PPE 3003 Exam 2 (Ch. 6-10)

Lexical Hypothesis

A ______ is often used with the essential-trait approach, assuming that a trait that is important will have a name in every language

Hypothalamus

A complex structure near the lower center of the brain that has direct connections to many other parts of the brain and is involved in the production of psychologically important hormones; thought to be important for mood and motivation.

Drugs

A lobotomy, or removing an entire lobe of the brain, is not commonly used anymore; instead it is often replaced by the use of ______

Allele

A particular variant, or form, of a gene; most genes have two or more

Amygdala

A structure located near the base of the brain that is believed to play a role in emotion, especially negative emotions such as anger and fear.

1) Well Adjusted (adaptable, flexible, resourceful) 2) Maladjusted Over-Controlling (uptight, denies self-pleasure) 3) Maladjusted Under-Controlling (impulsive, prone to crime)

According to the typological approach, what are the 3 "types" of personalities?

Inclusive Fitness

An organism's overall ability to maximize the replication of it's genes (ability to pass on own genes)

Big 5 Personality Traits Murray's 20 "needs" Block's 2 traits - ego resilience & ego control Cattell's 16 traits

Give examples of essential-trait approach methods

Adolescent Egocentrism

Characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads them to focus on themselves:

Asked students on campus of the opposite gender if they wanted to have sex - 0% of women said yes, 75% of men said yes

Describe Clarke and Hatfield's study on short-term mating behavior

Narcissists often make good first impressions, but these impressions usually diminish after time Not all narcissism is bad and not all narcissism is a disorder (may be high in leadership, authority, charisma)

Describe the personality trait "narcissism"

Heterotypic Continuity

Differential continuity is also known as:

No - over time we may start to see certain traits that compliment each other, however this was not the original reason for attraction

Do opposites attract?

Although the traits are fairly universal, they do vary by region (e.g., in the U.S. - eastern states have more agreeable people, s.w. and s.e. states have more conscientious people, openness to experience is high in NYC, LA, San Fran, and Miami This may be due to sex differences (which also vary geographically) and differences in SES

Do the Big 5 traits vary by region?

In kin selection - helping outsiders wouldn't help with survival or reproduction

From an evolutionary standpoint, why would altruism (selfless concern for the wellbeing of others) occur?

Well-adjusted person, Maladjusted overcontrolling person, Maladjusted undercontrolling person

Evidence for what, if any, typological types are most commonly replicated in research?

40%

Heritability statistics computed from the study of MZ and DZ twins indicate that genetic variance accounts for about ______ of phenotypic variance in many personality traits

Absolute Continuity / Differential Continuity

High ______ would be a person consistently scoring high on the same measure where high ______ would be a person consistently scoring high on the same measure relative to the scores of peers

The use of certain words can be linked to personality traits such as intelligence, ambition, generosity, etc. (e.g., words like "absolutely", "exactly")

How can looking at someone's typical vocabulary provide information about themselves?

Certain events like becoming unemployed, traveling, and military training can change personality Other behaviors that change personality include: (positives) exercising, starting college; (negatives) drug use, chronic disease

How could behaviors and life experiences be used to change personality?

Not aimed at changing personality but at other important outcomes such as completing education or decreasing criminal behavior (personality may change as a result)

How could general intervention be used to change personality?

Treating depression (often results in more extraversion and less anxiety)

How could psychotherapy / psychiatric drugs be used to change personality?

Unlike general intervention, these programs are tailored to address personality traits through certain exercises E.g., to increase self-control: relaxation, meditation, set realistic goals

How could targeted intervention be used to change personality?

Men who are high in sociosexuality know their own "mate value" (good at guessing who will choose them) and women who are high in sociosexuality do not know their own "mate value" very well

How do men / women who are high in sociosexuality differ in their thinking and behaviors?

Trends: 1st born - higher achievers and higher IQ scores Younger siblings - more openness, agreeableness, extraversion Older siblings - more conscientious *IQ declines with birth order and with family size

How does birth order matter in personality?

Using math to determine which traits are measured most frequently, a long list can be simplified (e.g., development of the Big 5)

How does the factor analytic approach help determine "essential" traits?

Neither - both have strengths and weaknesses

Is it better to be a high self-monitor or a low self-monitor?

An enzyme that regulates the breakdown of neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

What is Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)?

*Denial* - refuse to believe something that may cause anxiety *Repression* - failure to acknowledge things that remind you of unwanted thoughts *Reaction Formation* - create the opposite idea to avoid anxiety *Projection*- thinking something negative about yourself is true of others instead of yourself *Rationalization* - create logical explanation that doesn't acknowledge the real problem *Intellectualization* - translate anxiety-producing thoughts into unemotional theories or jargon *Displacement* - taking out emotions in a safe way *Sublimation* - providing a safe outlet for problematic desires

List and describe Freud's defense mechanisms

Sensation seeking, extraversion, and criminal behavior

Low levels of MAO in the blood, which allows higher levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin to build up, is associated with:

Epigenetics

Non-genetic influences on a gene's expression, such as stress, nutrition, and so forth

Neuroticism / Agreeableness

Of the Big 5 traits, people tend to want to change their ______ the most and want to change their ______ the least

Anger Superiority Effect

Recognizing anger faster than any other emotions

Neuroticism, anxiety, depression

The 5-HTT gene, associated with a serotonin transporter protein, has two alleles (a short and long one), what is the short allele commonly associated with?

Plasticity (extraversion and openness)

The BAS is related to behaviors associated with ______

Approaching situations / avoiding situations

The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) is characterized by the behavior of ______ while the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) is characterized by the behavior of ______

Orthogonal They are not completely orthogonal, however, because they can each be broken down into smaller groups and can also be grouped together in more broad groups, - e.g., Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and (low) Neuroticism can be labelled "stability" while Extraversion and Openness can be labelled "plasticity"

The Big 5 are said to be fairly ______ (or independent / unrelated to one another)

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

The belief that emotions exist to enable people to make decisions that maximize good outcomes and minimize bad outcomes, and to focus on what is really important

Psychic Determinism

The belief that miracles, free will, and random accidents do not exist; everything that happens in a person's mind has a cause; therefore, contradictions in thoughts and behavior can be resolved (by looking into the unconscious)

Frontal Cortex

The front part of the cortex of the brain. Divided left and right into the two frontal lobes, this part of the brain is associated with cognitive functioning such as planning, foresight, and understanding.

Matching Phenomenon

The idea that people tend to pair up with others of similar attractiveness and other traits

Cumulative Continuity Principle

The idea that personality becomes more stable and unchanging as a person gets older:

Rank-Order Consistency

The maintenance of individual differences in behavior or personality over time or across situations (people change over years but they stay consistent in the ways they differ from other people of the same age)

Facial expressions such as happiness, sadness, and disgust

The most basic (and potentially most important) evolutionary adaptations show up cross-culturally. Give an example of this

Temperament

The personality that one begins with; early-appearing, stable, individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation (cornerstone of personality)

Sociosexuality

The preference for sexual activity *without* a relationship (higher in men)

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection (aka behaviors may have originated by survival value)

Siblings compete for parents al resources; the 1st born is dethroned by later siblings and becomes power hungry conservatives *No evidence for his theory*

What is Adler's view on birth order?

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

These hormones are commonly called "adrenaline" and "nor-adrenaline" hormones and are released in response to stress, producing the "fight-or-flight" response

Testosterone

This hormone causes aggression, dominance, sexual activity, and impulsivity (as a cause OR effect of behavior)

Oxytocin

This hormone is also called the "love hormone", causing the "tend-and-befriend" response, sexual responses, romance, and mother-child bonding

Cortisol

This hormone is an effect or cause of stress and depression, associated with fear, anxiety, rapid heart rate, raised blood pressure, and muscle strength stimulation

How much time one expects to have left

Throughout life, peoples' goals shift, not due to age per se or changing social roles, but rather due to:

Oral stage (babies) Anal stage (toddlers) Phallic stage (young children) Latency stage (older children) Genital stage (adolescents - adulthood)

What are Freud's stages of psychosexual development in order?

1) Dissection - postmortem examination of brain structures (e.g., Whitman) 2) Study after brain damage (e.g., Gage) 3) Activating the brain 4) Monitoring the brain in action

What are a few methods used to study brain functions?

Charles Whitman - shooter killed wife, mother, 14 others with no reasoning behind his desire to kill; autopsy found tumor in basal ganglia next to amygdala Phineas Gage - railroad accident sent rod through frontal lobe; he survived with full functionality but attitude changed (emotionless, impatient, vulgar) Elliott - headaches and irritability; large tumor removed along with parts of cerebral cortex; recovered fully functional but emotionless and lacking in judgement

What are some case studies that have provided knowledge about the anatomy and physiology of personality?

There is more to personality than just these 5 traits (e.g., honesty / humility) It is too broad to understand

What are some criticisms of the Big 5 traits?

- All parts of the brain are always active to some degree - Blood oxygenation may indicate inhibitory activity, not just excitatory activity - Just because an area is active in response to a stimulus does not mean the same psychological processes occur every time that area is activated

What are some drawbacks of brain imaging techniques?

Cues of good health, symmetrical features (more attractive), niceness

What are some long-term mating preferences that are the same for men and women?

Not seeing a reason to change; the effort it takes; blaming failures on external factors; wanting consistency & predicatbility

What are some obstacles that may get in the way of changing personality?

- To maintain our positive mood and feel good about ourselves - To gain social appraisal - They might help you out back someday

What are some other reasons we might help someone outside of our kin?

Types do not predict behavior beyond what can be predicted with traditional trait scores Thinking about people in "types" does not allow the ability to make future predictions

What are some problems associated with typological approaches to personality?

EEG, CT scan, PET, MRI, fMRI

What are some techniques used for monitoring the brain in action?

Selection (people choose situations that fit their personality) Manipulation (people change their situations) Evocation (personality differences evoke different reactions)

What are the 3 effects of temperament on environment?

1) Psychotherapy / psychiatric drugs 2) General intervention 3) Targeted (specific) intervention 4) Behaviors and life experiences

What are the 4 ways personality can be changed?

O.C.E.A.N Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism 4 or 5 of the traits can be translated into all other languages (supported by the *lexical hypothesis*) - therefore, these traits are fairly universal (very much but not 100%)

What are the Big 5 traits and what is the evidence for whether they are found cross-culturally?

*Conscientiousness* increases over time, *neuroticism* gradually decreases, *openness* gradually increases, *extraversion* decreases early in life

What are the continuity trends for the Big 5 traits - Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion

Proximity, Similarity, Feeling liked, Physical attractiveness

What are the factors that determine who we will like?

1) Single-Trait Approach, 2) Many-Trait Approach, 3) Essential-Trait Approach, 4) Typological Approach

What are the four approaches that connect traits with behaviors?

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine, Oxytocin, Testosterone, Cortisol

What are the hormones that are important for behavior?

*Id* - irrational and emotional (basic desires) *Ego* - rational (resolves conflict between the id and superego) *Superego* - moral (norms and values)

What are the three separate, independently functioning parts of the mind (according to psychoanalysis)?

*Eros* (sexuality and life instincts; creation and enjoyment of life) *Thanatos* (aggression and death instincts; introduced later to account for war and the fact that everyone dies)

What are the two fundamental motives (drives) studied in psychoanalysis?

*Commitment Scripts* - long-term investment towards improvement; vision of what could be; absence of conflict (overconfident) *Nuclear Scripts* - when shit gets real; complex; avoidance or approach of conflicts

What are the two scripts that are seen in developing a life narrative?

Self-Monitoring (variance between inner and outer selves) Narcissism (inflated degree of self-regard)

What are two traits commonly measured with the single-trait approach?

A technique that uses a magnetic pulse to temporarily "turn off" specific areas of the brain in order to learn more about their functions

What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?

The theory that because men and women invest different amounts into reproduction (men have millions of sperm and need only to fertilize the egg while women have a longer commitment to having / raising children), they look for different things in mate selection Men look for fertility cues such as attractiveness Women look for resources and stability

What is Triver's Parental Investment Theory?

Helping someone else with the hopes of receiving help at another time (altruism for mutual benefit)

What is Triver's Reciprocal Altruism theory?

The California Q-Set (100 personality descriptions sorted into a forced choice of 5 most characteristic and 5 least characteristic)

What is an example of a many-trait approach measure?

As opportunities for sexual activity decrease, standards are likely to go down and attractiveness ratings of others increase

What is the "closing time" effect?

Adolescent Egocentrism

What is the "first draft" of our narrative?

The difference between correlation (r) for MZ and DZ twins The difference suggests that genes are interactive and multiplicative

What is the *heritability quotient* and why is it useful?

Aka the "Go" system, it produces and reinforces the motivation to seek rewards (Strong BAS related to being energetic and impulsive)

What is the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)?

The "Talking Cure"

What is the method of free association that Freud used to prompt the conscious mind to address inner fears and thoughts?

1) Actor - traits and roles 2) Agent - goals and values 3) Author - create narrative

What three "selves" are associated with developing our life narrative?

1) Temporal coherence (time-order) 2) Biographical coherence (cultural differences) 3) Causal coherence 4) Thematic coherence (most advanced - integrating the previous three)

What types of coherence are required to develop a meaningful life narrative?

High Self-Monitors: professional actors, good interviewers, verbally fluent, talkative Low Self-Monitors: perfectionists, independent, distrustful

What types of people tend to be high/low self-monitors?

Structural brain scans show a "picture" of brain anatomy (e.g., *MRI*, *CT Scan*) Functional brain scans show which areas are working (e.g., *fMRI*, *PET*, *EEG*)

What's the difference between functional and structural brain scans?

Scene - a single memory Script - explains the significance of many scenes

Whats the difference between a scene and a script?

Shared environments - parents, SES Non-shared environments - friends, birth order, hobbies (non-shared environments can include *random experiences* such as school and peers and or *systematic influences* such as birth order)

When comparing personality in siblings, it is important to know which environments were shared and which were not shared by the siblings - give examples of each

Late adolescence / young adulthood We must be sophisticated enough to use various skills to construct a coherent life story

When does the development of the life narrative begin and why does it happen at this age?

In cases of severe depression where patients do not respond to traditional treatments

When is it appropriate to use electroshock therapy?

Cohort Effects

When using cross-sectional data, ______ may occur, which results in certain aspects of personality being affected by the historical period that the person lived in

Maturity Effects

When using longitudinal data, ______ may occur, which states that certain traits (such as conscientiousness and emotional stability) increase with age in order to perform adult roles that require these traits

Neuroticism

Which Big 5 trait is most associated with behavioral inhibition?

Essential-Trait Approach

Which approach attempts to determine which traits are most important?

Typological Approach

Which approach considers that differences between people may be qualitative, not quantitative (attempts to identify groups that resemble each other while also differing from everyone else)

Many-Trait Approach

Which approach examines correlations between one behavior and many traits? (Asks the question "who does this certain behavior?")

Single-Trait Approach

Which approach examines correlations between one trait and many behaviors? (Asks the question "what do people with a certain personality trait do?")

Dopamine

Which neurotransmitter activates the BAS?

Narcissism (low levels) - serotonin, cortisol, norepinephrine Agreeableness - serotonin Conscientiousness - serotonin Extraversion - dopamine, endorphins Openness - dopamine

Which neurotransmitters and hormones are possible biological bases of the Big 5 traits?

Dopamine

Which neurotransmitters are commonly associated with the reward system?

Openness to Experience

Which of the big five is sometimes associated with *intellect*?

Conservative - guilt, anxiety, bad stress handling as children; favors group loyalty, respect, authority Liberal - resourceful, independent, confident as children Authoritarian - uncooperative, likely to obey commands to harm others, low emotions, prefer strong leaders

Which personality traits are commonly associated with which political orientation?

Because it is assumed that traits and behaviors influenced by genes should be more similar among more closely related people (identical twins share the most dna of any other relationship)

Why are twin and adoption studies important in understanding nature vs. nurture?

Because everything boils down to a self-serving motive (e.g., being altruistic toward kin is helpful for own survival benefits)

Why do some psychologists think that true altruism does not exist?

For preparation - Fight or flight? Can this person be trusted?

Why is it adaptive to recognize facial expressions?

It uses personality descriptions rather than single-words and it compares characteristics within an individual

Why is the California Q-Set especially useful?

Behavioral Genetics

______ addresses how traits are passed from parent to child and shared by biological relatives

Personality / Fundamental Traits

______ changes throughout life but ______ stay the same

Epigenetics

______ may be helpful in finding situations that will lead to good outcomes