.3059 1.738 923 1363 1.023 1.31 23300 13 Al Aluminium from alumina, a compound (originally aluminum) 13 3 26.9815385(7) 2.698 933.47[4] 2792 0.897 1.61 82300 14 Si Silicon from the Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium) 14 3 28.0854 9 2.3296 1687 3538 0.705 1.9 282000 15 P Phosphorus the Greek phoosphoros, 'carrying light' 15 3 30.973761998(5) 1.82 317.30 550 0.769 2.19 1050 16 S Sulfur the Latin sulphur, 'fire and brimstone'[5] 16 3 32.062 4 9 2.067 388.36 717.87 0.71 2.58 350 17 Cl Chlorine the Greek chloros, 'greenish yellow' 17 3 35.452 3 4 9 0.003214 171.6 239.11 0.479 3.16 145 18 Ar Argon the Greek argos, 'idle' 18 3 39.948(1)2 4 0.0017837 83.80 87.30 0.52 - 3.5 19 K Potassium New Latin potassa, 'potash' (kalium in Latin)[3] 1 4 39.0983(1) 0.862 336.53 1032 0.757 0.82 20900 20 Ca Calcium the Latin calx, 'lime' 2 4 40.078(4)2 1.54 1115 1757 0.647 1 41500 21 Sc Scandium Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia 3 4 44.955908(5) 2.989 1814 3109 0.568 1.36 22 22 Ti Titanium Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology 4 4 47.867(1) 4.54 1941 3560 0.523 1.54 5650 23 V Vanadium Vanadis, an Old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja 5 4 50.9415(1) 6.11 2183 3680 0.489 1.63 120 24 Cr Chromium the Greek chroma, 'color' 6 4 51.9961(6) 7.15 2180 2944 0.449 1.66 102 25 Mn Manganese corrupted from magnesia negra, see Magnesium 7 4 54.938044(3) 7.44 1519 2334 0.479 1.55 950 26 Fe Iron English word (ferrum in Latin) 8 4 55.845(2) 7.874 1811 3134 0.449 1.83 56300 27 Co Cobalt the German word Kobold, 'goblin' 9 4 58.933194(4) 8.86 1768 3200 0.421 1.88 25 28 Ni Nickel from Swedish kopparnickel, containing the German word Nickel, 'goblin' 10 4 58.6934(4) 8.912 1728 3186 0.444 1.91 84 29 Cu Copper English word (Latin cuprum) 11 4 63.546(3)4 8.96 1357.77[4] 2835 0.385 1.9 60 30 Zn Zinc the German Zink 12 4 65.38(2) 7.134 692.88 1180 0.388 1.65 70 31 Ga Gallium Gallia, the Latin name for France 13 4 69.723(1) 5.907 302.9146 2673 0.371 1.81 19 32 Ge Germanium Germania, the Latin name for Germany 14 4 72.630(8) 5.323 1211.40 3106 0.32 2.01 1.5 33 As Arsenic English word (Latin arsenicum) 15 4 74.921595(6) 5.776 1090 7 887 0.329 2.18 1.8 34 Se Selenium the Greek selene, 'moon' 16 4 78.971(8)4 4.809 453 958 0.321 2.55 0.05 35 Br Bromine the Greek bromos, 'stench' 17 4 79.9049 3.122 265.8 332.0 0.474 2.96 2.4 36 Kr Krypton the Greek kryptos, 'hidden' 18 4 83.798(2)2 3 0.003733 115.79 119.93 0.248 3 1×10−4 37 Rb Rubidium the Latin rubidus, 'deep red' 1 5 85.4678(3)2 1.532 312.46 961 0.363 0.82 90 38 Sr Strontium Strontian, a small town in Scotland 2 5 87.62(1)2 4 2.64 1050 1655 0.301 0.95 370 39 Y Yttrium Ytterby, Sweden 3 5 88.90584(2) 4.469 1799 3609 0.298 1.22 33 40 Zr Zirconium Persian Zargun, 'gold-colored'; German Zirkoon, 'jargoon' 4 5 91.224(2)2 6.506 2128 4682 0.278 1.33 165 41 Nb Niobium Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology 5 5 92.90637(2) 8.57 2750 5017 0.265 1.6 20 42 Mo Molybdenum the Greek molybdos meaning 'lead' 6 5 95.95(1)2 10.22 2896 4912 0.251 2.16 1.2 43 Tc Technetium the Greek tekhnètos meaning 'artificial' 7 5 [98]1 11.5 2430 4538 - 1.9 ~ 3×10−9 44 Ru Ruthenium Ruthenia, the New Latin name for Russia 8 5 101.07(2)2 12.37 2607 4423 0.238 2.2 0.001 45 Rh Rhodium the Greek rhodos, meaning 'rose coloured' 9 5 102.90550(2) 12.41 2237 3968 0.243 2.28 0.001 46 Pd Palladium the then recently discovered asteroid Pallas, considered a planet at the time 10 5 106.42(1)2 12.02 1828.05 3236 0.244 2.2 0.015 47 Ag Silver English word (argentum in Latin)[3] 11 5 107.8682(2)2 10.501 1234.93[4] 2435 0.235 1.93 0.075 48 Cd Cadmium the New Latin cadmia, from King Kadmos 12 5 112.414(4)2 8.69 594.22 1040 0.232 1.69 0.159 49 In Indium indigo 13 5 114.818(1) 7.31 429.75 2345 0.233 1.78 0.25 50 Sn Tin English word (stannum in Latin) 14 5 118.710(7)2 7.287 505.08 2875 0.228 1.96 2.3 51 Sb Antimony composed from the Greek anti, 'against', and monos, 'alone' (stibium in Latin) 15 5 121.760(1)2 6.685 903.78 1860 0.207 2.05 0.2 52 Te Tellurium Latin tellus, 'earth' 16 5 127.60(3)2 6.232 722.66 1261 0.202 2.1 0.001 53 I Iodine French iode (after the Greek ioeides, 'violet') 17 5 126.90447(3) 4.93 386.85 457.4 0.214 2.66 0.45 54 Xe Xenon the Greek xenos, 'strange' 18 5 131.293(6)2 3 0.005887 161.4 165.03 0.158 2.6 3×10−5 55 Cs Caesium the Latin caesius, 'sky blue' 1 6 132.90545196(6) 1.873 301.59 944 0.242 0.79 3 56 Ba Barium the Greek barys, 'heavy' 2 6 137.327(7) 3.594 1000 2170 0.204 0.89 425 57 La Lanthanum the Greek lanthanein, 'to lie hidden' 3 6 138.90547(7)2 6.145 1193 3737 0.195 1.1 39 58 Ce Cerium the then recently discovered asteroid Ceres, considered a planet at the time 6 140.116(1)2 6.77 1068 3716 0.192 1.12 66.5 59 Pr Praseodymium the Greek praseios didymos meaning 'green twin' 6 140.90766(2) 6.773 1208 3793 0.193 1.13 9.2 60 Nd Neodymium the Greek neos didymos meaning 'new twin' 6 144.242(3)2 7.007 1297 3347 0.19 1.14 41.5 61 Pm Promethium Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humans 6 [145]1 7.26 1315 3273 - 1.13 2×10−19 62 Sm Samarium Samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it was first isolated 6 150.36(2)2 7.52 1345 2067 0.197 1.17 7.05 63 Eu Europium Europe 6 151.964(1)2 5.243 1099 1802 0.182 1.2 2 64 Gd Gadolinium Johan Gadolin, chemist, physicist and mineralogist 6 157.25(3)2 7.895 1585 3546 0.236 1.2 6.2 65 Tb Terbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 158.92535(2) 8.229 1629 3503 0.182 1.2 1.2 66 Dy Dysprosium the Greek dysprositos, 'hard to get' 6 162.500(1)2 8.55 1680 2840 0.17 1.22 5.2 67 Ho Holmium Holmia, the New Latin name for Stockholm 6 164.93033(2) 8.795 1734 2993 0.165 1.23 1.3 68 Er Erbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 167.259(3)2 9.066 1802 3141 0.168 1.24 3.5 69 Tm Thulium Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia 6 168.93422(2) 9.321 1818 2223 0.16 1.25 0.52 70 Yb Ytterbium Ytterby, Sweden 6 173.045(10)2 6.965 1097 1469 0.155 1.1 3.2 71 Lu Lutetium Lutetia, the Latin name for Paris 6 174.9668(1)2 9.84 1925 3675 0.154 1.27 0.8 72 Hf Hafnium Hafnia, the New Latin name for Copenhagen 4 6 178.49(2) 13.31 2506 4876 0.144 1.3 3 73 Ta Tantalum King Tantalus, father of Niobe from Greek mythology 5 6 180.94788(2) 16.654 3290 5731 0.14 1.5 2 74 W Tungsten the Swedish tung sten, 'heavy stone' (W is wolfram, the old name of the tungsten mineral wolframite)[3] 6 6 183.84(1) 19.25 3695 5828 0.132 2.36 1.3 75 Re Rhenium Rhenus, the Latin name for the river Rhine 7 6 186.207(1) 21.02 3459 5869 0.137 1.9 7×10−4 76 Os Osmium the Greek osmè, meaning 'smell' 8 6 190.23(3)2 22.61 3306 5285 0.13 2.2 0.002 77 Ir Iridium Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow 9 6 192.217(3) 22.56 2719 4701 0.131 2.2 0.001 78 Pt Platinum the Spanish platina, meaning 'little silver' 10 6 195.084(9) 21.46 2041.4[4] 4098 0.133 2.28 0.005 79 Au Gold English word (aurum in Latin) 11 6 196.966569(5) 19.282 1337.33[4] 3129 0.129 2.54 0.004 80 Hg Mercury the New Latin name mercurius, named after the Roman god (Hg from former name hydrargyrum, from Greek hydr-, 'water', and argyros, 'silver') 12 6 200.592(3) 13.5336 234.43 629.88 0.14 2 0.085 81 Tl Thallium the Greek thallos, 'green twig' 13 6 204.389 11.85 577 1746 0.129 1.62 0.85 82 Pb Lead English word (plumbum in Latin)[3] 14 6 207.2(1)2 4 11.342 600.61 2022 0.129 1.87 14 83 Bi Bismuth German word, now obsolete 15 6 208.98040(1)1 9.807 544.7 1837 0.122 2.02 0.009 84 Po Polonium Named after the home country of Marie Curie(Poland), who is also the discoverer of Radium 16 6 [209]1 9.32 527 1235 - 2.0 2×10−10 85 At Astatine the Greek astatos, 'unstable' 17 6 [210]1 7 575 610 - 2.2 3×10−20 86 Rn Radon From radium, as it was first detected as an emission from radium during radioactive decay 18 6 [222]1 0.00973 202 211.3 0.094 2.2 4×10−13 87 Fr Francium Francia, the New Latin name for France 1 7 [223]1 1.87 300 950 - 0.7 ~ 1×10−18 88 Ra Radium the Latin radius, 'ray' 2 7 [226]1 5.5 973 2010 0.094 0.9 9×10−7 89 Ac Actinium the Greek aktis, 'ray' 3 7 [227]1 10.07 1323 3471 0.12 1.1 5.5×10−10 90 Th Thorium Thor, the Scandinavian god of thunder 7 232.0377(4)1 2 11.72 2115 5061 0.113 1.3 9.6 91 Pa Protactinium the Greek protos, 'first', and actinium, which is produced through the radioactive decay of protactinium 7 231.03588(2)1 15.37 1841 4300 - 1.5 1.4×10−6 92 U Uranium Uranus, the seventh planet in the Solar System 7 238.02891(3)1 18.95 1405.3 4404 0.116 1.38 2.7 93 Np Neptunium Neptune, the eighth planet in the Solar System 7 [237]1 20.45 917 4273 - 1.36 ≤ 3×10−12 94 Pu Plutonium Pluto, a dwarf planet in the Solar System (then considered the ninth planet) 7 [244]1 19.84 912.5 3501 - 1.28 ≤ 3×10−11 95 Am Americium The Americas, as the element was first synthesized on the continent, by analogy with europium 7 [243]1 13.69 1449 2880 - 1.13 0 8 96 Cm Curium Pierre Curie, a physicist, and Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist, named after great scientists by analogy with gadolinium 7 [247]1 13.51 1613 3383 - 1.28 0 8 97 Bk Berkelium Berkeley, California, where the element was first synthesized, by analogy with terbium 7 [247]1 14.79 1259 2900 - 1.3 0 8 98 Cf Californium California, where the element was first synthesized 7 [251]1 15.1 1173 (1743)11 - 1.3 0 8 99 Es Einsteinium Albert Einstein, physicist 7 [252]1 8.84 1133 (1269)11 - 1.3 0 8 100 Fm Fermium Enrico Fermi, physicist 7 [257]1 (9.7)11 (1125)11 - - 1.3 0 8 101 Md Mendelevium Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist and inventor 7 [258]1 (10.3)11 (1100)11 - - 1.3 0 8 102 No Nobelium Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer 7 [259]1 (9.9)11 (1100)11 - - 1.3 0 8 103 Lr Lawrencium Ernest O. Lawrence, physicist 7 [266]1 (15.6)11 (1900)11 - - 1.3 0 8 104 Rf Rutherfordium Ernest Rutherford, chemist and physicist 4 7 [267]1 (23.2)11 (2400)11 (5800)11 - - 0 8 105 Db Dubnium Dubna, Russia 5 7 [268]1 (29.3)11 - - - - 0 8 106 Sg Seaborgium Glenn T. Seaborg, scientist 6 7 [269]1 (35.0)11 - - - - 0 8 107 Bh Bohrium Niels Bohr, physicist 7 7 [270]1 (37.1)11 - - - - 0 8 108 Hs Hassium Hesse, Germany, where the element was first synthesized 8 7 [277]1 (40.7)11 - - - - 0 8 109 Mt Meitnerium Lise Meitner, physicist 9 7 [278]1 (37.4)11 - - - - 0 8 110 Ds Darmstadtium Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first synthesized 10 7 [281]1 (34.8)11 - - - - 0 8 111 Rg Roentgenium Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, physicist 11 7 [282]1 (28.7)11 - - - - 0 8 112 Cn Copernicium Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer 12 7 [285]1 (23.7)11 - 357 12 - - 0 8 113 Nh Nihonium the Japanese name for Japan, Nihon, where the element was first synthesized 13 7 [286]1 (16)11 (700)11 (1400)11 - - 0 8 114 Fl Flerovium Georgy Flyorov, physicist 14 7 [289]1 (14)11 (340)11 (420)11 - - 0 8 115 Mc Moscovium Moscow Oblast, Russia, where the element was first synthesized 15 7 [290]1 (13.5)11 (700)11 (1400)11 - - 0 8 116 Lv Livermorium Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (in Livermore, California) which collaborated with JINR on its synthesis 16 7 [293]1 (12.9)11 (709)11 (1085)11 - - 0 8 117 Ts Tennessine Tennessee, United States 17 7 [294]1 (7.2)11 (723)11 (883)11 - - 0 8 118 Og Oganesson Yuri Oganessian, physicist 18 7 [294]1 (5.0)11 13 (258)11 (263)11 - - 0 8 Categories in the metal-nonmetal trend v t e Background color shows subcategory in the metal-metalloid-nonmetal trend: Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Unknown chemical properties Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-​transition metal Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Notes[edit] ^1 The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, four such elements, bismuth, thorium, protactinium, and uranium, have characteristic terrestrial isotopic compositions, and thus their standard atomic weights are given. ^2 The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table. ^3 The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value. ^4 The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given. ^5 The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value. ^6 This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. The value listed above, 0.95 K, is the temperature at which helium does solidify at a pressure of 25 atmospheres. ^7 This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure ^8 The transuranic elements 95 and above do not occur naturally, but they can all be produced artificially. ^9 The value listed is the conventional atomic-weight value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Since 2009, IUPAC provides the standard atomic-weight values for these elements using the interval notation. The corresponding standard atomic weights are: Hydrogen: [1.00784, 1.00811] Lithium: [6.938, 6.997] Boron: [10.806, 10.821] Carbon: [12.0096, 12.0116] Nitrogen: [14.00643, 14.00728] Oxygen: [15.99903, 15.99977] Magnesium: [24.304, 24.307] Silicon: [28.084, 28.086] Sulfur: [32.059, 32.076] Chlorine: [35.446, 35.457] Bromine: [79.901, 79.907] Thallium: [204.382, 204.385] ^10 C is the standard symbol for heat capacity, and χ is the standard symbol for electronegativity on the Pauling scale. ^11 The value has not been precisely measured, usually because of the element's short half-life; the value given in parentheses is a prediction. ^12 With error bars: 357+112 −108 K. ^13 This predicted value is for liquid oganesson, not gaseous oganesson.

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Great Britain, also known as Britain Listeni/ˈbrɪ.tən/, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2 (80,823 sq mi), Great Britain is the largest European island and the ninth-largest in the world.[5][note 1] In 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the world's third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan.[7][8] The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, and together these islands, along with over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands, comprise the British Isles archipelago.[9] The island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and constitutes most of its territory.[10] Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term "Great Britain" often extends to include surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales, and is also sometimes loosely applied to the UK as a whole. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England (which had already comprised the present-day countries of England and Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland by the 1707 Acts of Union. More than a hundred years before, in 1603, King James VI, King of Scots, had inherited the throne of England, but it was not until 1707 that the two countries' parliaments agreed to form a political union. In 1801, Great Britain united with the neighbouring Kingdom of Ireland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which was renamed the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" after the Irish Free State seceded in 1922. Contents [hide] 1 Terminology 1.1 Toponymy 1.2 Derivation of "Great" 1.3 Modern use of the term Great Britain 1.4 Political definition 2 History 2.1 Prehistoric period 2.2 Roman and medieval period 2.3 Early modern period 3 Geography 3.1 Geology 3.2 Fauna 3.3 Flora 3.4 Fungi 4 Demographics 4.1 Settlements 4.1.1 Capitals 4.2 Language 4.3 Religion 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links 8.1 Video links Terminology See also: Terminology of the British Isles Toponymy Main article: Britain (place name) The archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years: the term 'British Isles' derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a collective name for the British Isles.[11] However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, and later Roman-occupied Britain south of Caledonia.[12][13][14] The earliest known name for Great Britain is Albion (Greek: Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum, from either the Latin albus meaning "white" (referring to the white cliffs of Dover, the first view of Britain from the continent) or the "island of the Albiones", first mentioned in the Massaliote Periplus in the 6th century BC, and by Pytheas.[15] The oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC), or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, "There are two very large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne".[16] Pliny the Elder (c. AD 23-79) in his Natural History records of Great Britain: "Its former name was Albion; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of 'Britanniæ.'"[17] The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons. Old French Bretaigne (whence also Modern French Bretagne) and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten (also Breoton-lond, Breten-lond). Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the travel writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC, which described various islands in the North Atlantic as far north as Thule (probably Norway). Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the island group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι (the Prettanic Isles).[18] The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni or Pretani.[15] Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland.[19] The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans. Derivation of "Great" The Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain (μεγάλης Βρεττανίας - megális Brettanias) and to Ireland as little Britain (μικρής Βρεττανίας - mikris Brettanias) in his work Almagest (147-148 AD).[20] In his later work, Geography (c. 150 AD), he gave the islands the names Alwion, Iwernia, and Mona (the Isle of Man),[21] suggesting these may have been the names of the individual islands not known to him at the time of writing Almagest.[22] The name Albion appears to have fallen out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain, after which Britain became the more commonplace name for the island.[15] After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a historical term only. Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudohistorical Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) refers to the island as Britannia major ("Greater Britain"), to distinguish it from Britannia minor ("Lesser Britain"), the continental region which approximates to modern Brittany, which had been settled in the fifth and sixth centuries by migrants from Britain.[23] The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Cecily the daughter of Edward IV of England, and James the son of James III of Scotland, which described it as "this Nobill Isle, callit Gret Britanee". It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland". Modern use of the term Great Britain Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.[24] However, it is sometimes used loosely to refer to the whole of the United Kingdom.[25] Similarly, Britain, can refer to either all islands in Great Britain, the largest island, or the political grouping of counties.[26] There is no clear distinction, even in government documents: the UK government yearbooks have used both "Britain"[27] and "United Kingdom".[28] GB and GBR are used instead of UK in some international codes to refer to the United Kingdom, including the Universal Postal Union, international sports teams, NATO, the International Organization for Standardization country codes ISO 3166-2 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, and international licence plate codes. On the Internet, .uk is the country code top-level domain for the United Kingdom. A .gb top-level domain was used to a limited extent, but is now obsolete because the domain name registrar will not take new registrations. In the Olympics, Team GB is used by the British Olympic Association to represent the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic team. The British Grand Prix of motor racing is another example of a use of Britain in place of the United Kingdom.

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