PR 250 Midterm - Chapter 4

Which of the following is recommended when reporting research results?

Use terminology appropriately and precisely.

which research method? criteria: understand issues and attitudes; immediate findings are needed

focus group

A psychology professor wants to conduct a research experiment that will require at least 200 student subjects. What does the professor need to do before beginning the experiment?

gain approval from the Institutional Review Board

moderator

guide the conversation in focus group research

digital analytics

practice of collecting and organizing data from social media platforms about user activities and trends?

Which of the following involves gathering information by distributing surveys or interviewing focus groups?

primary research

first-level agenda setting

the media have a large influence on audiences by choosing which stories to make prominent, thereby influencing WHAT to think about them

Two-step flow theory

the media influence early adopters who then influence certain groups of publics

the flow of influence (asserted by the two-step flow theory)

media -> early adopters -> publics

upward flow

- When a message travels from the bottom of the chart toward the top. - IE: a grassroots organization urges local politicians to reduce the property tax rate.

Focus group

- a collective depth interview ideally conducted with between six to 12 participants. Thus, it allows for the flexibility of follow-up questions and the group situation stimulates discussion. - It's typically video recorded for later analysis of both spoken and visual expressions. The moderator's skill is crucial in establishing rapport, posing questions, probing for insight, and managing any participants who might tend to control the conversation. - relatively inexpensive - allows for recruiting and assembling participants rather quickly, yielding immediate findings. - disadvantages: hard to gather everyone at same time; unpredictable, as some participants may be inhibited by public speaking or being recorded. As with any qualitative methods, results cannot be generalized to a larger population.

participant observation

- a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities - SHOULD be as unobtrusive as possible

Qualitative research

- allows exploration of attitudes and perceptions - research methods: participant observation

Quantitative research

- numerical data - results can be projected to a population that is larger than the group that was studied - research methods: survey

spiral of silence theory

- people tend to refrain from expressing opinions that differ from the majority viewpoint - a new idea must pass through a sequential process with a public before it is adopted.

Surveys

- provide capacity to reach a large sample of a desired group of people, their low cost, their wide geographic distribution, the analytical data they generate, and the ease of execution via software solutions on the Internet or via mobile or email. - Phone or in-person surveys allow for immediate results. In all surveys, you can ask both closed questions (multiple choice, yes/no, true/false) and open-ended questions that allow for individual statements - The facility of survey data to make correlations can help to better define publics. The anonymity and structure of surveys help to encourage participation. - The disadvantages of the survey method are that the people who choose to respond only represent a sample of your public, and you will omit hard-to-reach respondents. Likewise, responses may not be entirely truthful, and the survey itself may be flawed if not properly designed and worded. Surveys can include both closed and open-ended questions.

content analysis

- research method that collects quantitative information and requires a structured coding system - categorizes existing communication

depth interview

- researcher and a participant having a one-on-one conversation - drawback: significant time is required.

second-level agenda-setting

- selective attributes are used to shape the stories, thereby influencing HOW to think about them - A journalist determines how to present a news story. - resembles framing

agenda-setting theory

- the media have a large influence on audiences by choosing which stories to make prominent - media is the main gatekeeper of information - The media determine what stories are important for the public and why.

diffusions of innovations theory steps

1. awareness 2. knowledge 3. evaluation 4. trial 5. adoption 6. reinforcement

What is the difference between a commonsense theory, a working theory, and a scholarly theory?

A commonsense theory involves trying to understand a problem by drawing from anecdotal information--our past experiences, stories we've heard, situations we've observed. Certain job-related generalizations are called "working theory"--agreed-upon ways of doing things, such as shooting a film with specific camera shots to evoke specific emotions. A scholarly theory is very structured and systematic.

uses and gratification theory

Claims people use mass communication to gratify their interests and desires; consumers have options for satisfying their needs.

What is the benefit of using digital analytics during the research phase of a PR campaign?

Digital analytic tools allow you to collect, organize, and analyze online data, e.g. from websites and social media platforms about customer/user conversations, activities, trends and patterns. This allows you to get insights fast and accurately from multiple sources.

image restoration theory

IE: celebrity is charged and jailed after driving under the influence and causing an accident. The celebrity hires a PR professional to develop a response to the situation.

Excellence Theory

PR performance often linked with an organization's relationship with publics (affects ability to reduce costs of negative publicity and increase revenue by providing needed products and services.) To maximize the value of PR, a campaign must identify strategic publics and build long-term relationships with them through two-way symmetrical communication programs. This means the organization and its publics both talk and listen to each other with mutual respect and willingness to adapt.

Inoculation Theory

Presenting a small dose of a competing argument is an effective way to increase a person's resistance to the argument. If you give your audience a small dose of your opponent's argument, and then you immediately provide a counterargument, it triggers a process of counter-arguing by the audience members themselves--on their own--which eventually makes them resistant to later, stronger persuasive messages from your opponent. IE: Sheila is running for mayor against Joe . She runs a series of commercials that describe negative attributes about him and positive attributes about herself.

Quantitative v Qualitative

Quantitative methods observe effects, test relationships, and generate numerical data that is considered objective. Qualitative methods are useful to explore attitudes, perceptions, values and opinions; it is descriptive and interpretive, and results cannot be generalized to a larger group.

ROPES model

Research, Objectives, Programming, Evaluation, Stewardship - Research plays a critical role throughout the public relations campaign process.

diffusion of innovations theory

The view that communication and relationships play important roles in how new ideas are adopted (or not) by individuals and groups. a new product must pass through a sequential process with a public before it is adopted

Importance of studying theory

They provide an understanding of the relationships between actions and events. As a public relations practitioner, you'll need to explain why and how your plans will work. Knowing and being able to explain the science behind your proposals bolsters both your confidence and credibility.

ELM - Elaboration Likelihood Model

a major persuasion theory; it states that persuasive messages are received by people through two different routes: either the central route or the peripheral route. central route: one's mental processing is based on thought, analysis, and reflection. Active thinking internalizes the message, and attitudes formed are more persistent and resistant to change peripheral route: one's processing is based on mental shortcuts, little effort, thus attitudes formed are more short-lived. With the crescendo of chatter in our world, most messages are processed this way. Since the central route to mental processing is more likely to stick and affect attitude and behavior change, you need to increase the motivation to engage by explaining why your message is relevant and how it affects the receiver personally. You also need to increase the ability to engage by adapting to the receiver's level of understanding and experience and by eliminating distractions.

issue analysis benefits

anticipate future problems (if conducted at start of campaign)

Professional research findings should accomplish which of the following?

apply to numerous business activities

framing

careful choice of words, imagery, and sound to influence a certain meaning?

Which of the following would help a PR professional to encourage people with dissenting opinions to express themselves?

carefully worded questionnaires

Which of the following is a characteristic of an effective research method?

clearly defined respondent samples

What is the first step in the public relations campaign process (ROPES)

conducting research

Which of the following should occur prior to conducting research?

establish baselines for measuring results

Which of the following is essential when applying the uses and gratification theory?

identifying the needs and most appropriate media for a target public

What is a direct benefit of starting the PR process with research?

improving understanding of the situation

progression of publics

latent -> aware -> active

basis for commonsense theories

past experiences, stories, and observations.

Cialdini's 6 principles of persuasion

reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, scarcity which relates to the idea of group conformity? social proof

Which component of ROPES plays a key role in every stage of the PR campaign process?

research

Which of the following involves gathering existing information?

secondary research

Which element of the ROPES process promotes relationship maintenance?

stewardship

which research method? criteria - large sample of people, limited money, need information fast

telephone surveys

Depth interviews

useful when seeking responses from participants about sensitive issues