poly sci final for ever

California Air Resources Board

( CARB) program implemented from 2012 for 15% reduction by 2020. Applies to large industrial sources responsible for 85 percent of emissions. 2013: Utilities, industrial facilities. 2015: Transportation and fuels.

Clean Development Mechanism

(CDM) Credits for Annex I countries for GHG reduction project in non-annex I countries. The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy certified emission reduction units (CERs) or carbon credit and to invest in emission reductions where it is cheapest globally.

cost-benefit analysis

estimates and totals up the equivalent money value of the benefits and costs to the community of projects to establish whether they are worthwhile. These projects may be dams and highways or can be training programs and health care systems. Ex: So, let's assume that the Stern Report estimate of "20 percent of global GDP per year in damage" is the high end projection of climate change disaster. On the lower end, the financial cost of Hurricane Sandy in 2012 was $65 billion dollars and the recent Midwest/Plains drought is estimated at $35 billion. If these extreme weather-induced events become a "way of life" as stated by Michio Kaku, Lord Stern, and others, then the financial risks of climate change will far exceed the trillions of dollars produced by the U.S. energy sector

free rider

problem is a market failure that occurs when people take advantage of being able to use a common resource, or collective good, without paying for it, as is the case when citizens of a country utilize public goods without paying their fair share in taxes.

Precautionary principle

• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992, signed by 160 countries): [The parties agree to] take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing such measures, taking into account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global be mnefits at the lowest possible cost. • Rationale for preferring this principle to CBA? ◦ Low probability but catastrophic events (collapse of ice shelf, gigantic methane release) to be prevented without regard to cost ◦ Irreversibility of species loss, ecosystem damage ◦ Delayed impacts and uncertainty lead to discounting (devaluation) of eventual costs ◦ Difficulty of accounting for non-market costs

allowance allocation:

1. Part of HR 2454 compromise— American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 2. Basically the question of how GHG emission allowances should be allocated between (companies?) 3. Allowances for programs such as cap and trade and how they are dispersed among a variety of groups 4. There are two major approaches to allocation: Giving allowances away freely or auctioning them 5. In 2012, 85% given away, 15% auctioned; by 2030, mostly auctioned

Green Climate Fund

1. The Green Climate Fund is a fund established within the framework of the UNFCCC to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change

OPEC

1. is an intergovernmental organization of 14 nations as of May 2017, founded in 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela), and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna. As of 2016, the 14 countries accounted for an estimated 44 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world's "proven" oil reserves, giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices that were previously determined by American-dominated multinational oil companies. 2. Stands for: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 3. mission is "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry

Arnold Schwarzenegger:

A Republican, he served two terms as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 to 2011. On September 27, 2006, Schwarzenegger signed the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, creating the nation's first cap on greenhouse gas emissions. The law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities, refineries and manufacturing plants can release into the atmosphere. Schwarzenegger also signed a second global warming bill that prohibits large utilities and corporations in California from making long-term contracts with suppliers who do not meet the state's greenhouse gas emission standards. The two bills are part of a plan to reduce California's emissions by 25 percent to 1990s levels by 2020. In 2005, Schwarzenegger issued an executive order calling to reduce greenhouse gases to 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050. Schwarzenegger signed another executive order on October 17, 2006, allowing California to work with the Northeast's Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. They plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states. Any power plants that exceed emissions for their amount of carbon credits will have to purchase more credits to cover the difference. The plan took effect in 2009. In 2011, Schwarzenegger founded the R20 Regions of Climate Action to develop a sustainable, low carbon economy. R20 is a coalition of sub-national governments, private companies, international organizations, NGOs, and academic & financial institutions. Its mission is to help sub-national governments to implement low-carbon and climate-resilient projects, as well as to share best practices in renewable energy and energy efficiency in order to build a "green economy". This NGO operates at the sub-national level as R20 believes sub-national governments constitute a powerful force for change and are best positioned to take action & implement green projects. Through this bottom-up approach, successful sub-national projects will be scaled-up to national and international levels to achieve a broader, global impact.

carbon sink

A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration.

Copenhagen Accord

A nonbinding agreement for limiting global warming to 2 degrees C. A national monitoring committee of GHGs but subject to international verification of reductions of GHGs. Developed countries commitment of 30 billion yearly to 2012 and 100 billion yearly by 2020. Also, 2020 targets submitted by each country.

Durban Platform

A treaty was not established, but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015, which was to take effect in 2020. To include financing, technology, and adaptation.

fair sharer

All countries must accept responsibility for meeting at least their fair share of the global effort to tackle climate change. Some countries have much higher capacity to act than others, due to their higher income and wealth, level of development and access to technologies. Some countries have already emitted a great deal for a long time, and thrive from the infrastructure and institutions they have been able to set up because of this. The operationalization of equity and fair shares must focus on historical responsibility and capacity, which directly correspond with the core principles in the UN climate convention of 'common but differentiated responsibility—with respective capabilities' and the 'right to sustainable development'. We have assessed countries' INDCs by judging their commitments against their 'fair share' of the global mitigation effort (carbon budget) needed to maintain a minimal chance of keeping warming below 1.5°C, and a 66% chance of keeping it below 2°C. Our assessment of fair shares uses an 'equity range', which takes into account: 1. Historical responsibility, i.e. contribution to climate change in terms of cumulative emissions since an agreed date; and 2. Capacity to take climate action, using national income over what is needed to provide basic living standards as the principal indicator. Historical responsibility and capacity have been weighted equally (50/50). This approach means each country has a unique fair share that will change over time as they increase their incomes and relative proportion of accumulated emissions. Our 'equity range' uses historic responsibility start dates of 1850 and 1950, and capacity settings that are no lower than a development threshold of $7500 per person per year, in order to exclude the incomes of the poor from the calculation of national capacity. Our 'equity range' does not include a 1990 benchmark. The large volume of historical emissions from which many countries benefited during the decades of unrestricted high-carbon development prior to the UN Convention cannot be ignored from both a moral and legal standpoint. Nevertheless, we have included comparisons to a 1990 benchmark in order to show that our key findings apply even to such a benchmark.

Hydraulic fracturing

An injector that uses high pressurized water to break through impermeable rock in order to extract unconventional reservoirs of fossil fuels. Hydraulic fracturing fluid commonly consists of water, proppant and chemical additives that open and enlarge fractures within the rock formation. Controversial because it has been linked to the causation of earthquakes. Risk for ground and surface water contamination, air and noise pollution.

Jerry Brown

As 39th governor of California (also, 34th governor of California from 1975-1983), Brown holds a strong interest in environmental issues. In 1977, he sponsored the "first-ever tax incentive for rooftop solar", among many environmental initiatives. In 1975, Brown obtained the repeal of the "depletion allowance", a tax break for the state's oil industry. Currently, Governor Brown is leading the efforts against climate change, even as the federal government moves in the opposite direction. Jerry Brown has been the governor of California since 2011. Under him, California has established nation-leading targets to protect the environment and fight climate change, and by 2030 the state will: reduce greenhouse gas emissions 40 percent below 1990 levels, generate half of its electricity from renewable sources, double the rate of energy efficiency savings in its buildings and reduce today's petroleum use in cars and trucks by up to 50 percent. Brown attended COP23 November 2017 in Bonn, Germany. The California governor has fought to keep the U.S. engaged in the Paris agreement despite the U.S.'s withdrawal and has also developed a separate coalition of 187 cities, states, and other jurisdictions. The so-called Under 2 Coalition is committed to cutting carbon dioxide emissions and limiting global warming to an increase of 2 degrees Celsius. For his efforts, the German media has hailed Brown as the "anti-Trump". In his speech, Brown vowed that the U.S. will, at some point, return to the Paris accord.

carbon leakage

Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy. Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons: 1. The emissions policy of a country raises local costs, then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage. If demand for these goods remains the same, production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards, and global emissions will not be reduced. 2. Environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities, then the demand may decline and their price may fall. Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply, negating any benefit. There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects; this is important for the problem of climate change. Carbon leakage is one type of spillover effect. Spillover effects can be positive or negative; for example, emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area. Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in CO2 emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries. It is expressed as a percentage, and can be greater or less than 100%. Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns, and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade (BEET). A policy that sets a carbon tax only in developed countries might lead to leakage of emissions to developing countries.

carbon offsets:

Carbon offsets are a form of trade. When you buy an offset, you fund projects that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The projects might restore forests, update power plants and factories or increase the energy efficiency of buildings and transportation. Carbon offsets can be voluntary or used in order to comply with caps. People and businesses buy them to reduce their carbon footprints or build up their green image

carbon tax

Carbon tax is a form of pollution tax. It levies a fee on the production, distribution or use of fossil fuels based on how much carbon their combustion emits. The government sets a price per ton on carbon, then translates it into a tax on electricity, natural gas or oil. Because the tax makes using dirty fuels more expensive, it encourages utilities, businesses and individuals to reduce consumption and increase energy efficiency. Carbon tax also makes alternative energy more cost-competitive with cheaper, polluting fuels like coal, natural gas and oil

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants. CFCs are classified as halocarbons, a class of compounds that contain atoms of carbon and halogen atoms. Whereas CFCs are safe to use in most applications and are inert in the lower atmosphere, they do undergo significant reaction in the upper atmosphere or stratosphere. In 1974, two University of California chemists, Professor F. Sherwood Rowland and Dr. Mario Molina, showed that the CFCs could be a major source of inorganic chlorine in the stratosphere following their photolytic decomposition by UV radiation. In addition, some of the released chlorine would become active in destroying ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone is a trace gas located primarily in the stratosphere. Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation in the wavelengths between 280 and 320 nm of the UV-B band which can cause biological damage in plants and animals. A loss of stratospheric ozone results in more harmful UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Chlorine released from CFCs destroys ozone in catalytic reactions where 100,000 molecules of ozone can be destroyed per chlorine atom.

Byrd-Hagel Resolution

Declares that the United States should not be a signatory to any protocol to, or other agreement regarding, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992, at negotiations in Kyoto in December 1997 or thereafter which would: (1) mandate new commitments to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the Annex 1 Parties, unless the protocol or other agreement also mandates new specific scheduled commitments to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions for Developing Country Parties within the same compliance period; or (2) result in serious harm to the U.S. economy.

emissions trading

Emissions trading, or cap and trade, is a government-mandated, market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants

moral extension

Enlargement of the sphere of our ethical obligations. Examples: from family to friends to local community to nation or from human to other beings.

Kyoto flexibility mechanisms

Flexibility Mechanisms, Kyoto Mechanisms, refers to Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation. These are mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol intended to lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions targets. These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries. While the cost of limiting emissions varies considerably from region to region, the benefit for the atmosphere is in principle the same, wherever the action is taken. Much of the negotiations on the mechanisms have been concerned with ensuring their integrity. There was concern that the mechanisms do not grant a "right to emit" on Annex 1 Parties, or lead to exchanges of fictitious credits which would undermine the Protocol's environmental goals. The negotiators of the Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords therefore sought to design a system that fulfilled the cost-effectiveness promise of the mechanisms, while addressing concerns about environmental integrity and equity. To participate in the mechanisms, Annex 1 Parties must meet the following eligibility requirements: 1. They must have ratified the Kyoto Protocol. 2. They must have calculated their assigned amount, as referred to in Articles 3.7 and 3.8 and Annex B of the Protocol in terms of tonnes of CO2-equivalent emissions. 3. They must have in place a national system for estimating emissions and removals of greenhouse gases within their territory. 4. They must have in place a national registry to record and track the creation and movement of Emission Reduction Units, Certified Emission Reductions, Assigned amount units and Removal Units (RMU)s and must annually report such information to the secretariat. 5. They must annually report information on emissions and removals to the secretariat.

Montreal Protocol

Is one of the most successful and effective environmental, international treaties ever negotiated and implemented. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.

Clean Power Plan

Issued in 2105 under the Obama administration the plan would reduce emissions from power plants by 32 percent. The plan is focused on reducing emissions from coal-burning power plants, as well as increasing the use of renewable energy, and energy conservation

H.R 1582 (Energy Consumers Relief Act):

It requires that before EPA finalizes any new energy-related rules estimated to cost more than $1 billion, the agency must submit a report to Congress detailing certain cost, benefit, energy price, and job impacts, and the Secretary of Energy, in consultation with other relevant agencies, must make a determination regarding the impacts of the rule. EPA would be prohibited from finalizing certain rules if they are determined to cause significant adverse effects to the economy.

Massachusetts v. EPA

November 29, 2006 petitioners argued that the definition in the CAA is so broad that carbon dioxide must be counted as an air pollutant. They claimed that the question was controlled by the words of the statute, so that factual debate was immaterial. Furthermore, the Petitioners filed substantial scientific evidence that the toxicity of carbon dioxide results from high concentrations and that causation of global warming transforms the gas into a pollutant

H.R. 367 (Regulations from the Executive in Need of Scrutiny Act)

Passed House amended (08/02/2013), but was never passed by the Senate Regulations From the Executive in Need of Scrutiny Act of 2013 - (Sec. 2) States that the purposes of this Act are to: (1) increase accountability for and transparency in the federal regulatory process by requiring Congress to approve all new major regulations, and (2) include in the definition of "major rule" any rule that implements or provides for the imposition or collection of a tax on carbon emissions. Defines "carbon tax" as a fee, levy, or price on: (1) emissions, including carbon dioxide emissions generated by the burning of coal, natural gas, or oil; or (2) coal, natural gas, or oil based on emissions, including carbon dioxide emissions, that would be generated through the fuel's combustion. (Sec. 3) Revises provisions relating to congressional review of agency rulemaking to require a federal agency promulgating a rule to include in its report to Congress and to the Comptroller General (GAO): (1) a classification of the rule as a major or nonmajor rule; (2) a list of other regulatory actions taken by the agency or by any other federal agency that are intended to implement the same statutory provision or regulatory objective, as well as the individual and aggregate economic effects of those actions; and (3) a complete copy of any cost-benefit analysis of a rule, including an analysis of jobs added or lost, differentiating between public and private sector jobs.

renewable portfolio standard

Places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources. Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies.

REDD Agreement

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation. Fund to compensate communities for revenue lost as a result of halting deforestation. Verification, monitoring, safeguards for communities.

"loss and damage"

Refers to adverse effects of climate variability and climate change that occur despite global mitigation and local adaptation efforts. The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes. Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events (climate disasters, such as cyclones) as well as slow-onset processes (such as sea level rise). Loss and damage can occur in human systems (such as livelihoods) as well as natural systems (such as biodiversity), though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts. Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems, a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses. The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets. At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha, Qatar, it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change.

Intended Nationally Determined Contribution

Term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris, France in December 2015. These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions. The term was intended as a compromise between "quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective" (QUELROs) and "nationally appropriate mitigation actions" (NAMAs) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries. Under the Paris Agreement, adopted in December 2015, the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement, unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time. Once the Paris Agreement is ratified, the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries.

stabilization wedge

The Climate Stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton U. researchers looking at climate change mitigation scenarios. The project was funded by Ford between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000. The goal of the approach is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today's commercially available technologies to reduce CO2 emissions. The objective is to stabilize CO2 concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years, using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle. A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011, the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine. This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary, if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then. There are fifteen different wedge strategies. Regarding the specific number, Socolow says that he and Pacala didn't include all of the possibilities, but that "It was a matter of rhetoric to stop at 15." The strategies are presented in four categories: 1. Efficiency (four strategies) 2. Decarbonization of power (five strategies) 3. Decarbonization of fuel (four strategies) 4. Forest and agricultural soils (two strategies)

CAFE standards

The Corporate Average Fuel Economy are regulations in the United States, first enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, after the 1973-74 Arab Oil Embargo, to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) produced for sale in the United States. The environmental Protection Agency (EPA) calculates average fuel economy levels for manufacturers, and also sets related GHG standards.

Endangerment finding

The Endangerment Finding fulfilled the Supreme Court's mandate. In Massachusetts v. EPA (2007), the Supreme Court held that greenhouse gases are pollutants under the Clean Air Act. The Court also rejected a "laundry list" of other reasons for inaction advanced by the Bush Administration as not consistent with the relevant provisions of Clean Air Act, which require regulation when EPA finds that emissions of a pollutant endanger public health or welfare. On December 15, 2009, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) determined, based upon a careful review of the scientific record, that greenhouse gas emissions endanger the public health and welfare of current and future generations - an action that the D.C. Circuit resoundingly upheld in its June 26th ruling. The Endangerment Finding was made after an exhaustive review of climate change research and extensive public comment: The Technical Support Document supporting the Endangerment Finding references more than 100 published scientific studies and considers peer-reviewed syntheses of climate change research by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program/U.S. Global Change Research Program, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and the National Research Council of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The creation of these assessment reports involved hundreds of scientists who considered thousands of published studies on climate change, and the reports themselves were subject to extensive review by additional, independent experts. A danger to public welfare—Greenhouse gas pollution will endanger public welfare.

A.B. 32

The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, or Assembly Bill (AB) 32, is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state. AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez (D-Los Angeles) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27, 2006. On June 1, 2005, Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05, which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state. The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010, to 1990 levels by 2020, and to a level 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. However, to implement this measure, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) needed authority from the legislature. The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program. AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board (CARB or ARB) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020, representing approximately a 30% reduction statewide, with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources. The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm. The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection, but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide. Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol.

policy feedback

The Global, National, State, Local and personal that are webs of political relations that constitute governance. Policies are political forces in their own right that can alter key components of administration, including phenomena such as organizational capacity, structures, routines, authorities, motivations and cultures.

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. As of November 2017, 195 UNFCCC members have signed the agreement, and 170 have become party to it. The Agreement aims to respond to the global climate change threat by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. In the Paris Agreement, each country determines, plans, and regularly reports its own contribution it should make in order to mitigate global warming. There is no mechanism to force a country to set a specific target by a specific date, but each target should go beyond previously set targets. In June 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the United States from the agreement, causing widespread condemnation both internationally and domestically. Under the agreement, the earliest effective date of withdrawal for the U.S. is November 2020. In July 2017, France's environment minister Nicolas Hulot announced France's five-year plan to ban all petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040 as part of the Paris Agreement. Hulot also stated that France would no longer use coal to produce electricity after 2022 and that up to €4 billion will be invested in boosting energy efficiency. The contributions that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs). Article 3 requires them to be "ambitious", "represent a progression over time", and set "with the view to achieving the purpose of this Agreement". The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of 'progression'. Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve as the initial NDC. The level of NDCs set by each country will set that country's targets. However the 'contributions' themselves are not binding as a matter of international law.

Stern Review

The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen, presenting a unique challenge for economics.The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimize the economic and social disruptions. The Stern Review's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong, early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting. Developed countries will need to take on immediate and binding national emissions targets, demonstrate that they can achieve low carbon growth, and transfer resources and technologies to developing countries, before developing countries take on binding national targets of their own by 2020. By promoting reduced pollution, improved resource efficiency, and energy security, cost-effective policies can bring about a safer, cleaner, and more prosperous world without jeopardizing growth or poverty reduction. By contrast, inaction stands eventually to damage both growth and social stability

Bali roadmap

The Road Map is a set of a forward-looking decisions that represent the work that needs to be done under various negotiating "tracks" that is essential to reaching a secure climate future.

S.B. 375 (2008)

The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles.Establishes region-based planning to reduce GHGs. Targets set by region ( LA region, 8% by 2020). Planning, transportation measures (e.g. mass transit, reduction of urban sprawl.

H.R. 2454 (American Clean Energy and Security Act):

The bill was also known as the Waxman-Markey Bill. The bill proposed a cap and trade system, under which the government would set a limit (cap) on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted nationally. Companies then buy or sell permits to emit these gases, primarily carbon dioxide CO2. Other aspects: requires electric utilities to meet 20% of their electricity demand through renewable energy sources and energy efficiency by 2020. Subsidizes new clean energy technologies and energy efficiency.

Sovereignty

The final legal authority each country exercises over its territory.

S. 761 (Energy Savings and Industrial Competitiveness Act)

The intent of the bill is to spur the use of energy efficiency technologies in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors of our economy, while also fostering job creation. Part of the bill includes the development of model energy building codes. S. 761 (113th) was a bill in the United States Congress. A bill must be passed by both the House and Senate in identical form and then be signed by the President to become law. This bill was introduced in the 113th Congress on April 18, 2013, which met from Jan 3, 2013 to Jan 2, 2015. Legislation not enacted by the end of a Congress is cleared from the books—therefore, it died.

ozone hole

The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is man-made chemicals, especially man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased. Ozone depletion and the ozone hole generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals. The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.

Joe Manchin

The senior United States Senator from West Virginia, member of the Democratic Party, served as the 34th Governor of West Virginia from 2005 to 2010, and the Secretary of State of West Virginia from 2001 to 2005. Supported Trump's decision to pull out of Paris Agreement. He drew up a bill addressing, what he calls, the EPA's "overreach"—clarifying the EPA's authority. He wants to exploit shale gas and supports the Keystone XL Pipeline. He introduced the Fair Compliance Act on November 9, 2011—this would extend deadlines for utilities to comply with EPA rules. He introduced the American Alternative Fuels Act on May 10, 2011; it would remove restrictions on alternative fuel research spending and allow the government to buy alternative fuels. In 2011 Manchin was the only Democratic Senator to support the proposed Energy Tax Prevention Act, which sought to prohibit the EPA from regulating greenhouse gas.

emissions coefficient

The term 'Emissions coefficient' as it applies to the area of energy can be defined as ' A unique value for scaling emissions to activity data in terms of a standard rate of emissions per unit of activity (e.g., pounds of carbon dioxide emitted per Btu of fossil fuel consumed)'. Another example, typical vehicle emits 0.8 lbs of CO2 per mile driven.

Annex I and non-Annex I countries: Annex I:

There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the Convention, including the European Union.These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition. Annex II: Of the Parties listed in Annex I of the Convention, 24 are also listed in Annex II of the Convention, including the European Union. These Parties are made up of members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change adaptation).Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly low-income developing countries.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Voluntary agreements of major industrialized nations to reduce GHG by 2000 to 1990 levels. All nations to undertake voluntary GHG measurements and reporting. Annual meetings (conference of the Parties (COPs)) to negotiate, review progress. Now ratified by 192 countries, including the U.S.

discount rate

We have the tendency to value things in the present much more than they will be worth in the future. The rate at which the value decreases over time is what is known as the discount rate. A "social discount rate" highlights the human tendency to prefer to make money now rather than later. The discount rate is a rate used to convert future economic value into present economic value. This is realized through the mechanism of discounting. Social discount rates are problematic because over time a fixed rate will grow exponentially, which makes it unfeasible in the long-term. Discount rates of even 1-2 percent per year shift the costs of environmental degradation to later generations, and reduce incentives for long-term environmentally favourable projects. Thus, economists have a hard time justifying significant spending in the present to fight climate change. In Stern's Review, in order to invest 1% of the world's GDP to combat climate change, the social discount rate had to be set near zero.