prin of management ch 9

motivation equation

inputs, performance, and outcomes

instrumentality

is a person's perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes. According to expectancy theory, employees are motivated to perform at a high level only if they think high performance will lead to (or is instrumental for attaining) outcomes. instrumentalities must be high for motivation to be high—people must perceive that because of their high performance they will receive outcomes.

outcome

is anything a person gets from a job or organization.

need for achievement

is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. People with a high need for achievement often set clear goals for themselves and like to receive performance feedback.

learning theories

learning theory focuses on the linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation. Of the different learning theories, operant conditioning theory and social learning theory provide the most guidance to managers in their efforts to have a highly motivated workforce.

informational justice

refers to an employee's perception of the extent to which his or her manager provides explanations for decisions and the procedures used to arrive at them.

distributive justice

refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the distribution of outcomes (such as promotions, pay, job assignments, and working conditions) in an organization. Employees are more likely to be highly motivated when they perceive distributive justice to be high rather than low.

interpersonal justice

refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the interpersonal treatment he or she receives from whoever distributes outcomes to him or her (typically his or her manager). Interpersonal justice is high when managers treat subordinates with dignity and respect and are polite and courteous.

valence

refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person. To motivate organizational members, managers need to determine which outcomes have high valence for them—are highly desired—and make sure that those outcomes are provided when members perform at a high level.

the direction of a person's behavior

refers to the many possible behaviors a person could engage in

underpayment inequity

In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are not receiving the outcomes you should be, given your inputs. people decided to either do less, or ask for a raise.

social learning theory

Social learning theory extends operant conditioning's contribution to managers' understanding of motivation by explaining (1) how people can be motivated by observing other people performing a behavior and being reinforced for doing so (vicarious learning), (2) how people can be motivated to control their behavior themselves (self-reinforcement), and (3) how people's beliefs about their ability to successfully perform a behavior affect motivation (self-efficacy).

need for affiliation

The need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other.

expectancy

a person's perception about the extent to which effort (an input) results in a certain level of performance. A person's level of expectancy determines whether he or she believes that a high level of effort results in a high level of performance. People are motivated to put forth a lot of effort on their jobs only if they think that their effort will pay off in high performance—that is, if they have high expectancy.

a need

a requirement or necessity for survival and well-being.

equity theory

a theory of motivation that concentrates on people's perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to, or in proportion to, their work inputs. Equity theory was formulated in the 1960s by J. Stacy Adams, who stressed that what is important in determining motivation is the relative rather than the absolute levels of outcomes a person receives and inputs a person contributes.

input

anything a person contributes to the job or organization, such as time, effort, education, experience, skills, knowledge, and actual work behaviors.

self reinforcers

are any desired or attractive outcomes or rewards that people can give to themselves for good performance, such as a feeling of accomplishment, going to a movie, having dinner out, buying a new CD, or taking time out for a golf game

employee stock options

are financial instruments that entitle the bearer to buy shares of an organization's stock at a certain price during a certain period or under certain conditions.

intrinsically motivated behavior

behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. Many managers are intrinsically motivated; they derive a sense of accomplishment and achievement from helping the organization achieve its goals and gain competitive advantages. outcomes are improving the lives or well-being of other people and doing good by helping others result in prosocially motivated behavior.

extrinsically motivated behavior

behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. outcomes such as pay, job security, benefits, and vacation time, result in extrinsically motivated behavior.

prosocially motivated behavior

behavior that is performed to benefit or help others.

learning

can be defined as a relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.

operant conditioning theory

developed by psychologist B. F. Skinner, people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.

overpayment inequity

exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome—input ratio is greater than that of a referent. In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are receiving more outcomes than you should be, given your inputs. people restore equity by changing perceptions of her inputs; telling yourself you get paid more because u do more.

goal setting theory

focuses on motivating workers to contribute their inputs to their jobs and organizations; in this way, it is similar to expectancy theory and equity theory. But goal-setting theory takes this focus a step further by considering as well how managers can ensure that organizational members focus their inputs in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational goals.

positive reinforcement

gives people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors. These desired outcomes, called positive reinforcers, include any outcomes that a person desires, such as pay, praise, or a promotion

negative reinforcement

hese undesired outcomes, called negative reinforcers, can range from a manager's constant nagging or criticism to unpleasant assignments or the ever-present threat of losing one's job

what are the 3 factors that determine intrinsic vs extrinsic?

1) workers' own personal characteristics (such as their personalities, abilities, values, attitudes, and needs), (2) the nature of their jobs (such as whether they have been enriched or where they are on the five core characteristics of the job characteristics model), and (3) the nature of the organization (such as its structure, its culture, its control systems, its human resource management system, and the ways in which rewards such as pay are distributed to employees).

self efficacy

a person's belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully. - if you tell yourself you can't do it you won't be able to

Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

believes people have two sets of needs or requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs.

motivation

may be defined as psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence in the face of obstacles. -Motivation is central to management because it explains why people behave the way they do in organizations

vicarious learning

often called observational learning, occurs when a person (the learner) becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person (the model) performing the behavior and being positively reinforced for doing so.

extinction

one way for managers to curtail the performance of dysfunctional behaviors is to eliminate whatever is reinforcing the behaviors

procedural justice

refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the procedures used to determine how to distribute outcomes in an organization. usually, motivation is higher when procedural justice is high rather than low.

punishment

which is administering an undesired or negative consequence to subordinates when they perform the dysfunctional behavior. negative reinforcement entails the removal of a negative consequence when functional behaviors are performed; punishment entails the administration of negative consequences when dysfunctional behaviors are performed.

hygiene needs

Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. Hygiene needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective supervision.

motivator needs

Motivator needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is. Outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, being able to grow and develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy motivator needs. To have a highly motivated and satisfied workforce, Herzberg suggested, managers should take steps to ensure that employees' motivator needs are being met.

need for power

The need for power is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others.

Expectancy theory identifies three major factors that determine a person's motivation:

expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

expectancy theory

formulated by Victor H. Vroom in the 1960s, posits that motivation is high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes.

effort

refers to how hard people work.

persistence

refers to whether, when faced with roadblocks and obstacles, people keep trying or give up

need theories

that people are motivated to obtain outcomes at work that will satisfy their needs. Need theory complements expectancy theory by exploring in depth which outcomes motivate people to perform at a high level.

maslow's hierarchy of needs

Psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.