Political Science - Final Exam

Use information from this link (Links to an external site.) as well as your textbook and video lectures to answer the following questions about voter turnout rates in US elections. https://www.vote.org/voter-registration-rules/ (Links to an external site.) What affect does voter registration laws/rules have on voter turnout rates. Discuss the variation among states regarding voter registration. If you wanted to increase voter turnout what registration law/rule would you recommend? If you wanted to discourage turnout what registration rule/law would you recommend.

After analyzing both state regulation laws as well as voter turnout percentages of each state, it can be concluded that the increase in registration laws has a negative effect on voter turnout. Taking a look at Maine, which has the highest voter turnout percentage (worldatlas.com) you can see that this state has few registration laws. Maine offers eligibility to individuals who are 17 or older and only restricts individuals who are not citizens and are not residents of the state of Maine (vote.org). Few registration laws open up the door for more to vote. West Virginia, however, is the second to worst with voter turnout (worldatlas.com). West Virginia has significantly more registration laws on top of needing to be a U.S. citizen and a resident of the state, which includes not being convicted as a criminal, needing to be 18 years old, and not being judged as mentally incompetent (vote.org). After taking a look at both the state of Maine and the State of West Virginia it can be determined that if a state wanted to increase their voting turnout then they'd have fewer registration laws and if a state wanted to decrease their turnout then they impose more registration laws. The law recommended to discourage turnout would be not allowing criminals or any person who has been convicted as a criminal to vote. This removes a significant portion of the population.

Political parties perform the following important electoral functions in a democracy - they nominate candidates for public office; they structure electoral choices for voters, they set the public policy agenda and educate voters; the organize elections. Define and explain how parties carry-out these important functions.

All parties tend to "develop, articulate, and advance policies they would like to see implemented" (Third Parties). Parties can achieve this by attempting to educate and inform voters in regard to their preferred policy stances. Other functions political parties perform are to "recruit electoral candidates" and "encourage voter involvement" (Third Parties). Increasing voter involvement increases voter turnout at election time, resulting in an increased chance of winning seats in government. Political parties do this through sponsoring voter registration drives, or other get-out-the-vote campaigns. All these factors contribute to the organization of elections that we see today. Political parties perform a number of important tasks in government. They gather people together to gain control of the government and develop policies that are favorable to their interests. Political parties are very much involved in the operation of government, but they do not define the government itself. Your second short paragraph belongs in the next question response. At party conventions, the delegates create a party platform - what is that and how is it related to the functions of parties in a democracy?

A. Freedom of Expression and Flag Burning - Should we amend the Constitution to allow Congress or the states to pass laws protecting the U.S. flag from desecration? Should we protect other symbols as well? Why or why not?

American democracy is protected by a federal system of government that gives individuals an extensive range of rights and liberties. The burning of the United States flag is a very foul act if done for attention rather than respect, but this act is indeed protected under freedom of expression. If the United States decided to infringe on freedom of expression to make this act illegal, then there is a concern that is brought to attention in How Democracies Die. Removing freedoms introduces authoritarian mindsets. For this reason, the burning of the flag, as well as the desecration of other symbols, should remain legal. This, however, does not apply to vandalism. Destruction of an individual's property should never be allowed. What is the SCOTUS case that determined the issue of flag burning as protected speech?

Provide a discussion of why the United States unlike other democracies has a two-party system. Your discussion should include as one the factors an explanation of how single-member plurality districts (SMPD) contributes to a two-party electoral system. What are the other reasons - identify and discuss/explain.

A democratic government allows citizens to influence the government through voting. In order for influence to be meaningful, a clear signal must be sent to governmental leaders regarding what the influence wishes to accomplish. Having several parties, which in America's case is two, allows for voters to select candidates that are more closely identified with an individual's preferences (Krutz 335). The United States partakes in a two-party system, which differs from much of the democratic world who has multiple political parties who dominate. This is the result of a United States elections being based on "plurality voting" (Krutz 336). The United States partakes in single-member plurality districts, meaning each voter gets one vote to pick their top candidate. This plurality has effectively marginalized minority parties and has placed the Democratic Party and Republican party into a gridlock. A single-member system does not guarantee a party will remain in power, but the two parties have been able to do so because "the two have done significantly well at adjusting to crisis" (Patterson: Political Parties). Author Krutz in "American Government" also explains that since most voters realize that the minority parties have almost zero chance of winning an election, they won't vote for them. Individuals don't appreciate losing and would much rather stick with a party that runs with their beliefs, as well as has a great chance of winning an election. Factors for the two-party system to also discuss include the effect of political socialization, the bias of the media for the two major parties, campaign finance laws that disadvantage third-parties, electoral rules including registration laws that privilege the two major parties, and Durverger's Law - voter does not want to waste their vote so are willing to "vote for the lesser of 'two evils' than waste a vote on a party/candidate that will not win."

What is the better approach to civil rights—a peaceful, gradual one that focuses on passing laws and winning cases in court, or a radical one that includes direct action and acts of civil disobedience? To answer this question consider the role that direct action and civil disobedience played in determining the success or lack of success for a civil rights social movement of your choice.

A movement focused on civil rights is far better off approaching the public in a peaceful and gradual manner, rather than a radical manner that promotes civil disobedience. The African-American Civil Rights movement was a prime example of how approaching the public in a peaceful and gradual manner can generate national backing, but the Black Lives Matter movement is an example of how a social movement completely disassembles when under poor leadership that promotes civil disobedience. The Black Lives Matter Movement promoted racial equality, which a lot of individuals stood for and thus created a strong national backing of the movement. The movement also brought attention to police brutality and the systematic racism that takes place in America. The legitimacy of the movement began to lack though when Black Lives Matter members began to start riots and brutally attack police officers that were not associated with racism (Baltimore Protests). The Black Lives Matter movement tried to overthrow power, rather than institutionally work their goals into law. The success of a social movement derives from bringing a nation together, rather than breaking it apart. MLK,Jr. organized and used civil disobedience tactics to force government to confront discriminatory laws. It was not a gradual and legalistic approach to solving a problem.

Use this link (Links to an external site.) to provide data for the following discussion: What is meant by the incumbency advantage? Provide evidence that there is an advantage for incumbents. What are the reasons that explain why incumbents are difficult to defeat?

An incumbent is a political candidate that currently occupies the position that they are running for. An example of this is Barack Obama and his reelection campaign. President Barack Obama was the incumbent candidate. In congressional and local elections, incumbents "win reelection 90% of the time" (American Government 275). This is a result of the incumbency advantage. Opensecrets.org provides numerous charts of incumbency advantage. Incumbents have an advantage because they have "name recognition and voting record" (American Government 275). An incumbent has advertised their name over several elections and has had participation in the legislation of the state. Besides participation, incumbents have built organizations that new candidates have to build from scratch. We can see this advantage financially through a couple of charts from the 2018 general election. Within the Senate, Incumbents raised 533 million dollars with only 32 candidates, while challengers raised only 351 million dollars with almost double of the candidates (56) (opensecrets.com). The same goes for the House. Incumbents raised 533 million, while the challengers only raised 350 million (opensecrets.com). These charts show that incumbents don't need to do much in order to gain an advantage. Some other advantages incumbents have are that since they have won an election before "this increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money" (American Government 275). Incumbents also have the advantage of gerrymandering on their side, which is the drawing of district lines. Gerrymandering has no effect on the President or Senators, however.

The American press/media is privately owned and as a business must make a profit. Discuss how private ownership of the American media and its need to earn profits from advertisement effects its coverage of news and what is presented as news. How has public policy attempted to protect the public from biases that result from private ownership of media companies?

Before the invention of cable in the 1980s there were not many venues for media to thrive, which meant little competition. Now with the addition of cable as well as the expansion of the internet in the 2000s we can see several different venues where the media appears, creating a significant amount of competition. Much of today's media is aimed towards "luring and audience, rather than informing the audience" (Patterson - "Media"). Several media outlets today open up their newscasts with a major crime or accident, gaining viewer attention. Civic affairs are "jammed together" (Patterson - "Media") within newscasts and given short attention. Due to an increase in demand for views, outlets have been known to spread false information. In the midst of the Ebola outbreak, some reports went as far as to speculate what would happen if Ebola went airborne. No known fluid transmitted disease has spread airborne. At times media outlets stretch their false information to the lives of citizens, which can harm an individual's entity. Public policy is implemented to prevent this from happening. The media does not have the right to "commit slander" (Krutz 306). This means the media cannot spread false information that can cause a loss of reputation or income. Responses should discuss that ownership of media allows owner's bias to influence the way the news is covered. Infotainment for profits is necessary to discuss. Media must please advertisers with their news stories.

The right to counsel was extended onto states by the Supreme Court decision in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Please write a review of this case as best as you can from the materials in your text and video lectures, and, you may also consult Wikipedia (search for "Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Remember that it isn't acceptable to copy or cut n paste from sources. Write the review in your own words - only quote if necessary for effect or for analysis. A review addresses four questions: 1. What are the facts in this case (in this instance who was Gideon and what happened to him that he thought violated his constitutional right to counsel, and describe how this case reached the Supreme Courts attention and why the court decided to hear this case). 2. What was the constitutional question that the court was asked to decide in this case? (What provision(s) of the Constitution was being interpreted and used in this case?) 3. What did the Court majority decide? Briefly describe/summarize the argument made by the majority that explains their interpretation of this constitutional provision. Was there a minority dissent? Briefly summarize the dissenting opinion if there was one. 4. What is the constitutional significance of this decision? What happened to James Earl Gideon as a result of this decision?

Clarence Gideon was a drifter accused of breaking into a pool hall and stealing money, as well as other items in Panama City, Florida. Denied a lawyer, Gideon was "tried and convicted and sentenced to a five-year prison term" (American Government 136). From his prison cell, Gideon wrote an appeal to the Supreme Court arguing that his 5th and 6th amendment rights were violated. This introduced the Supreme Court case Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). A minority of the Supreme Court introduced the question of whether the 6th amendment only "applied to the federal court", but the court majority made a decision that was in "favor of Gideon" (Gideon v. Wainwright, Wikipedia). The Supreme Court ruled that anyone accused of a serious crime was entitled to the assistance of a lawyer. The case Gideon v. Wainwright was significant because it showed the significance of selective incorporation, allowing citizens' rights to be protected. The case also resulted in over "2,000 individuals" (Gideon v. Wainwright, Wikipedia) being set free because they lacked the ability to previously have a lawyer. Significance = states provide public defenders for indigent persons accused of felonies.

There are many interesting patterns to be found in the examination of American public opinion. A look at the 2012 presidential election shows how the opinions of different demographic groups vary (Figure 6.12 (Links to an external site.)). Based on this information construct the characteristics the generic Romney voter and the generic Obama voter. Which demographic characteristic patterns do you find most significant - how would you explain why these groups have different opinions about who to vote for?

How Groups Voted in the 2012 Presidential Election is a chart that highlights the demographics of voters in the 2012 presidential election. Looking at the chart, you can see that the typical Obama voter is a non-white individual who is younger and is lower class. Romney voters are white individuals who are middle or upper-class and are older. Looking at the charts you can see that these two candidates are on opposite sides of the spectrum regarding voter demographics. The characteristics that are most significant in the demographics of the 2012 election are race and income. Race was a very significant pattern, seeing that African Americans trumped the vote (93%), with Asians (73%) and Hispanics (71%) trailing behinds the African American individuals. Obama was a big deal to the minority groups because he had given them a sense of belonging. Previously only white individuals dominated the presidency. Income is the other significant characteristic, with 60% of Obama voters having an income of less than $50,000 while individuals who made over $50,000 were over 50% in Romney's favor. This split is likely due to the Democratic views on the economy that benefit low-income individuals. Some of these views include affordable healthcare and progressive taxation.

How the media covers elections and those who govern is rarely objective. Discuss several ways that we might see media bias in election campaign coverage as well as how the media may be biased in its coverage of public officials.

Looking at the 2012 presidential election you can see how stations such as FOX News and MSNBC overt their use of bias. With FOX News, forty-six out of fifty-two stories were negative towards Barack Obama. MSNBC was even more negative toward Mitt Romney, having seventy-one of their seventy-four stories being highly negative towards the candidate (Krutz 315). Within the video "Media: Conduit Between Government and the People" the narrator points out that people tend to focus on information that aligns with their views. With the mass competition due to the number of venues, you tend to get media outlets who fixate on a specific target market. In the case of America, it's primarily liberals and conservatives. The media also has a bias toward conflict (Crash Course: Media Institutions). The media tends to highlight conflict to gain views. While you're sitting at home watching FOX or MSNBC you probably come across different clips of official broadcasts, but never the entirety of the message. This is known as "shrinking" (Krutz 315). Journalists shrink bites to control the story. Media bias can also be seen through individual highlights. If an outlet isn't too fond of an individual then they can choose to not cover them frequently. The final way media can show bias is through improper social debates. An example of this is through an incident with the program Crossfire. Instead of a proper debate the program "engaged in reactionary and partisan arguing" (The Daily Show). Please review section 8.4 in your text. Reponses should include discussion of some of the following concepts: framing (episodic and thematic) hypodermic, minimal effects and/or cultivation theories of media influence on consumers, media as kingmakers and campaign focuses on the spectacle and horserace rather than issues. Campaign coverage is in soundbites and third-party candidates are rarely covered in campaign reporting. Video lectures also discuss these concepts.

Use information from this link (Links to an external site.) as well as your textbook and video lectures to answer the following questions about voter turnout rates in US elections. http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (Links to an external site.) 1. How do presidential election voter turnout rates compare to midterm election voter turnout rates? 2. Why are voter turnout rates higher in the 19th century than in the 20th and 21st centuries? 3. What other factors, besides the demographic ones discussed in the previous question, affect voter turnout rates?

Looking at the voter turnout rate from 1789 to 2020 you can see that midterm elections dominated the voter turnout until 1840 when there was a spike in voter turnout in the presidential elections. From 1840 to the present day, although rates have dropped across the board, presidential elections have continued to have a higher turnout (US VEP Turnout Rate). Voter turnout rates were higher in the 19th century than in the 20th and 21st centuries because first, the eligible voter population was significantly lower during the 19th century. Women and other minorities were not eligible to vote at the time. There is also a more negative view on politics today as there was in the 19th century. Crash Course explains that there is increasing polarization between Democrats and Republicans. This can lead to some unethical decisions within the government to give one party less jurisdiction. Besides demographic factors, there are other factors that affect voter turnout rates. As mentioned earlier, polarization can affect voter turnout rates because elections often give citizens the idea that it's a "choice between two evils" (American Government 257). With a negative view on the system, there is bound to be a decrease in rates. State laws are another factor that can have an effect on turnout rates. States with more registration rules are more likely to have a lower turnout rate. Another factor that contributes to voter turnout is a candidate's characteristics. "People tend to vote for someone they like" (Crash Course: How Voters Decide) and if a candidate gains a national liking then an increased turnout will most likely happen.

Civil Rights and Social Movements - Patterson contends that the success of social movements can be understood as a result of three factors: sustainability, legitimacy, and, institutionalization. Explain these three factors and summarize Patterson's analysis to either the Tea Party Movement or the Occupy Wall Street Movement.

Patterson discusses three factors that need to be present within a social movement in order for the movement to be successful, which are sustainability, legitimacy, and institutionalization. Sustainability within a social movement is the ability to generate resources to keep the movement going. This involves widespread awareness, funding from within and outside the organization, as well as prominent leaders continuing to participate in the movement. Legitimacy involves the point on whether or not the movement is worthy to support. For a movement to succeed it needs to accomplish goals without threatening the liberties and rights of individuals. Legitimacy is fundamental in order to generate the widespread backing a movement needs. The final factor Patterson highlights is institutionalization, which brings up the question of whether or not the goal of a movement can have permanence. Will the success of the movement bring a lasting quality that is brought to attention within an established environment? The Tea Party movement, which was a tax protest that surfaced in 2009 is an example Patterson uses to analyze these three factors even further. Patterson explains that the Tea Party movement had immense backing around the country, gaining the attention of "conservative donors and organizations" who funneled millions of dollars into the movement. Several talk show hosts and media outlets also "trumpeted the tea party". Patterson also mentions that the Tea Party had great institutionalization. The Tea Party was heavily backed by Republicans, institutionalizing the movement. The Tea Party did thrive and influenced a lot of individuals, but its lack of legitimacy led to the movement's downfall. Followers of the Tea Party were "widely seen as stubborn and not flexible". This led to a huge drop in member backing in 2011 because leaders of the Tea Party did not respect anything but their own goals. Sustainability, legitimacy, and institutionalization are factors that allow social movements to thrive and be successful. If any of these factors get placed on the backburner, then a movement will be in the eyes of public concern. What did the Tea Party Congressional leaders do in 2011 that hurt their cause?

After elections parties continue to be important in the governing of the United States. Explain and discuss the importance of the Party-In-Government role.

Political parties do a lot more than organizing elections, they also play a significant role in government. Members of each party meet in closed sessions to discuss the legislative agenda and make decisions regarding which party members should serve on the committees that draft laws (Krutz 350). Along with electing law drafters, political parties also utilize closed sessions to elect leaders to serve in the House of Representatives and the Senate. Individuals within a party often have allies that will cooperate with efforts to pass and implement legislation (Krutz 353). Even though the branches of government are separated by the Separation of Powers within the Constitution, party alliances allow for individuals to work more closely together. With this close cooperation, the minority party also serves as a watchdog towards the party in power. Informing the public if needed. Majority-minority parties organize the legislative process in Congress and in the state legislatures. Committee systems are also organized by party as are the legislative leadership.

What are the demographic characteristics/factors most often associated with the likelihood to vote? Which three factors are the most likely predictors for voting behavior? Why are these three the best predictors?

Political parties do everything they can to target likely voters, which are a category of voters who vote regularly. A citizen's "socioeconomic status" (American Government 253) -- the combination of education, income, and social status are the three primary factors that predict voting behavior. Of those who completed college, the 2012 voter turnout rate "jumps to 75%, compared to about 52.6%" (pg. 253) of those who have only completed high school. This is likely due to the value of political and economic courses within the college curriculum, helping voters understand the effects of political decisions, as well as being able to recognize the differences between each party. 76.9% of individuals "earning $100,000 to $149,999 a year" vote, while "50.4% of those who earn $15,000 to $19,999 vote" (American Government 253). The reason why income is such a strong predictor is that low-income individuals are mostly associated with individuals who work part-time, or are still in college (American Government 251). These individuals typically don't receive much government benefit and they are unlikely to be paying a high tax rate. This leads to a lack of participation. Race is another important factor in voting behavior. Caucasians (63%) and African Americans (62%) have the most spike with voter turnout. Asian Americans (31.3%) and Hispanic citizens (31.8%) have a significantly lower turnout. Race and voter turnout fluctuate across the country, based on "cultural involvement and representation" (American Government 254). Age is another demographic characteristic associated with the likelihood to vote. "Those between eighteen and twenty-five are least likely to vote, while those sixty-five to seventy-four are most likely to vote" (American Government 251). Younger people tend to move quickly and youth are less active in government and politics. This leads to political parties to neglect youth. Like mentioned earlier "they may also be unaware of what government provides" (American Government 251).

President George W. Bush would say that he wasn't influenced by polls or that he did not let public opinion polls determine his decisions. President Trump always tries to cite polls that he likes and dismisses polls that he doesn't like. Do you think Presidential decisions are influenced by public opinion, why or why not - provide reasons/evidence to support your thesis.

Public opinion has played a big role in the influence of presidential decisions. Donald Trump is not alone. "As early as Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration, presidents have regularly polled the public" (American Government 232). Nixon even admitted to using polls as a part of his decision-making process. Presidents tend to look for an opening when they have high public approval ratings to push policies. Roosevelt did this to pass laws. Presidents such as Barack Obama have also used public opinion on national events to propose laws. In Obama's case, he used the Oregon college shooting as a standpoint for gun control.

Public opinion regarding the President, Congress, and the Supreme Court demonstrate different patterns. What factors determine how the public views these institutions of government? [ For example, discuss what factors influence the public's perception of presidential job performance. ]

Public opinion regarding the President, Congress, and the Supreme Court fluctuate based on times and events, and on the people who hold major office (American Government 221). All three branches are susceptible to swings in public opinion in response to their actions, as well as national events. The approval ratings for each branch of government is for the most part unstable. Factors that play into how the public views the president is decisions made within their administration, as well as economic and foreign policy. Events during a president's term may spike the President's approval rating (American Government 226), such as national and world events. This is a factor that is for the most part out of the President's control. Congress is mainly affected by domestic events. When the economy rebounds or natural gas prices lower, public approval tends to go up. The Supreme Court's rating is less susceptible to the influence of events (American Government 229). Public opinion towards the Supreme Court is mainly affected when ruling on highly known cases that have sparked widespread public interest.

Apply Patterson's analysis of explaining successful social movements (sustainability, legitimacy, and institutionalization) to your choice of one of the following social movements/civil rights movements: African-American Civil Rights movement, the fight for Women's rights, or civil rights for indigenous peoples, LatinX people, or LGBT people.

The African-American Civil Rights movement was a prime example of how the factors sustainability, legitimacy, and institutionalization can make a protest become a very successful social movement. The African-American Civil Rights movement maintained a very strong leadership throughout the entirety of the movement. Prominent leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X maintained strong attention towards the movement, generating plenty of backing from outside the movement. "69% of the funding received was provided by people outside the organization" (Patterson: Social Movements). Along with sustainability, legitimacy was also a huge supporter of the civil rights movement. The African-American Civil Rights movement was supporting a change that many people already wanted to see happen, which the movement did through non-violent tactics. The non-violent tactics of this civil rights movement contrasting with the violent tactics of the police force shined a light on the movement. Finally, institutionalization brought the whole movement together. The movement had immense support from the democratic party, as well as had success in having goals be enacted into law throughout the lifespan of the movement. These laws include the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

The media is subject to some forms of government regulation despite the First Amendment. What government regulations are permissible? What types of media and media stories can the FCC regulate and censor?

The First Amendment serves as the basis for political freedoms of the United States, freedom of the press plays a powerful role in maintaining the health of democracy. Without this amendment, the media "would not be free to alert citizens of government abuse and corruption" (Krutz 305). The media is rightfully protected to express concern and awareness, but there are limitations. First, as mentioned earlier the media does not have the right to "commit slander" (Krutz 306), which means they don't have the right to spread false information that is intended to harm a person's reputation. The media also has a limited right to publish material the government deems as classified. If a media outlet gets their hands on classified government documents then the government can request material to be "redacted" (Krutz 307). Further oversight has been created to oversee television and radio broadcasters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) oversees radio, telephone, and television networks to regulate broadcast material. The FCC has the power to limit the information that does not suit best with the "public's best interest" (Krutz 307). This can include limiting networks that don't follow the "equal-time-rule" (Krutz 308), allowing every candidate equal time. The FCC also enforces the fairness doctrine on newscasts as well. Licensed stations are required to carry out controversial debates in a balanced manner. Besides managing governmental topics, the FCC also regulates content to appeal to the citizens. The FCC can censor indecent content that viewers may find disturbing or inappropriate. This typically pertains to sexual jokes on the radio and nudity on the television.

Define civil liberties and civil rights and explain how they differ from each other (although we often call liberties "rights" I want you to be aware that civil liberties and civil rights are distinct/different). Demonstrate your explanation by discussing why a specific civil liberty is not the same thing as a civil right.

The United States Constitution protects a variety of civil liberties and civil rights. Civil liberties are "limitations on government power, intended to protect freedoms that governments may not legally intrude on" (American Government 110), while civil rights are "guarantees that government officials will treat people equally" (American Government 110). education is treated as a civil right policy in the USA. That is one reason it was used as a vehicle to overturn Plessy.

How do the courts identify and classify discrimination? [What is the difference between the rational basis test, intermediate scrutiny, and strict scrutiny? Why can there be instances where laws can be discriminatory and also constitutional?

The United States engages in discrimination quite often through laws that treat one group of people differently from others. This may sound wrong, but discrimination laws are "not always unconstitutional" (American Government 157). For example, you must be a certain age to drive a car on public roads or drink alcohol; "these laws discriminate against the young" (American Government 157). Some discrimination laws remain constitutional because they ensure safety and wellbeing, which is a valid purpose for enforcing a law. The court utilizes the rational basis test, intermediate scrutiny, and strict scrutiny to ensure there is a valid purpose that lies within a discriminatory practice. The rational basis test is the "lowest level of court scrutiny" (Equal Protection: Crash Course). Unless the opposing side can prove otherwise, the court will decide that the discriminatory practice in question is allowed. The government only has to demonstrate that they have a good reason for engaging. Discrimination based on "gender or sex" (American Government 157) is mostly examined through intermediate scrutiny. In this case, the government has to provide proof, rather than demonstrate that treating men from women is substantially related to an important governmental objective. Discrimination against "racial, ethnic, or religious groups" (American Government 158) is reviewed under strict scrutiny, which is the highest level of court scrutiny. This level of scrutiny involves a five-step process where a law or action can be proven that it can be narrowly tailored, while also promoting the least restrictive means possible.

There are a number of characteristics or parts to a valid, scientific public opinion poll. 1. Identify and explain the characteristics that must be present when creating and administering a public opinion survey. 2. What are some of the problems that arise in trying to conduct a scientific public opinion poll?

The diversity of public opinion is measured through modern public opinion polling, which is sophisticated and carefully designed to examine what the public "thinks, wants, and values" (American Government 212). This primary use of polling is a major combatant against straw polls, which are informal polls hosted primarily by media outlets. Straw polls have been known to have an increase in process errors, which lead to inaccurate predictions. An example of this is the Chicago Daily Tribune headline announcing Thomas Dewey's supposed victory in 1948. Sophisticated public opinion polling faces problems when conducting a poll. For one, as mentioned earlier accuracy is a problem that arises. To get accurate results modern public opinion polling samples a large portion of the selected population (1,500 avg.). The "larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error" (Patterson: Public Opinion). Polls also face the problem of having a lack of representation among demographic groups. Sophisticated polls sometimes use "representative sample" groups instead of "random sample" (American Government 213) groups to make the poll's demographic distribution similar to the population of an area. The polling process requires a scientific process in order to gain accurate results. Doing research and identifying the desired population, along with implementing a high sample size will maintain a low margin of error and strengthen the reliance of a poll. You tend to identify but not consistently explain the elements of a poll.

Civil Liberty v. Civil Right Question If a person's religious beliefs conflict with the law or lead to bias against other groups, should the government protect the exercise of those beliefs? Why or why not? To address this question please use and cite relevant Supreme Court decisions dealing with the free exercise clause of the First Amendment and with state/Federal laws and Supreme Court decisions addressing civil rights protections for LGBT people (e.g. same-sex marriage and a baker/florist refusal to provide their service for a same-sex wedding). I do not care which side you support - I want to read your use of the relevant Supreme Court decisions and current state/federal law to reach your conclusion.

The federal government does hold the responsibility to protect the freedom of religion by protecting the idea of religious beliefs. If the actions of those set beliefs, however, are against the law or infringe on the rights and safety of another individual, then that action should be deemed unlawful. The First Amendment protects the expression of religious beliefs, as long as they can coexist with another's rights and wellbeing. In Today's world, LGBT individuals get an immense amount of scrutiny from religious individuals because their views conflict with religious morals. Although very discriminatory, this scrutiny is protected under their religious freedom to express. There are some instances where this act of discrimination should be considered unlawful, however. Looking at the case of Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court established that a workplace cannot discriminate against an individual because of his religious practices. The same should go for an LGBT individual who's boss is religious and wants to discriminate against them. The government, in this case, should not protect the exercise of beliefs to keep equality within the workforce. Another religious practice the government should not protect is organizational discrimination. Within the Supreme Court decision of Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, the Supreme Court took the side of the Boy Scouts of America, allowing them to expel James Dale from the organization because he was gay. This is another religious belief that the government should not support because it brings back the problem of discrimination. An issue the United States made apparent through civil rights movements before. Can you discuss or cite a SCOTUS decision that supports your first paragraph argument? Reynolds was in 1878 and ruled against polygamy. Boy Scouts (now do admit gay scouts and leaders) but as private organization has a right of association protection to determine members - this wasn't a religious expression decision.

Identify and the discuss/describe and explain the important functions or roles performed by the media in a democracy such as American democracy. Example - one such role or function is to be a "watchdog" - what are the other roles or functions and discuss why they are significant?

The media consists of several different communication formats from print media to television media. The public turns to the media for news, expecting media to cover important political and social events in a comprehensive and unbiased manner. Within American democracy, there are several important roles and functions that the media performs. The first role of media is to "bring in revenue" (Krutz 292). Many individuals view this as a function of greed, but this function is actually very important because revenue drives media outlets to attract viewers. Viewers attract advertisers, which allows the outlet to function. The media also serves as the watchdogs of society. "Some refer to the media as the fourth estate" (Krutz 292) with the branches of government being the first three. This role is valuable because it helps keep the government accountable for its actions, serving as an alarm when citizens need to pay attention. Another function of the media is "agenda-setting" (Krutz 292), which is the act of choosing which ideas or topics deserve public attention. Major network coverage promotes public pressure to act on issues. An example is the death of Rodney King, who was an African American motorist. King was brutally beaten by police officers, which gained the attention of national media outlets. This began a national discussion on police brutality. Another function worth mentioning is the promotion of public good by "offering a platform for public debate" (Krutz 294). This allows for improved citizen awareness, staying informed on national issues, elections, and international news.

Civil liberties can be categorized into three types: criminal, procedural, and individual. Explain the differences between these three types and provide specific civil liberty examples for each type.

The provisions of civil liberties can be divided into three categories. The first category consists of the "first, second, third, and fourth amendments", which protect basic individual freedoms. The "fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth" make up the second category, which protects the people who are suspected to have taken part in criminal activity. The final category consists of the "ninth and tenth" amendments, which give depth on the framers' view of the Bill of Rights or individual freedoms (American Government 117). 1st Amendment are individual civil liberties.

Where does the "Right to Privacy" originate from in the Constitution. This right has been most often extended to consensual sexual relations and to decision about procreation and abortion. Describe the controversial nature of this civil liberty by discussing the significance of the following Supreme Court decisions: Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) Roe v. Wade (1973) Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) Bower v. Hardwick (1986) - You may need to consult Wikipedia Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

The right to privacy originates from the fourth amendment within the United States Constitution. Within the fourth amendment, it is stated that "the right of the people to be secure in their persons, homes, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated" (4th Amendment). The controversy within this amendment can be seen through the term "unreasonable". There is nothing that determines what is and is not unreasonable (Patterson: Civil Liberties). The controversial nature of this liberty can be seen through a variety of Supreme Court decisions regarding sexual privacy. The first case we can see controversy is Griswold v. Connecticut. This case was significant because the Supreme Court struck down Connecticut's anti-contraception law in support of a "right to privacy in respect to intimate practices" (Griswold v. Connecticut, Wikipedia). More controversy arises through the cases of Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey. The right to privacy "encompassed a right for women to terminate a pregnancy" (American Government 145), which was decided in Roe v. Wade, but this ruling did not have any moral restriction which Planned Parenthood v. Casey introduced. Even further controversy was brought to the table when the cases of Bower v. Hardwick and Lawrence v. Texas took place. These two cases further strengthened sexual privacy laws and also brought the point that the obsession to ban homosexual behavior is a "refusal to consider the broad principles that have informed our treatment of privacy" (Bowers v. Hardwick, Wikipedia). Overall there has been much controversy surrounding the 4th amendment, which protects our right to privacy and we have seen this through a series of Supreme Court decisions within United States history. What did Bower case determine and what did the Lawrence case then do?

American political parties have become more polarized in recent years. What is the evidence of this increased polarization and discuss the possible causes for this increased polarization?

Through recent years American political parties have become more polarized than they used to. There is no certainty on the reason for this polarization, but there a few theories regarding why. The first theory suggests a party-in government phenomenon "driven by a change in party allegiance in response to shifts in party position" (Krutz 357). Voters have started to identify more with national-level party politics and began to demand elected representatives to become more attentive to national party positions. This creates a divide between Democrats and Republicans. Another theory is the idea that "increased technology on the public square" (Krutz 358) has increased polarization. The evolution of media has allowed individuals to be further informed, amplifying nationalization. The final possible cause for polarization is the "increasing sophistication of gerrymandering" (Krutz 358). Incumbents tend to be more extreme if their districts are gerrymandered. A party who is sure to win an election will focus on appealing the more extreme members. One factor overlooked was the significance of primary elections - because they attract a smaller voter turnout, primaries also tend to attract more ideologically "extreme" voters who are less likely to vote for political moderates and more likely to vote for an ideologically extreme candidate. This is especially a problem in gerrymandered districts (another important reason) - the primary winner will most likely win the general election so it is in the primary that the more ideological candidate will defeat a moderate and then can win the general election without needing to become more moderate on the campaign issues. Your presentation needed somewhat more development - see the student example I post in the announcement.

Use information from this link (Links to an external site.) as well as your textbook and video lectures to answer the following questions about voting in US state and federal elections. 1. Compare the following states in relation to their voter identification requirements: Washington, Idaho, Georgia, Texas, and, Oregon. 2. Where would you expect to find the higher voter turnout rates among these five states? Why? 3. Use this link (Links to an external site.) to identify the voter turnout rates in these five states. What were the turnout rates? Discuss whether this evidence support your hypothesis for question 2.

Voter identification requirements differ from state to state. Some states have more strict requirements, while others have no requirements at all. Washington, Idaho, Georgia, Texas, and Oregon all have different requirements, which will be looked at in regard to voter turnout. The state of Georgia has the "strictest" (ncsl.org) identification requirement of the five. Georgia will not accept a ballot from anyone who does not have a photo ID with them. Texas trails behind Georgia where photo ID is requested, but if one cannot be given then some other form of ID is allowed. Idaho also requests a photo ID, but if one is not presented then an "affidavit" (ncsl.org) needs to be signed by the voter. Washington and Oregon have the most lenient requirements. Washington requests for photo ID, but the majority of the voting is "held by mail, so provisions impact fewer voters" (ncsl.org). Oregon requires no documentation at all. A hypothesis can be made by looking at the five states. Patterson in Capaign and Elections mentions that more restrictions lead to less participation. Since Oregon has the least amount of requirements then it can be hypothesized that Oregon has the highest voter turnout. The voter turnout percentages at electproject.org prove this hypothesis to be correct. Oregon has the highest voter turnout of 68%. In order of voter turnout Washington (65.7%), Idaho (60.9%), Georgia (59.8%), and Texas (51.4%) follow. Surprisingly the voter turnout of Georgia is much higher than Texas since Georgia has stricter requirements. This is most likely due to the large percentage of Latinos and youth who reside in Texas.

To learn more about what type of direct democracy is practiced in your state, visit the University of Southern California's Initiative & Referendum Institute (Links to an external site.). This site also allows you to look up initiatives and measures that have appeared on state ballots. 1. What types of direct democracy can be used in Washington state? Explain how each type is conducted in Washington state. 2. What are the criticisms of laws passed by initiative? Why do proponents of initiatives believe they are necessary?

Washington state allows "initiatives and referendums at both state and local levels" (IRI). An initiative is typically a law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by citizens. This is subject to review however by the state courts, ensuring that the proposed law or amendment remains consistent with the state and national constitution. A referendum asks for citizens' approval regarding a decision made by the government. Laws or constitutional amendments are presented to the voter, where they vote on whether to ratify or not. Criticisms of initiatives include the process it takes for a law to be passed by initiative. "Each step can take a lot of time and effort" (American Government 278). Most states place a time limit on the collection period, which contributes to the amount of effort it takes for a law to pass. Another problem that arises is that some states may limit who may circulate the petition (American Government 278). This can lead to a decrease in ballot measures. There are some downsides with initiatives, but proponents believe they are necessary because it shows the will of the people. Initiatives also act as a check on the activities of the legislature. Researchers have found that states with initiative are more likely to have government reform policy. They also tend to make state legislatures more responsive. Criticisms of initiatives include 1. poorly written 2. may be unconstitutional 3. special interests predominate 4. take advantage of public ignorance 5. voters must take it or leave it - no means to find a compromise, 6. laws passed by legislature are derived from deliberation and compromise. Proponents argue that the people need the initiative to force legislatures to act on policy issues or to address issues the legislators are unwilling to entertain.

Explain the effect these factors have on influencing public opinion: the impact of state political cultures, your workplace, the media, political elites.

When individuals change where their sources of information come from, their opinions may change as well. The influence of state political cultures, workplaces, media, and elites can all make a change to an individual's opinion. States have a "unique culture" (American Government 221) with different state governments influencing different attitudes and beliefs. Some states value tradition and other states think the government should help the people and create large systems of government. The workplace can also affect the opinions of an individual through shared "social experiences" (American Government 221). Concern tends to be shaped towards the concerns of like-minded individuals within a workplace. Media and political elites shape an individual's opinion by serving as cues to help voters pay closer attention to political debates and make decisions about it.

Why is the 14th Amendment important in the expansion of civil liberties protections? What is the concept selective incorporation and why is this concept important?

Within the case of Barron vs. Baltimore (1833), the court decided that the Bill of Rights only applied to the federal government, meaning the Constitution only protected individuals from the federal government. This created a gateway for states to not abide by civil liberties. To change this, the 14th amendment was ratified, which stated that "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States nor shall any state deprive any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws" (14th Amendment, Article 1). The 14th amendment makes it impossible for states to infringe on liberties within the Bill of Rights. Selective incorporation is the process of incrementally expanding the application of the Bill of Rights to also include the states. It became necessary in order to guarantee people's civil liberties equally across all states. Selective incorporation recognizes the limited sovereignty of states but does allow the courts to incrementally determine the liberties you enjoy as a US citizen must also be recognized by your state government. It also means that states can be MORE protective of civil liberties.