Population and Society Exam 3

What is the Crude Birth Rate?

# of births / mid-period population * 100

How does ideational/diffusion theory explain fertility decline?

- attributes timing of fertility transition to the diffusion of info and new social norms about birth control - ideas about birth control spread along cultural and linguistic lines - once a barrier to their communication was hit, the spread of the ideas stopped

What is the Total Fertility Rate?

- average # of children that would be born alive to a woman or group during the lifetime - if she were to pass through all of her childbearing years conforming to the age-specific fertility rates of a given year

What are the major pieces of evidence used to show the SDT (second demographic transition)?

- decline in marriage rates - divorce rates - rising cohabitation rates - rising non-marital fertility

Does the reduced income of single-parent households fully account for the poor child outcomes among single parent families?

- doesn't have to do with income as much as the fam structure - high rates in probs for blended stepfamilies or blended adopted families are similar to single parent families

Which LDR region has yet to complete the fertility transition?

- eastern africa - western and central africa

What are the intercourse proximate determinants of fertility?

- factors affecting union formation/dissolution during reproductive ages - factors affecting exposure to intercourse within union

What are the conception proximate determinants of fertility?

- fecundity or infecundity (due to involuntary causes) - use or non use of contraception (mechanical/chemical, other means) - fecundity or infecundity (voluntary causes like sterilization)

How did U.S. fertility rates differ by region in the late 1800s?

- fertility rates fell earlier and faster in textile cloth producing areas compared to coal-mining areas

What are the gestation proximate determinants of fertility?

- fetal mortality from involuntary causes (perinatal mortality) - fetal mortality from voluntary causes (induced abortion)

What are the unintended consequences of the One Child Policy?

- gender imbalance -> force abortions, involuntary sterilizations, infanticide -> less aggressive treatment of sick female infants - rising dependency ratio as population ages - high female suicide rate - rise of childless parents - effect on housing market due to excess supply

What are the reasons for fertility decline in the late 1800s?

- greater opportunity for women to work = less children - decisions outside the home matter much more (quality of children become more important than quantity) - no options for women to work in coal-mining areas

The film "Demographic Winter" identifies a number of causes for below-replacement fertility. What are they?

- health advances - women becoming more successful in wp - women having children out of wedlock and at a later age - divorce rate going up -> decreases family's chances of having anymore children

What are some examples of "modern" methods of contraception?

- hormonal contraceptives - surgical sterilization - induced abortions - vaginal contraceptives - condoms - inter-urine devices - morning after pill

What is China's One Child Policy?

- implemented in 1979 - requires china's ethnic han majority to have only one child (ethnic minorities largely exempted) - rural areas are more relaxed (often 2 kids, more if no boys born) - more relaxed for couples who are only children themselves (avoid 4:2:1 problem) - * curbing population growth due to less fertility by controlling the # of children per family - changed from 1 child per family to 2 children per family (oct 2015)

What are the proximate determinants of fertility?

- intercourse - conception - gestation

What are some specific ways in which children of single-parent households fare poorly compared to those of two-parent households?

- less opportunity for supervision/attention - no role model for successful relationship - higher levels of poverty form decrease in income - higher rates of premarital pregnancy, delinquency, bad behavior in school

What did Regenerus find in their study?

- living with 2 biological parents seems to have an advantage - better long term outcomes than any other structure

How has the Chinese gov changed the One Child Policy in recent years?

- loosen policy - if 1 parent is an only child -> the couple can apply to have a 2nd - oct 2015 - ended policy

Examples of Malthusian proximate determinants

- marrying at a later age - food can only increase arithmetically - population expands to eat up any surplus - abstinence from marriage - wars, famines (misery) - use of contraception

How do total fertility rates compare between the most advanced societies and those that are slightly less developed?

- more developed countries want their populations to be able to achieve all their goals -> figure out ways to help population to balance - fertility rates are lower in MDCs - "two-speed" europe -> TFR < 1.4 (germany, southern and eastern europe) -> TFR > 1.8 (northern europe, france, great britain)

Why has TFR (total fertility rate) in the US not gone below replacement?

- more relaxed rate immigration (60% natural increase) - no stigma with non-marital childbearing - greater gender equality - more equal distribution of housework than others - cancels out lack of financial support from gov

What are some possible negative consequences to the SDT (second demographic transition) for the family?

- negative effect on children - child-parent relationships are more superficial now than in past - quality and quantity of time - children's main troubles stem from family structure/stability - 9% in 1960 to 27% in 2000 of kids living with a sing parent

What are possible positive consequences to the SDT for the family (which family function)?

- new variety in living/fam arrangements - prolong young adulthood - expansion of options for diff people/situations - old institution of marriage held women back - family is in better shape now - love is ultimate importance in family - less tolerant for bad marriages

How do longer periods of breastfeeding in a population contribute to lower fertility rates?

- no ovulation during breastfeeding and you cannot get pregnant (form of contraception or fecundity)

What are the problems with Gatrell's study?

- only a small sample - couples able to have children either through natural or adoption -> planned carefully -> economic stability -> not a representative sample

What demographer associates with the second demographic transition (SDT)?

- originally proposed in 1986 - Ron Lesthaeghe - Dirk van de Kaa

What are some reasons why single-parent households may have negative effects on children?

- poverty levels rises for those who raise kids on single income - children more likely to become delinquent

What is the Girl Care Project?

- publicity campaign to promote girls - aimed at ending pre-birth sex selection and attacking criminal behavior - financial incentives

What are the 2 major explanations for SDT (second demographic transition)?

- rising work opportunities - cultural shift (contraception development and the "population bomb" as an excuse for women that did not have children)

What are the problems with Regnerus' study?

- same sex marriage very unwelcome in 70/80s - usually born from 2 biological parents -> one parent comes out as gay -> divorce (undergo breakup of parents as a child/unstable environment) - funded by conservative religious organization

How has the SDT (second demographic transition) affected poverty rates among children?

- single parent household poverty has risen and some are even experiencing extreme poverty

Some weaknesses of the demographic transition theory

- smaller population leads to a weaker society - some countries have high birth rates, but this is due to culture/religion - does not take migration into acct - patterns contradict DTT (france still mostly rural, low education, high infant mortality rate, but less fertility) (industrial rev began in england/wales but the fertility declines did not start there first - started almost a century after it did in france)

What were Pritchett's key findings/conclusions?

- states that had family planning programs do not lower fertility - very high fertility rates in some countries only drop when couples decide they want fewer kids - development $ should be spent on education rather than fam planning - * the focus needs to be making parents desire to have less children (90% of families account for desired outcomes) - desired family size - advocated for economic development programs - economic stability causes families to have less kids and focus more on their well-being

What is the second demographic transition (SDT)?

- sustained sub-replacement fertility - multitude of living arrangements other than marriage - disconnections between marriage and procreation

What is the difference between Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR)?

- the crude birth rate is based on a certain time period - TFR is based on a woman's full life through childbearing years

Why are the Hutterites important to demographers?

- total fertility rate of 12 - highest population recorded - ex. of natural fertility - no contraception, no breastfeeding, very healthy, raised children communally

What are some possible explanations offered for why the SDT began during the 1960s?

- use of contraception - society became less concerned that babies would come from nonmarital woman - private matter than social concern

Is the SDT (second demographic transition) a uniquely Western phenomenon?

- very pervasive (widespread) - everywhere in the world but in US most

How does demographic transition (DTT) explain fertility decline?

- wealth leads to lower fertility - changes the cost of children (wealth flows are reversed) - child education becomes mandatory (no child labor) - greater interest in equality of child instead of quantity - mortality decline reduces the need for high fertility rates - development of tech erodes traditional family and increases individualism

What was the fertility transition?

- wealth, modernization, and SES development - a fertility decline - changes the cost of children - mortality decline reduces need to have high fertility rate

What are the three functions of the contemporary family?

1. emotional 2. economic - redistribution of income 3. reproductive - shift from quantity to quality

Coale's 3 preconditions for fertility decline

1. ready - fertility must be within realm of conscious calculation for most individuals 2. willing - there must be an advantage to doing so 3. able - most people must know some method to limit fertility

What is the TFR in the United States today?

1.88

How is the focus of family planning programs today different from their original formulation?

1980s - against abortion as a family planning method 1990s - focus shifts to be on women's reproductive rights, autonomy status, education, and reproductive health 2000s - support for programs faded (AIDs, one child policy)

What is the average age men get married?

28

The income inequality among: white?

32% living at poverty levels

What % of babies are born to unmarried?

40%

The income inequality among: black?

48% living at poverty levels

The income inequality among: hispanic?

50% living at poverty levels

What % of women with children younger than 3 work at least part time?

60%

Who are the Hutterites?

An anabaptist group in the Dakotas that had the highest levels of fertility *not sure* *fix*

Did most of the decline in China's fertility happen before or after the One Child Policy was implemented?

BEFORE - "longer, later, fewer" initiate implemented in 1970 -> major decline in china and decline lessened once the one child policy was implemented in 1979

Examples of policies that can improve parents' ability to balance work and family? ** add

France - longest history of pronatalist policy; variety of methods Germany & Italy (1930-40s) - strong, direct, pronatalist policy with Eugenics movement overtones Eastern Europe (1960-70s) - wide variety, heavy gov investment, limited impact

What are the effects of lesbian parent(s) on child's well-being? (Gatrell study)

Gatrell and Bos Pediatrics - did a study - got similar scores to str8 households - scored higher in some psychological measure - higher self-esteem - better academically - less likely to break the rules - bullying around age 10

What are some general patterns of TFR worldwide today? (high and low)

High - Niger: 7.52 - Uganda: 6.65 Low - Japan, Germany, Italy: 1.4 - Eastern Europe: 1.3 World TFR - 2.47

What are some examples of pronatalist policies that have been implemented by countries?

Korea - sponsoring dating parties and dating services for workers Eastern Europe - punishment/incentives to get people to have more children Romania - stopped any manufacturing of contraception and also taxed if no children by age of 25 Singapore - uses advertising to get people to have children childcare and tax subsides

What are the values of replacement-level fertility in MDCs and LDCs?

MDCs - 2.1 LDCs - 2.3

Do children of stepfamilies fare as well as children of biological two-parent families?

NO - they have high rates of similar problems to those raised by single parents

Which country was the first to legalize same-sex marriage?

Netherlands

What did the National Study of Adolescents find?

Single parent child has higher rates of: - repeated grade - suspensions - delinquency - violence - therapy - smoking - suicidal thoughts/attempts

What is the best measure to use for comparisons of fertility levels across countries?

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

What is UNFPA?

UN fund for Population Action - largest agency that focuses on population/reproductive health - involves promotion of the right of every woman, man, and child to enjoy health and equal opp - serves over 100 nations - runs on voluntary donations - established in 1969 with strong support by US

Is it possible to fecund and not be fertile?

Yes

What is unmet need for contraception?

a woman wants to delay/stop having children but its not using modern forms of contraception

When did fertility transition occur in Western Europe?

after french revolution - 1800s

What is the US "Mexico City Policy"?

all non-gov organizations (NGOs) that receive fed funding refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning with non-US gov funds in other countries - Instituted in 1984 - republicans = enact the policy whenever elected (reagan and bush) - democrats = hate it and rescind the policy whenever elected (clinton and obama)

What is the "family planning" program?

allows individuals and couples to anticipate and attain desired # of children and the spacing/timing of their births -> achieved thru contraceptive methods and treatment of involuntary fertility

What is the relationship between socioeconomic development and fecundity/fertility?

as SES (socioeconomic status) increases in a country, fertility decreases and fecundity increases (better diets, nutrition)

What is fertility?

childbearing, or the frequency with which birth occurs in the population

Which LDR experienced the fastest and steepest decline in fertility?

east asia

Which European country did not appear to follow the predictions made by the DTT (demographic transition theory)?

england/wales

T/F: divorce rates have gone up

false

What is natural fertility?

fertility that exists in absence of deliberate birth control by individual women

How does the Census define a family?

group of people related by: - blood - marriage - adoption - co-residents

Why did support for family planning programs diminish during the 1990s and 2000s?

large declines in the problems they were addressing

What does replacement-level fertility mean?

level of fertility at which a cohort of women on average have just enough daughters to replace themselves in the population

What are the generational differences in attitudes towards the SDT (second demographic transition)?

older generation - not as comfortable younger generation - liberal and comfy

Why do the values differ for MDCs and LDCs in terms of replacement-level fertility?

rates are higher in LDCs because mortality are higher

What are some examples of "traditional" methods of contraception?

rhythm method - taking temp to see if the female is ovulating (if she is - avoid sex) withdrawal from sex

The income inequality among: in poverty?

single parent 43% women 26% men

What is parity-specific control?

stopping childbearing after enough children have been born (parity = # children already born)

What is fecundity?

the biological capacity to produce a live birth

What does pronatalist mean?

the policy/practice encouraging the bearing of children, especially gov support of a higher birthrate

Why is replacement-level fertility always above 2?

they need at least 1 son born for every daughter, also a potential mother may die

T/F: the percentage of those that get married have gone down

true

What was the Matlab experiment in Bangladesh?

villages randomly assigned to treatment group received a home visit by a community health worker to provide info on contraception and basic healthcare Findings - direct effect of family planning initiatives on lowering fertility rates - over time, on avg, mothers in treatment villages had 1.5 fewer children than those in control villages