Politics and Media Test Two

The following questions refer to Markus Prior's article "News v. Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens Gaps in Political Knowledge and Turnout":

1.) Why does Prior say more choices of media outlets increase the knowledge gap? (((( In the low-choice broadcast environ- ment, access to the medium and exposure to news were practically one and the same, as less politically interested television viewers had no choice but to watch the news from time to time (more on this below). As media choice increases, exposure to the news may continue to work as a "knowledge leveler," but the distribution of news exposure itself has become more unequal. Access to the medium no longer implies exposure to the news. Televi- sion news narrows the knowledge gap among its viewers. For the population as a whole, more channels widen the gap.)))) 2.) What does Prior say is the key to understanding the political implications of new media? 3.) How does the availability of many new channels and websites to choose from affect peoples' level of political knowledge?

7. What does political scientist Jeff Tulis mean when he says Americans have had two constitutional presidencies? What are the obligations of presidents in the era of the rhetorical presidency? (2 points)

According to Tulis, American Presidents didn't use to speak out to the public. He says the presidents weren't meant to be popular. This desire to be popular has grown in the 20th century. Now, the president goes straight to the public to try and initiate legislation; this can be called rhetorical presidency. Tulis suggests this isn't how the president wanted it to be. He says the founders composed the constitution so Congress could initiate legislation, not the president.(Going Public: A strategic dilemma).

3. What is agenda setting? (1 point)

Agenda setting is when what the news media decides to cover becomes important to the viewers. The media decides what to cover and how often to repeat these stories. Because of these choices, it can affect how people think about certain issues. Those who are less educated are more likely to be susceptible to agenda setting (Agenda Setting section).

What are agenda setting, framing, and priming?

Agenda setting refers not to the media's ability to tell us what to think but its ability to tell us what to think about. Framing refers to how political leaders and the media can affect our interpretation of an issue by the way in which they present it to us. An issue can be presented in large or narrow terms, and certain words can spark different considerations in our minds. Priming refers to the media's ability to affect the judgments we make about people and issues by focusing on certain issues and not others.

1. 8. What did Richard Nixon's vice president, Spiro Agnew, begin in 1969 that continues today? (1 point)

Agnew began to critique the media. He called them out for their bias and the new stereotypes that they were creating. We can even see today that politicians in general are no longer afraid to speak out against the media (Richard Nixon: The Television President: paragraph 10).

Explain Ronald Reagan's "going public" strategy in promoting the Tax Reform Act of 1986. Compare Reagan's media strategy with that of the first President Bush.

Aides leaked Reagan's intention to go public and pressure Congress on the subject of budget and tax cuts. He used a carrot-and-stick approach: he was willing to negotiate with members of Congress all along but continued to remind them of his ability to go public and the positive reception he usually got when he did so. Reagan's media strategy was to tightly control reporters' access. His administration emphasized simple messages and the president's image. When Bush became president, he tried to be more open with reporters. Reagan's strategy was clearly more successful—only rarely did the public hold him responsible for anything, while Bush was the victim of a critical press from the very beginning of his administration.

Why has American political culture become more centered on the presidency? Why is Congress more difficult to cover than the president?

Americans' interest in the presidency grew gradually during the twentieth century, largely in response to a variety of crises. As the size of the executive branch and the powers of the president grew, people came to focus much more on the president than on Congress. Many factors make Congress difficult to cover: the number of people in Congress; the complexity and often secretive nature of the legislative process; the lack of easily covered, predictable events. In addition, the presidency is better adapted to television than Congress because there is just one important figure to cover, the issues involved are often less complex, and the storyline is easier for people to understand.

Why negativity?

Another reason for negativity is game-frame coverage: coverage of campaigns focusing on who is winning and losing. Negative coverage sells to audiences. They are atracted to it. Also because of the negativity of political statements made by epople in office

10. What are antiauthority bias and profit bias, and how do they affect the public? (3 points)

Antiauthority bias is when a reporter questions anyone in power no matter their political beliefs. This is one explanation for why people think the media is always negative. This probably started with the Vietnam War and Watergate scandal. Some reporters also automatically distrust politicians and their reporting is sown by this. The news media are businesses and do need advertisings to survive. The goal is to get many viewers so that they can stay in business. However, this also means that news organizations choose certain stories to attract audience members. This can be called profit bias. Sometimes news isn't based off of how newsworthy it is, but instead how many people it can attract (Political Bias, paragraphs 13 and 14).

Authority-Disorder Bias:

Authority disorder bias refers to the act of reporting the news so that stories are focusing on the restoration of authority in society, rather than on other issues that could be just as worthwhile.

4. Give an example of a case in which division among members of the Court sparked public debate about its decision. (2 points)

Bakke v. Regents of the University of California was a case where the justices were extremely divided. There were seven different opinions. This made it difficult for reporters to follow and report on. It sparked debate as to how complex this should be. The courts showed however that they didn't care about reporters understanding. (Decisions).

11. According to the Graber book, how does the existence of more media outlets make it more difficult for congressional leaders to muffle dissident members and make it more difficult to reach legislative compromises? (2 points)

Because there is such a high number of journalists, congressmen and women are more likely to send out press releases. This makes everyone share their own opinion in their own words to the public, and can stop the majority from actually getting stuff done. At this point it is easier for the minority's point of view to gain attention and disrupt policy making (Writing Stories about Congress: page 201).

13. What does Justice Stephen Breyer ask people to do when they think about Supreme Court decisions? (2 points)

Breyer wants people to remember that even when we disagree with them, we are all human. He also asks people to read how the judicial branch can help them as a person. (Decisions).

13. What is the difference between causality and correlation? (2 points)

Causality is when one thing affects a change in other thing. One thing causes another thing to happen. These items are specifically related to each other. Correlation on the other hand is when two things occur at the same time, but did not happen because of each other. These events were not dependent on each other. Many times reporters can get confused between the two and mislead people (Experimental Research).

Other Selective Exposure Theories: 282

Cognitive balance theories say people avoid information that disturbs the peace of mind. They don't like being questioned We have lots of choices now: Problems There are niche programming for the political arena Ppl can avoid news content all together

The Media and Congress:

Congress fares worse than the presidency. There are too many of them. They don't attract as much media attention. There are so many meetings. No individual can command nationwide attention because no one can speak for all of Congress. Coverage usually focuses on final action after the shape of the legislation is already firm.

What effect do the media have on voter turnout and voters' attitudes about politics and politicians?

Evidence suggests that the media make people feel more negative about the political process because so much of what is reported is negative in nature. Voter turnout seems to be similarly affected by the media, especially television. People seem to be less community minded, preferring to spend their time in solitary activities such as watching television, and one side effect of this is that they are less likely to participate in politics. To borrow a phrase from Robert Putnam's Bowling Alone, they are less civically engaged.

In what ways does public opinion affect the behavior of the justices on the Supreme Court?

First, the justices may make or revise decisions to reflect what they think the public demands, as in Lawrence v. Texas. Conversely, they may make a point of sticking firmly to precedent to demonstrate that the Court does not change with the winds of public opinion. Finally, they will take account of public opinion if they think that defying the public might give the other branches of government license to encroach on their authority, as was the case with the court-packing plan of FDR.

According to Ryfe, what was President Wilson's reason for creating the modern press conference? How did the press perform at these events, and what was Wilson's response?

For Wilson, the press conferences were an efficient way of dealing with reporters who monitored his every move and stood ready to ask him questions at every free moment. For reporters, they were an institution of great symbolic importance. Wilson asked the journalists to go into a "partnership" with him, to "tell Washington what the country is thinking" rather than telling the "country what Washington is thinking." gs (Barry, 1924; Kerney, 1926; Lowry, 1921; Thompson, 1970). According to their descriptions, Wilson was "cold," "shy," and "aloof" during these meetings; to them, he seemed to take on the role of professor to his students rather than approach them as one professional to others.

What did Walter Lippmann assume must be true about the news media as early as the 1920s? (1 point)

He assumed that the media has influence over what people think because they decide what stories are covered. If the media decides not to cover a certain topic, then people won't know about it since most people get their information through the news (commentary section, first paragraph).

5. What were Hovland's two main discoveries in his study of the impact of propaganda films? (2 points)

He found that the effectiveness of a film depends on the expertise of sources, the setting someone is receiving the information and the quality of the information. These factors can change how well someone responds to the message given. The second discovery is that people can disregard a source at first for its credibility, but over time they begin to acknowledge the source may have some validity (Hovland and "Message Learning Theory").

In what sense was Richard Nixon the television President?

He inaugurated many new techniques for dealing with the media, primarily finding ways to control the flow of news from the White House, trying to eliminate the interference of reporters as much as possible. Every president since Nixon has followed these basic techniques.

1. 7. While JFK may be considered the first television president, in what sense was Richard Nixon the television president? (1 point)

He inaugurated many new techniques for dealing with the media, primarily finding ways to control the flow of news from the White House, trying to eliminate the interference of reporters as much as possible. Every president since Nixon has followed these basic techniques. (apparently not this answer:)Richard Nixon was the television president in the sense that he always went on night talk shows and daily shows that many Americans enjoyed watching. He became a very relatable man. He would show up on comedy shows and brought politics into it. This paved a pathway for other presidents to do the same thing (Richard Nixon: The Television President).

6. What does Richard Neustadt say is a president's chief power? What is political capital, and how does Neustadt suggest a popular president might use his political capital? (3 points)

He says a president's chief power is bargaining, and a president isn't able to do that as much without bargaining. Neustadt knew the president had to bargain with the public. However, when a president bargains with the public, he or she loses the ability to bargain with members of Congress. It is just as important to bargain with Congress and others. (Going Public: A strategic dilemma).

1. 11. Gerald Ford was the first president to do what? (2 points)

He was the first president to be on the television program Saturday Night Live. He tried to participate in many skits, but apparently it did not turn out well at all. It was some of the raunchiest skits yet (Gerald Ford).

1. 4. What made radio America's first national medium, and how did Franklin Delano Roosevelt use it? (2 points)

He was the first president to truly "go public" and speak directly to the people. He used his "fireside chats" to have a relationship with the people. When there was a crisis, FDR used radio to comfort people and let them know he was there. He convinced people that he had the right ideas (Franklin Delano Roosevelt).

1. 5. Why is John F. Kennedy referred to as the first "television president"? (1 point)

He was the first to fully appreciate television and the impact it has on people. He understood the importance of stage presence to promote his image. He tried to appeal to the audience like a family and one of them (Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy).

1. 6. Before he was elected president, what did Richard Nixon do, on multiple occasions, that no one had done before? (1 point)

He went on television to confront the speculations and allegations about him. This is called the "Checkers" speech. He would appear on popular television shows to try and connect with the people. Nixon became relatable. He also did town hall meetings. They broadcasted live questions from an audience, and they would answer it on the spot. This allowed Nixon to take charge of what the media said about him (Richard Nixon: The Television President).

1. 2. How did Theodore Roosevelt treat the press as president? What did he mean when he called the presidency a "bully pulpit"? (2 points)

He would allow them special access into places like the Oval Office. However, if he didn't like what they wrote, he would revoke their licenses. This was one way to have control over the media and coverage. Bully pulpit meant the presidency was a good place to promote his agenda (Theodore Roosevelt: paragraphs 4 and 5).

10. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg has recently taken to making public statements of her opinions about cases the Court has decided. Why do you think she is doing this? Give an example of a case on which she has commented. (2 points)

I think she is doing this because she is letting her personal opinion get in the way. She is also doing it because she is one of the few women on the court. She spoke out in the Hobby Lobby decision on whether or not they are required to provide contraceptives (Public Opinion).

5. In what ways does public opinion affect the behavior of the justices on the Supreme Court? (2 points)

In Lawrence v. Texas, the court said sodomy was unconstitutional. Justice Kennedy acknowledged that people's opinions on same sex relationships has changed over time, and that it is something to recognize. At this point he was taking into consideration, and people were not happy with that.The court also looks at public opinion to see what people think of them. (Public Opinion).

Why is it difficult to measure for bias in the media? How have researchers tried to get around this difficulty?

It is difficult to measure for bias in the media because the personal biases of the researchers affect their findings. Attempts to measure for bias in an objective way include creating a score for each media outlet.

12. According to the Graber book, why are coverage of and publicity about Supreme Court decisions very important? (2 points)

It is important because it informs officials on all government levels and the public about the law. It discusses how this will affect controversial issues. (Impact of Coverage: page 213). It also helps show the quality of public justice when dealing with crime (News about Crime and the Justice System: page 216).

6. What is the court case that allowed cameras into state courts? What reason did Chief Justice Burger cite for the Court's decision? (2 points)

It was Chandler v. Florida that opened the doors for cameras to be allowed in state courts. Justice Burger said cameras in the courtroom would not get in the way of a fair trial (Media Coverage of the court).

Why does Samuel Kernell believe that going public has a negative effect on the policy-making process?

Kernell argues that going public hardens peoples' bargaining positions because once they speak out, they feel they can't go back without appearing weak. This makes compromise much less likely, meaning that problems that need attention might not be addressed. It also oversimplifies issues for the public, which leads to oversimplified policy.

8. Why does political scientist Samuel Kernell believe that going public has a negative effect on the policy-making process? (2 points)

Kernell believes that going public for the president is very negative. He says when a president goes public, it forces politicians to do the same. Politicians then have to try and simplify policies for people, but the policies can be very complicated. They then lose their bargaining power behind the scenes. Then everyone has to take a public position on the issue and no one wants to be seen as backing down. Too many politicians are going public and it is difficult to bargain now. (Going Public: a strategic dilemma.

2. Why do Lazarsfeld and Berelson say that the news media have minimal effects on people's political beliefs? How does the two-step flow of communication figure into their theory? (2 points)

Lazarsfeld and Berelson say the news media doesn't change someone's beliefs, but actually reinforces them instead. The researchers concluded that it isn't the media changing opinions, but the middle man between the media and the people. The two-step-flow theory plays into this. This theory shows that ideas from the media flow to opinion leaders, which then disperse the information to the public. So whoever the public hangs around, that is where they will get their spin on the media ("Minimal Effects" first and second paragraphs).

Structural Problems in the Coverage of Congress

Numbers:It is easy to focus on the president, whereas there are many members of Congress. It is true that there are a few leaders of Congress, such as the majority and minority leaders in both the House and the Senate, but since other members are always speaking out, sometimes conflicting with what their leaders say, it is difficult for the press to find a consistent message to report. Complexity: There are many channels of action within Congress, and much can be occurring at the same time. Congress does most of its work in committees; there are several dozen House and Senate committees. If you have ever watched C-SPAN, you have no doubt noticed that there are hardly ever more than a handful of senators or representatives in the Senate and House chambers. That is because they are usually meeting in committees and subcommittees, which is where the real job of writing legislation takes place. A reporter who is writing a story about a piece of legislation may have to track down several different sources who are meeting in different venues. Unpredictability: Remember that news outlets prefer news that is predictable and that can be planned for. News is more likely to be predictable when it focuses on the activities of one person, such as a presidential press conference or major presidential speech. When there are 535 free agents to cover, there is much less predictability. Once in a while, the majority and minority leaders will hold a press conference and try to capture the attention of the media, but these events are held less frequently—and less predictably—than presidential events.

Adult Socialization- page 278- review later

Once people form basic attitudes toward the political system it usually stays the same.

Which two major aspects of courts make them difficult for the press to cover?

One aspect is the nature of the courts. Legal decisions are complex, and it is often difficult for reporters to know what they mean. Cases are often impossible to explain in the short format that dominates journalism today. Another aspect is the behavior of judges who don't give interviews or help make their decisions easier to understand.

Orchestrating Coverage:

Pace and arrange work schedules for favorable media coverage. They create newsworthy events. Staging public ceremonies.

7. According to the Graber book, what is "partisan selective exposure," and why should we worry about it? (2 points)

Partisan selective exposure is defined as "the motivated selection of pro-attitudinal messages and the motivated avoidance of counter-attitudinal messages." People will choose television, radio and newspaper news outlets based off of their political preferences. However, this is not the case with social media. There is more of a mix of different ideas that are different from another person's on social media. People are exposed to ideas that don't match up completely when it is coming from social media (Partisan Selective Exposure, page 283).

Adoption of Changes: Mass media campaigns have changed people's attitudes. Here is the process.

People must become aware of the possibility to change Understanding how to accomplish the suggested changes Evaluation Trial Adoption

Childhood Socialization

Pol. socialization starts in childhood. School: children learn about new facts about the world. Children's brains meant to learn. Changes as to why mass media influences socialization now: use to be that only teachers and family affected it. Early research excluded indirect media influence... teachers look at the news and then teach the kids. Research designs now more sophisticated

4. Why are members of Congress more independent today than they were several decades ago? (2 points)

Politicians are having to constantly campaign throughout the year. This weakens the political parties and makes it very candidate centered. Individual politicians need to make sure their constituents know who they are, so they may stray away from usual party lines to do that. (Structural Problems in the Coverage of Congress).

Institutional Settings:

President can shape media through appointments to the FCC and other agencies with media regulation. Can control financial lifelines through the Office of Management and Budget. Antitrust Division can challenge mergers.

Psychic Mobility:

Psychic Mobility: Thought that using the media could bring industrialization and better socializations after WWII.

Psychological Barriers to Modernization: P

Psychological Barriers to Modernization: Psychological and physical obstacles stop people from changing after long-established patterns. Mass media tries to condemn lifestyles.

What new forms of media were becoming dominant in America when Franklin Delano Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy were president? How did each man make innovative use of these mediums?

Radio for FDR—it was the first medium that allowed the president to speak to the entire country at one time. Roosevelt used it to speak directly to the American people and avoid his critics in the print media who didn't like his New Deal programs and, later, to speak directly to the people to reassure them about the war. Television for JFK—he can be seen as the first television president because he had an intimate understanding of the power of television. He knew that it mattered how you presented yourself when you appeared on television. That understanding led him to success in the televised debates he held with Richard Nixon in 1960. He was the first president to give live press conferences on television, and he came across as very engaging.

1. 14. How did President Reagan use the "going public" concept to get Congress to pass his Tax Reform Act? (1 point)

Reagan would allow officials to give statements to reporters without naming who said it, and then see the reaction. The president could take credit if the reaction was good or do the opposite. This was one way to go public. The administration was able to get their message out and use it as a way to bargain with Congress to pass the tax reform act (Ronald Reagan).

9. Why do researchers take special steps to try to look for political bias in an objective way? Give an example of an attempt at objective political bias research. (2 points)

Researchers notice that someone is going to look at a news outlet and determine if it is biased or not based on their own biases. Because of this, researchers took different quotes from liberal and conservative think tanks and created their own scoring system (Political Bias).

8. What is Justice Antonin Scalia's argument against having cameras in the courtroom? (2 points)

Scalia says if we allow cameras in the courtroom, television would only allow 15 seconds to be previewed. He says this would take away the other hundreds of steps and thoughts into making this decision. It would not provide the correct context as to what the court does. (Media Coverage of the Court).

12. What is "soft news" and what did research Markus Prior find with regard to its ability to inform people about politics? (2 points)

Soft news is another word for entertainment. This can include 'Entertainment Tonight' and 'The Daily Show'. Markus Prior found that there is not a benefit to these shows when it comes to becoming informed in the political process. He said people won't be informed because they choose to watch entertainment over information (Learning about Politics).

3. Why do Supreme Court justices sometimes attempt to make their decisions unanimous and easily understood? Name two cases as examples. (2 points)

Supreme Court justices want their decisions to be understood so people can accept it. For instance in Brown v. Board of Education, the chief justice wanted the opinion to be short and clear. He also pressured all of the Justices on the court to agree with it so there could be acceptance. It was also a way to avoid segregation. United States v. Nixon is another example of unanimity that helped people accept the supreme court's decision. (Decisions).

2. What strategy have recent Supreme Court nominees used to avoid trouble during the confirmation process? (2 points)

Supreme Court nominees have avoided saying their political beliefs and how they would vote on controversial issues. They would say they will have an open mind and apply the law correctly. This was one way to avoid controversy (The appointment Process).

3. Why is television better adapted to covering the presidency than to covering Congress? (2 points)

Television is very fast-paced and easy to cover and get soundbites from. It is easier to get a television story when you only get to go through a few sources instead of 500 to get a story (A presidency- centered government).

2. What does it mean to say that American political culture became more presidency centered throughout the twentieth century? How did this transition occur? (2 points)

The American political culture is more presidency centered ever since the presidency became more powerful. Starting with the New Deal programs, the presidential powers increased dramatically. People were paying more attention to it. There were many more government programs (A presidency- Centered Government).

9. How does the Social Security case study reflect the problems Kernell sees with going public? (2 points)

The President made it a priority to have social security form. He went around the country campaigning for it and opening town halls for people. Democrats were not happy with the election and they came together and stuck with talking points to change the President's message. Because there was a war between the president and democrats, republicans were eventually forced to join the debate. At this point, many interest groups started joining and lobbying in. The American people weren't buying everything Bush had to say. Republicans weren't enthusiastic, so it ended up going in the dumps. Bush was pressuring his members of Congress to do that. (Going Public: a strategic dilemma).

1. Briefly discuss the characteristics of Congress as an institution that make it more difficult to cover than the presidency. (2 points)

The White House is fast paced compared to congress which is slow. Television is all about being fast and quick, so the executive branch attracts reporters. There are so many people talking in Congress, that it is difficult to cover. It is easier to follow just the president and cover what he says. Congress is also very complex. There are several different channels to get to congress, making it time consuming to talk with people. The president is more predictable to cover. It is difficult when there are 535 agents to cover and we aren't sure who to cover (Structural Problems in the Coverage of Congress).

11. According to the Graber book, Walter Lippmann used an analogy to describe the news media and their coverage of politics. What is the analogy and what does it mean? (2 points)

The analogy is that journalist are like a beam of light, bringing something to attention and then quickly moving away from it. He says the media isn't a mirror, or a reflection on society like people thought. Lippman noted that we can't fix the world with just that small spotlight. They can't govern society with those small eruptions and incidents. (Media Covering the Justice System and State and Local News: page 211).

14. There are two disadvantages of using surveys when conducting media effects research. What are they? (2 points)

The first disadvantage is that surveys do not measure a population precisely all the time. There are estimates which can make information to be completely inaccurate. The second disadvantage is that the researcher can't tell the causation for a specific answer. The researcher won't know why someone chose to answer a survey the way they did (Survey Research).

5. How do freshmen members of Congress behave differently today than they did several decades ago? Give two examples of freshmen who have behaved this way. (2 points)

The freshman members of Congress in the past spent time learning the rules of how it works as a congressman. This time period was called apprenticeship. However, now freshman tend to seek media attention. In the past they didn't, but now they do because they are preparing for re- election. (How television has changed congress).

1. 13. What tactics did Michael Deaver use in the media strategy he designed for President Reagan? (2 points)

The media strategy was to keep Reagan's messages simple and concise for the American people. He also depended on rallying the American people. He had a strong personality and put on a strong face to encourage the American people. People began to admire him and have faith in the U.S. economy, when maybe there wasn't anything to have faith in. Michael Deaver understood what impressed the American people and he wanted people to see Ronald Reagan's body. Reagan was put in front of impressive backgrounds like a funeral or working on the land. Deaver had the news media distracted by these little stories because he could see how lazy the press was (Ronald Reagan).

10. How do people tend to rate Congress as an institution, as opposed to how they tend to rate their individual members? What is the explanation for this? (2 points)

The media tends to paint Congress as an institution as corrupt, petty, or selfish. Most of the stories focus on deadlocks and unwilling members to compromise. However, polls show people rate their own representatives and senators higher. They seem to have a more positive view of their legislators. These members can focus on local media in their states and gain great attention that way. (Going Public: a strategic dilemma).

1. 10. According to the Graber book, why is the negative feeling presidents' have for the news media readily understandable? (2 points)

The news media and executive branch have different goals. This is why a president's feelings towards the media are understandable. The media automatically looks for something wrong with the executive branch. People like drama and pay for drama, so news outlets look for this. They are going to ask the president tough questions and pin him/her down when need be. This is why the president has tough feelings toward the media. The president has an agenda that he/she believes will help people (The Adversarial Relationship: pages 174-175).

12. According to the Graber book, the functions which Congress performs for the national media, and which the national media perform for Congress are similar to the press-presidency relationship. However, neither the press nor the Congress serve each other as much as the press and presidency serve each other. Why is this? (2 points)

The news media doesn't necessarily need every single representative or senator's favor. They are able to alienate a congressperson and still receive congressional news. Legislators can do the same thing. They can avoid a lot of national media and just focus on the media in their own districts. (Functions of Media: page 202).

1. 15. According to the Graber book, why does indirect transmission, the framing of news presentations by media personnel, lie at the heart of the tensions between media and government? (1 point)

The news media is able to pick and choose what is being covered. There is a lot of information out there and it can be difficult to cover all of it. While the president wants to convey positive news, journalists are looking for the negative spin. They look for conflict or potential conflict in stories. Many times the news media has time constraints, so they will pick which words from the speech to broadcast. They could take sentences out of context to make it work for the newscasts (Direct and Mediated Transmission: page 180).

1. 9. According to the Graber book, the news media serve four main functions for members of the executive branch. What are two of these functions? (2 points)

The news media provides a way for the executive branch to speak to the political elites. There aren't efficient political channels for these two groups of people to speak with each other. However, when the media presents information on the executive branch, other politicians and lobbyists are paying attention. They receive the messages the president is conveying. The media also keeps the executive branch up to date with the concerns of the public. The media is supposed to share the concerns every day people have in the world. Politicians pay attention to this because they want to benefit their constituents and voters. The news media is supposedly staying in touch with what is outside the government. This helps government officials create policy for the American people (The media and the executive branch: pages 176-177).

1. 12. According to the Graber book, there are four common approaches presidents use to try to control the tone and substance of the news. What are two of these tactics? (2 points)

The president will try to shape the news flow. They do this by strategizing the commentary of the president. One method is to spread out the flow of news releases. This allows a steady flow of the president's message to be communicated to the public. The president can also wait to provide certain information until they know it is almost too late for publishing time. The president will also have certain events and speeches that they know will generate great news coverage. They will stage public ceremonies and change around their work schedules because the media will cover it. This provides the president with good news coverage (Presidential Communication Strategies: 184-186).

8. According to the Graber book, there are two major effects of the various kinds of biases they discuss in Chapter Twelve. What are these two major effects? (2 points)

There are several biases that affect how news is presented today. One of the major biases is personalization bias. This bias is when the media focuses and personalizing the news or telling a person's story. It works well to captivate someone's attention, but fails to cover the important questions surrounding these issues. It will discuss someone's story, but won't ask about the legal aspects of the constitutionality of something. This can lead to viewers focusing only on emotion and not some of the important issues. Dramatization is the other type of bias. This bias is when a headline may talk about Republicans facing gridlock, but the headline doesn't just say 'More votes needed to pass health care'. Journalists can sometimes turn this into a 'drama' and make people focus on the politics instead of the important issues like what the health care bill was. The effects of this bias is that people are ill-informed and and don't share the more pressing issues. These different biases can be negative and make people not want to participate in the political process or pay attention to the news (Informational Biases section).

9. Why are many court decisions ambiguous? What effect does this have on reporters' ability to cover decisions? (2 points)

They are ambiguous because these decisions aren't necessarily creating policy. They are making a decision on if something is unconstitutional, and they won't know how it affects policy. Because of this it is difficult for reporters to condense rulings into 60 seconds for readers to understand. An example of this is when the court said in Brown II that segregation must be eliminated with "all deliberate speed." This is an oxymoron because they didn't know how to get rid of segregation and didn't want to make that decision (Nature of the Courts).

Why did early researchers conclude the media had little or no effect on peoples' political views?

They didn't find any effects in their research. They found that people were more likely to be influenced by whom they talked to and by their party identification.

The media perform four major functions for government executives:

They inform them about current events Developments of other parts of government. Sets the scene for policy making. When the media highlights something, executive action follows. Media keeps executive branch officials attuned to the public's major concerns. They report on public opinion (directly) and (indirectly) feature stories likely to shape public opinion. Officials think the news media is covering and staying in touch with what the people are thinking. It enables executives to convey messages to the general public and political elites within and outside the government. There isn't an effective system for executives to speak with political elites, so the media becomes very important. It allows chief executives to remain in full public view on the political stage: they are always on display. There is always commentary about the daily routines. There are human interest stories to make them more personable to the people. People can try and trust their leaders more. But then they also show their human flaws.

7. What is the main argument presented for allowing cameras into federal courtrooms? (2 points)

Those who argue that the courts are policy-making bodies suggest that federal judges need more democratic accountability. If federal judges are, in essence, making laws when they make decisions, shouldn't they be as accountable to the public as our elected officials are? In a related line of argument, others insist that cameras should be allowed on First Amendment grounds. Attorneys for the media often try to force the courts to open their doors to television cameras using this argument. How can the press do its job, they ask, if it is not given access?

What does Jeff Tulis mean when he says that Americans have had two constitutional presidencies? What are the obligations of presidents in the era of the rhetorical presidency?

Tulis means that the presidency has changed and this has changed the separation-of-powers arrangement. During the first constitutional presidency, in the nineteenth century, people frowned on the idea of presidents speaking out about policy. In the second constitutional presidency, presidents are expected to speak out. Their obligations include defending themselves publicly, promoting policy initiatives, and inspiring the American people.

What are some reasons people give for keeping cameras out of federal courtrooms? Why do some people say they should be allowed in?

Two reasons are typically given for keeping cameras out. First, they might disrupt or bias courtroom proceedings. Second, the courts should be above the regular political routine, and allowing cameras in might pull the courts into the fray. The argument in favor of cameras is that courts make public policy and therefore should be more accountable to the public.

1. 1. Define the following in terms of presidents: bargaining, going public, and political capital. (3 points)

Usually presidents have an agenda, but not everyone agrees with it. In order for the president to achieve what he wants, many times he will have to negotiate with people in different parties to get what he wants and please them. This is called bargaining. Usually it is done behind the scenes where politicians can change their stance while not upsetting their constituents. Presidents also desire for the public to support their initiatives. They will have rallies, town halls, interviews and speeches to gather support. This is also called 'going public'. On similar grounds, sometimes the president doesn't want to use bargaining, so he will go directly to the public to gain their support. If the public likes his ideas, he can pressure congress to go along with them. The public's approval provides political capital that he can use to get congress on the president's side (Commentary: paragraphs 1-3).

1. At what stage of their careers do federal judges receive the most public attention? (1 point)

When a judge is appointed and going through the nomination process, especially to the Supreme Court, that is when they garner the most attention.This can mean bad or good attention. (The appointment Process).

Direct transmission:

allows government officials to convey their messages with a minimum of media shaping. This includes broadcasting to the entire state. News conferences being broadcasted live.

Personalization bias:

human interest side than the policy side. Same-sex marriage ruling.

First trend:

more news critical of government, politicians and policies. Fewer stories on substantive issues.

Winning favor:

presidents offer good story material and occasional scoops to individual reporters. Presidents may threaten reporters to keep them in line or withdraw their privileges.

Fragmentation bias:

related stories told in a way that isolates them from each other. Stories about family's mortgage problems didn't include other information about how the mortgage market infrastructure works. Episodic coverage.

Indirect or mediated transmission:

the framing of news presentations by media personnel. This is the heart of the tensions because it allows journalists to pick among the facts given to them. An official's statements are routinely condensed into a brief, one or two sentence quotation. And then it is constructed by journalists to match their goals. Sound bites are very short.

Presidential Websites:

they can upload their own videos and images and try to control what is out there. People can ask questions through here. You can send releases through here and use social media to update the public. You can set the narrative.

Shaping the news flow:

they do this through their commentary and controlling contacts with the press. Presidents space out news releases to have a steady flow of news. Withholding advance notice of speeches until later. News industry doesn't have as much money as they used to. White House can now rebuttal through their own media platforms.

Alternative press:

narrow on issues of interest to people representing minority political culture.

Dramatization

news organizations strive to emphasize the most dramatic elements of a story as opposed to providing contextualized details about an event or issue. Headlines talking about republican 'revolts' instead of the issues at hand.

What problems are caused by media inaccuracy in a representative democracy such as ours?

Media inaccuracy gives people incorrect information about politics and politicians. Since we have a representative democracy in which we elect our leaders, we run the risk of making bad decisions when we have bad information.

Umbrella competition patterns

Metropolitan dailies: provide amounts of international and regional coverage Small satellite dailies: more local news Suburban dailies Weekly newspapers which are free A lot of local news doesn't provide in depth details.

Attack journalism:

newspeople bully politicians into commenting on something. Some focus on their personal lives. This can hurt public figures. This makes other people not want to run for political office. There isn't as much respect for the news profession.

Patterns in Socialization

Different genders and ages watch different types of media. The bulk of the media is similar throughout the country

Backgrounders:

off-the-record news conferences. They get background information but need to keep it a secret. These are a safe way to test the waters without putting their name out there.

Does it appear more or less likely now that cameras will be present in federal courtrooms? Why?

More likely. There is significant pressure for it in Congress. Justices have become more media friendly and, while several still seem hesitant, it also seems as though they are less resistant, as a group, than they used to be.

Main argument for not allowing cameras in the courtroom.

The Justices' only power is that what they say is correct. To keep this power, they don't allow television cameras because tv can distort what is said. The courts don't want their words to be twisted or get involved in politics (Media Coverage of the Court).

Second:

audiences more frequently encounter a journalistic tone of cynicism and negativity in political news coverage. Sometimes people talk more about what journalists are saying about something than what the politician is saying about an issue.

4. What is priming? (1 point)

As defined in the commentary, priming is when the news media isolates particular issues and uses the development in those issues to judge how well a politician is doing (Priming section).

11. Why is media inaccuracy a problem in a representative democracy such as ours? (1 point)

For the political process to accurately work, it is necessary citizens are informed. Since people get most of their information from the news media, there needs to be accurate reporting. If not, this can affect the political process. If the outlook on the news is negative, then people may have less faith in the political process, therefore hurting the democratic system setup (Political Bias, paragraph 16).

Covering the state:

Reporting has turned away from just local problems and has turned into a more generalized topic of interest.

Uses and Gratification Theories

They say that individuals ignore personally irrelevant and unattractively presented messages. They look for emotionally gratifying stories. Ppl use the media to reinforce ideas, reduce loneliness. People ignore certain news outlets because it isn't geared towards their major concerns. People select news depending on their lifestyle. Are they working all the time or retired?

1. 3. What did President Wilson expect from the press, and how did the press respond? (2 points)

Wilson started press conferences and trying to cultivate a relationship with the press. Wilson used this to promote his agenda, however, he realized that the press didn't have the same goals he did, so there was tension (Woodrow Wilson).

Presidential Communication Strategies: 184-186

Winning favor, shaping the news flow, orchestrating coverage, presidential websites.