prompting

discrete skills

(e.g., single skills of a short duration such as naming pictures, reading words, greeting peers)

chained skills

(include a number of steps such as dressing and undressing, making a sandwich, making juice, and washing hands)

Correction procedure

Feedback for incorrect responding (i.e., incorrect use of target skill) is delivered either by ignoring the incorrect response or by applying

prompt types (5)

-Gestural -Verbal -Visual -Model -Physical

Tips for Using Prompts Effectively

-learners with ASD are particularly at risk for becoming dependent upon teacher/practitioner use of prompts. For example, a learner with ASD may wait for a teacher to use a verbal prompt (i.e., "Say, more juice") before requesting more juice or snack. The following tips are provided so that teachers/practitioners can use prompting effectively to help learners acquire new skills while also preventing prompt dependence. -Prompts should be as minimal as possible. Teachers/practitioners should use the least restrictive prompt needed by the learner with ASD to complete a target skill successfully -Prompts should be faded as quickly as possible. Providing prompts to a learner with ASD longer than necessary often results in prompt dependence. That is, the learner waits for the teacher/practitioner to deliver the prompt before using the target skill. -By fading prompts quickly, teachers/practitioners help learners with ASD use target skills only when the natural cue is present; thus, increasing learners' independence and generalization of skills

basic prompt hierarchy

1.independent level (i.e., no prompts)bottom to top 2. Verbal prompt 3. Gestural prompt 4. Controlling prompt

antecedent

A cue or task direction/question tells learners the skills or behaviors they should be using. The target stimulus is the dirty hands; the cue or task direction is the picture and verbal command. When using prompting procedures, the cue should be consistent so that learners know exactly when they are supposed to do something. i.e., target stimulus and cue/task direction) that tells the learner to use the target skill

implementing intervention simultaneous prompting step 3 monitor learner progress

A key component of simultaneous prompting is collecting data to monitor a learner's progress. This is accomplished by (a) collecting data during instructional sessions and (b) collecting data in the daily probe sessions in which no prompts are used. The probe sessions allow teachers/practitioners to evaluate learners' acquisition of skills.

step 9 determining the length of the response interval

After each level of the prompt hierarchy, the learner with ASD has the opportunity to respond. This is called the response interval. At each level, teachers/practitioners provide learners with the same amount of time to respond. If the learner responds correctly, the teacher/practitioner provides reinforcement (e.g., more juice, "Good job," preferred activity). If the learner does not use the target skill correctly, the teacher/practitioner provides the prompt in the next level of the hierarchy. When selecting a response interval, teachers/practitioners must time how long it takes the learner to complete similar skills/tasks. When determining the length of the response interval, teachers/practitioners should consider: - Learner characteristics. Teachers/practitioners consider factors such as how long it usually takes the learner to respond when the learner knows how to do the behavior. Adding a couple of seconds to this typical length of time is generally adequate for determining the length of the response interval. -Task characteristics. Teachers/practitioners might consider how long it takes another learner with ASD to use a similar skill. For example, if it takes another learner 4 seconds to respond to a verbal prompt, the teacher might try using four seconds as the response interval for this particular learner with ASD. -The amount of time a learner will be allowed to begin and complete the task. For example, a learner with ASD may begin writing his name within 4 seconds of the cue; however, it may take him 2 minutes to complete the task. In this case, setting the response interval at 6 seconds for the learner to start the task, and 2.5 minutes to complete it is reasonable. For tasks that require more than one step (e.g., setting the table, getting dressed, washing hands), teachers/practitioners use the same response interval for each step; however, some skills may require more time than others to complete (e.g., turning on water takes less time than rubbing soap between hands). Teachers/practitioners identify an initial response interval of 3-5 seconds. Generally, the response interval is only a few seconds. Often 3, 4, or 5 seconds is adequate. The longer the response interval, the longer each trial (particularly during initial instruction) will take.

Implementing intervention Graduated Guidance step 1

Approach the learner with ASD Secure the learner's attention Present the target stimulus or call the learner's attention to the target stimulus Deliver the task direction Provide a short response interval Teachers/practitioners provide the amount and type of prompt needed to get the learner with ASD to start performing the chain. As soon as the learner with ASD begins to do the chain, teachers/practitioners reduce the intensity or amount of the prompt and start to shadow the learner's movements. If the learner with ASD stops doing the chain, teachers/practitioners immediately provide the amount and type of prompts needed to get the movement started. If the learner with ASD begins to use the target behavior/skill incorrectly, teachers/practitioners immediately block that movement and provide the amount and type of prompt needed to get the learner to do the chain correctly. If the learner with ASD resists the physical prompt, teachers/practitioners should: -Stop moving -Hold the learner's hands in place When the resistance subsides, teachers/practitioners start the movement toward completing the chain again by applying the amount and type of prompt needed. As the learner with ASD completes each step of the chain correctly (prompted or unprompted), teachers/practitioners provide verbal praise and encouragement. At the end of the chain, teachers/practitioners provide reinforcement to the learner with ASD for completing the task correctly.

How do I know which prompting procedure to use with a learner with ASD?

Each of the prompting procedures can be used to teach specific skills, and certain prompting procedures may be more appropriate for certain types of learners than others. For example, least-to-most prompting is most effective with learners who are using a skill, but not consistently. Least-to-most prompting also is helpful when learners are regressing with previously acquired skills. Simultaneous prompting, on the other hand, is useful when teaching new target skills, which can be either discrete or chained. Finally, graduated guidance can only be used when teaching chained skills.

Implementing intervention step 3 responding to learners' attempts

If the learner's response is correct, teachers/practitioners immediately provide positive feedback by: Offering reinforcement (e.g., praise, access to materials, break) Stating what the learner did (e.g., "You said, More.' Here's more snack," "You said, Two times two is four.' That's right. Two times two is four.") If the learner's response is incorrect, teachers/practitioners: Interrupt the incorrect response Deliver the next prompt in the hierarchy If the learner does not respond, teachers/practitioners use the prompt in the next level of the prompting hierarchy. Teachers/practitioners continue through the prompting hierarchy until a correct response (prompted correct response) occurs, and then deliver the reinforcer.

Graduated guidance step 1 selecting and describing the target skill/behavior

In Step 1, teachers and other practitioners define the target behavior or skill that they want learners with ASD to acquire. The graduated guidance procedure should only be used with chained tasks (putting on a coat, setting a table, cleaning a bathroom, sorting and folding laundry). Teachers/practitioners define the target skill/behavior in terms that are observable and measurable. Teachers/practitioners identify the target skill/behaviors of the chain by: -Using a sequence of steps from research or a curriculum -Completing the chain and writing down the steps -Watching someone else do the chain while writing down the steps -Logically analyzing what needs to be done to complete the skill and writing down the refined steps With chained tasks, teachers and other practitioners identify (a) the number and sequence of steps in the chain, (b) whether to teach one-step at a time, or (c) whether to teach all steps at the same time. In most cases, it makes sense to teach the chain in the sequence typically used by competent performers.

graduated guidance step 2 identifying the target stimulus

In Step 2, teachers/practitioners identify the target stimulus. The target stimulus is the event or thing that should cue the learner with ASD to begin the chain. Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following as the target stimulus: -A naturally occurring event. Examples: Having dirty hands after finger painting is the target stimulus for hand washing; needing to use the bathroom is the target stimulus for asking to use the restroom or moving to the bathroom and using it. -Completion of one event or activity. Examples: Completing an instruction activity is the target stimulus for putting materials away, cleaning up the area, and moving to the next area for the next activity; finishing one job is the target stimulus for doing the next job (e.g., finishing stocking a shelf in the store is the target stimulus for taking the boxes to the trash). -An external signal. Examples: A ringing bell may signal (a) it is time to go to the next class; (b) a work shift is completed in an employment situation; or (c) the clothing is dry and should be taken from the dryer, sorted, folded, and put away.

graduated guidance step 5 identifying the controlling prompt

In Step 5, teachers/practitioners select a prompt that ensures that the learner with ASD performs the target skill/behavior correctly. This is called the controlling prompt. For some learners, the controlling prompt is as simple as pointing to the faucet to prompt hand washing, while others need full hand-over-hand assistance. Teachers/practitioners try out different prompts to see which ones are successful in getting the learner with ASD to complete the task correctly. With the graduated guidance procedure, the prompts are almost always physical, but with learners who have a lot of language skills, verbal prompts could be used. When selecting and using physical prompts, teachers/practitioners should be careful about how they use them prompts. Providing physical prompts from behind the individual often allows for more natural movements to be taught. Further, teachers/practitioners should be careful not to force or hurt the learner when physically prompting. When resistance occurs, just hold the hands in place rather than forcing movement. When resistance subsides, continue to prompt the movement. Be sure others (supervisors, assistants, coworkers) understand the purpose and nature of physical prompts so that you are not accused of physical abuse.

Which prompt types are the least intensive? Which prompt types are most intensive?

In general, visual, verbal, and gestural prompts are less intensive than modeling. Physical prompting is the most intensive prompt type.

step 8 sequencing prompts from least-to-most assistance

In this step, teachers/practitioners arrange prompts from least to most intrusive. That is, they organize the prompt hierarchy so that the first level is the independent level. In this level, the target stimulus and perhaps a cue or task direction are present. Teachers/practitioners then provide prompts that include progressively more assistance. The last level in the prompting hierarchy ensures that learners with ASD use the target skill successfully (controlling prompt). When sequencing the prompting hierarchy, teachers/practitioners must determine which type of prompt provides a learner with: -The least amount of assistance -More information -The most amount of assistance (i.e., enough to be correct) The following questions may be helpful when attempting to sequence prompts from least to most assistance: -Which types of prompts have been used to teach a learner new skills? -Has the learner been taught how to use this type of skill before, or have other practitioners focused on different types of skills? -What types of prompts have been most successful when teaching the learner a variety of skills? -When a prompt is needed, what type of prompt is used most often with the learner? If this skill/task has been successfully taught to other learners with ASD, what was the least-to-most sequence? -Does the learner use the skill correctly when each prompt is used separately?

graduated guidance step 7 specifying prompt fading procedures

In this step, teachers/practitioners determine how to fade prompts as the learner with ASD becomes more proficient at doing the chained skill. Teachers/practitioners select one of the following prompting strategies to fade prompts: -Decreasing the intensity of the prompt. Intensity refers to the amount of force used when delivering the physical prompts. An example would be moving from complete hand-over-hand instruction to just having your hands on the learner while he or she does the chain. -Providing less assistance by changing the prompt type. An example would be moving from a full physical prompt to a verbal prompt. Immediately removing the prompt. Although teachers/practitioners make decisions about fading prompts within the context of ongoing routines and activities, they must specify clear strategies for prompt fading prior to implementation to decrease learner dependence on prompts to use the target skill/behavior correctly.

implementing intervention simultaneous prompting step 2 implement the prompt

Instructional Sessions After securing attention, presenting the target stimulus, and delivering the cue/task direction, teachers/practitioners immediately deliver the controlling prompt. In the previous example, after saying, "David" (to get his attention), showing the word "stop," and saying "What is this David?" the teacher would immediately say, "stop" (controlling prompt). If the learner's response is correct (prompted correct), teachers/practitioners immediately provide positive feedback by: -Offering reinforcement (e.g., praise, access to materials, break) and -Stating what the learner did (e.g., "You said, More. Here's more snack," "You said, Two times two is four.' That's right. Two times two is four.") If the learner's response is incorrect (prompted error), or if the learner does not respond, teachers/practitioners ignore the response and go on to the next trial. With chained skills, when errors (prompted errors) occur, the teacher may have to correct the step before moving on to the next trial. Probe Sessions After securing attention, presenting the target stimulus, and delivering the cue/task direction, teachers/practitioners deliver the response interval (no prompt is provided). In the example used above, after saying, "David" (to get his attention), showing the word "stop," and saying "What is this David?" the teacher would look expectantly at David for him to provide the response. If the learner's response is correct (unprompted correct), teachers/practitioners immediately provide positive feedback by: -Offering reinforcement (e.g., praise, access to materials, break) and -Stating what the learner did (e.g., "You said, More. Here's more snack," "You said, Two times two is four.' That's right. Two times two is four.") If the learner's response is incorrect (unprompted error) or if the learner with ASD does not respond, teachers/practitioners ignore the response and go on to the next trial. When errors occur with chained tasks, the teacher may have to correct the step before moving on to the next step.

What Other Factors Should Be Considered Before Using Prompting?

Intervention planning is key to using prompting procedures effectively. For example, with least-to-most prompts, teachers and other practitioners decide on the prompt hierarchy before implementing the intervention.

Who Can Use Prompting, Where Can It Be Used and With What Ages is Prompting Most Effective?

Prompting can be used effectively, regardless of cognitive level and/or expressive communicative abilities across the age range. The evidence base shows that prompting is an effective intervention for learners with ASD ranging from 3 to 22 years of age.

What is the difference between a prompting procedure and a prompt type?

Prompting procedures include (a) least-to-most prompting, (b) graduated guidance, and (c) simultaneous prompting. This module contains step-by-step instructions for each procedure so that teachers/practitioners can use them with correctly. Prompt types, on the other hand, are the specific strategies used within each prompting procedure to teach new skills. Prompt types include gestural, verbal, visual, model, and physical prompts.

How do I prevent learners with ASD from becoming dependent upon prompts to use the target skill?

Sometimes, when prompting procedures are not used correctly, learners become dependent upon a teacher's prompting to use the target skill. To prevent this from happening, teachers/practitioners should (a) use the least intensive prompt needed by the learner to use the target skill successfully and (b) fade prompts as quickly as possible. The appropriate intensity of a prompt can be determined by observing a learner using a skill that is similar to the target skill and the kinds of help he needs to complete this skill. Teachers/practitioners can also prevent prompt dependence by fading the use of prompts as soon as learners become more proficient at using target skills.

graduated guidance step 4 selecting reinforcers

Step 4 is focused on selecting reinforcers, task demands, and target skills that are appropriate for individual learners with ASD. The goal of reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that the learner with ASD will use the target skill again in the future. Therefore, selected reinforcers should be highly motivating to the learner with ASD. When choosing reinforcers for learners with ASD, teachers/practitioners identify: -What has motivated learners in the past -Learners' deprivation state (i.e., What do they want that they can't easily get?) Teachers/practitioners identify a reinforcer that is appropriate for the target skill and instructional task. The chosen reinforcer should be as natural as possible. That is, it should be related to the activity that is going on. For example, it would be natural for a learner with ASD to get free time or have access to a preferred activity/object after taking part in a challenging, non-preferred learning activity.

simultaneous prompting step 5 determining the response interval

Teachers and other practitioners consider both learner characteristics and task difficulty when determining the response interval. When using a full physical prompt (i.e., physically guiding the learner to complete the task) during the instructional sessions, no extra response interval is provided. If the learner responds correctly to a prompt, the teacher/ practitioner provides reinforcement (e.g., more juice, "Good job," preferred activity). If the learner does not do the target skill correctly, the teacher/practitioner ignores the response or corrects it and provides the next trial. When determining the length of the response interval, teachers/practitioners must consider: -Learner characteristics. Teachers/practitioners should consider factors such as how long it usually takes the learner to respond when the learner knows how to do the behavior. Adding a couple of seconds to this typical length of time is generally adequate for determining the length of the response interval. -Task characteristics. Teachers/practitioners might consider how long it takes another learner with ASD to use a similar skill. For example, if it takes another learner 4 seconds to respond to a verbal prompt, the teacher might try using 4 seconds as the response interval for this particular learner with ASD. Teachers/practitioners also should consider the amount of time a learner will be allowed to begin a task as well as how long the learner will have to complete the task. For example, a learner with ASD may begin writing his name within 4 seconds of the cue; however, it may take him 2 minutes to complete the task. In this case, setting the response interval at 6 seconds for the learner to start the task, and 2.5 minutes to complete it is reasonable. For tasks that require more than one step (e.g., setting the table, getting dressed, washing hands), teachers/practitioners use the same response interval for each step; however, some skills may require more time than others to complete (e.g., turning on water takes less time than rubbing soap between hands). When selecting a response interval, teachers/practitioners time how long it takes the learner to complete similar skills/tasks.

graduated guidance step 8 identifying activities and times for teaching

Teachers/practitioners analyze the day and determine when and where the chain is needed. Those times should be selected as the instructional times because it is best to teach the signal during the times where it will be utilized the most. If few natural times to teach the chain are identified, teachers/practitioners build in times when the skill may be taught. For example, if the skill being taught is taking off a coat, this may only occur when the child enters the classroom and comes in from the playground. Adding other times (e.g., wearing the coat to the gym or to the lunch room) is appropriate, because this would increase the teaching opportunities.

simultaneous prompting step 1 define the target behavior or skill

Teachers/practitioners define the target skill/behavior in terms that are specific, observable, and measurable. Teachers/practitioners identify the target skill/behavior as being either: -A discrete task. A discrete task is one that requires a single response. Examples include pointing to objects, identifying letters, naming pictures or objects, reading words, writing the answers to simple math problems, greeting a peer who enters the room, and answering questions. -A chained task. Chained tasks require that teachers/practitioners determine (a) the number and sequence of steps in the chain, (b) whether to teach one step at a time, or (c) whether to teach all steps at the same time. Examples of chained tasks include washing hands, making a sandwich, eating a meal, getting dressed, putting on coat, cooking, and transitioning from one class to the next. In general, teaching the entire chain at the same time is recommended

implementing intervention simultaneous prompting step 1 Establishing Learner Attention, Delivering the Stimulus, and Providing the Cue

Teachers/practitioners establish the learner's attention by: -Delivering the target stimulus -Using an attention-getting strategy (e.g., saying learner's name, saying, "Look;" having the learner touch the stimulus) -Presenting the cue or task direction Eye contact is often used as an indication of attention, but other behaviors (such as matching the stimulus, touching the stimulus, or repeating the task direction) also have been used. Once attention is secured, the teacher/practitioner presents the cue or task direction to let the learner know a behavior is expected from him or her. EXAMPLE: A teacher says, "David." David looks at the teacher. She presents a flashcard with the word "stop" on it (target stimulus) and says, "What is this, David?" while pointing at the flashcard. The teacher behavior used to secure attention was saying the child's name. The target stimulus is the word "stop." The cue or task direction in this example is the teacher saying, "What is this, David?"

Implementing intervention step 1 establishing learner attention, delivering the stimulus, and providing the cue

Teachers/practitioners establish the learner's attention by: Delivering the target stimulus, Using an attention-getting strategy (e.g., saying learner's name; saying, "Look;" having the learner touch the stimulus); or Presenting the cue or task direction. Eye contact is often used as an indication of attention, but other behaviors also have been used such as matching the stimulus, touching it, repeating the task direction. Once attention is secured, the teacher/practitioner presents the cue or task direction to let learners know what they are expected to do. EXAMPLE: A teacher says, "David." David looks at the teacher. She presents a flashcard with the word "stop" on it (target stimulus) and says, "What is this, David?" while pointing at the flashcard. The teacher secured the learner's attention by saying his name. The target stimulus is the word "stop." The cue or task direction in this example is the teacher saying, "What is this, David?"

simultaneous prompting step 2 selecting the target stimulus and cue

Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following as the target stimulus: -A naturally occurring event. Examples: Having dirty hands after finger painting is the target stimulus for hand washing; needing to use the bathroom is the target stimulus for asking to use the restroom or moving to the bathroom and using it. -Completion of one event or activity. Examples: Completing an instructional activity is the target stimulus for putting materials away, cleaning up the area, and moving to the area for the next activity; finishing one job is the target stimulus for doing the next job (e.g., finishing stocking a shelf in the store is the target stimulus for taking the boxes to the trash). -An external signal. Examples: A ringing bell may signal (a) it is time to go to the next class; (b) a work shift is completed in an employment situation; or (c) the clothing is dry and should be taken from the dryer, sorted, folded, and put away.

step 2 identifying the target stimulus

Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following as the target stimulus: 1. A naturally occurring event. Examples: Having dirty hands after finger painting is the target stimulus for hand washing; needing to use the bathroom is the target stimulus for asking to use the restroom or moving to the bathroom and using it. 2. Completion of one event or activity. Examples: Completing an instructional activity is the target stimulus for putting materials away, cleaning up the area, and moving to the area for the next activity; finishing one job is the target stimulus for doing the next job (e.g., finishing stocking a shelf in the store is the target stimulus for taking the boxes to the trash). 3. An external signal. Examples: A ringing bell may signal it is time to go to the next class; a work shift is completed in an employment situation; or the clothing is dry and should be taken from the dryer, sorted, folded, and put away.

step 3 selecting cues or task directions

Teachers/practitioners must select at least one of the following cues to begin the teaching exchange: 1. Material or environmental manipulation. Getting the materials set up and ready before the learner comes to the activity (e.g., setting up tasks for individual work time, setting the table before snack, placing playdough and toys on the table, arranging desks for small group work). 2. Task direction. Telling the learner to get his coat on to go home, giving a picture card to go wash hands, presenting a flashcard with a sight word on it and asking, "What is this?" 3. Naturally occurring event. Ringing phone, fire alarm, school bus arriving after school.

step 7 selecting types of prompts to be used

Teachers/practitioners must select at least one of the following prompts for each level of the prompting hierarchy: Gestural (e.g., pointing, waving) Verbal (e.g., clues, hints, commands, questions, rule statements) Visual (e.g., pictures, objects) Model (full, partial - can be verbal or motoric) Physical (full, partial) Teachers/practitioners choose prompt types based upon two main characteristics: 1. Learner characteristics. Teachers should consider the individual learner with ASD when selecting prompts. For example, if the learner does not like to be touched, then full physical prompts might not be a good choice. Conversely, if the learner seeks being touched, then full physical prompts may not be a good choice, either. For learners who can easily imitate others, models are often good prompts; but if learners cannot imitate adults, then models would not be a wise choice. 2. Skill characteristics. Teachers and other practitioners should consider matching the prompt type with the skill being taught. For example, if a teacher is trying to teach a learner how to respond to "What's that?" verbal and model prompts would be most helpful. If a learner is being taught how to follow his picture schedule, gestural or and pictorial prompts might be more helpful in this situation.

Implementing intervention Graduated Guidance step 2 monitoring learner progress

Teachers/practitioners record the number of chains done: -Correctly without prompts -Correctly with prompts -Correctly but with resistance Teachers/practitioners review progress-monitoring data to determine whether the learner is starting to do the skill without prompts. These data help teachers make decisions about when to make changes in the prompting procedure. For instance, if the learner was very resistant to completing the chain, increasing the reinforcer for completing the chain without resistance is recommended. Sometimes it is not possible to score each step of the chain. In such cases, the entire chain is scored as independent, prompted, or resistance. If prompts are given on any chain, it is scored as prompted. If resistance and prompts are given, it is scored as resistance.

Implementing intervention step 4 monitoring learner outcomes

Teachers/practitioners should track all of these responses because their occurrence provides valuable information about the learner's performance and progress. Teachers/practitioners record each type of response that occurs. Usually, the only responses that are recorded are the last one in the trial. Teachers/practitioners review data to determine if progress is being made. The first step in this process is to determine whether the unprompted and prompted correct responses total 100% of the learner's performance. The second step is to see if the percentage of unprompted correct responses is increasing over time.

Implementing intervention step 2 waiting for the learner to respond

Teachers/practitioners wait for the learner to respond before providing increased support. Prompting procedures are often used in conjunction with time delay, another evidence-based practice. Teachers/practitioners generally wait 3 to 5 seconds before providing any additional assistance to the learner with ASD.

consequence

The reinforcement and feedback provided after a learner's response are critical components for teaching the target skill. When learners use skills successfully or respond accurately, feedback should be highly positive and descriptive so that learners know exactly what they did that was correct. (i.e., feedback/reinforcement provided by teachers/practitioners)

simultaneous prompting step 6 identifying activities and times for teaching

The selection of activities and materials depends upon the skill(s) the learner needs to acquire. Teachers and other practitioners also should consider using favorite activities or materials during teaching activities to increase motivation. Regardless of whether discrete or chained behaviors are taught, two sessions are needed with the simultaneous prompting procedure. Teachers/practitioners identify two times during the day when the target skill can be taught and measured. One time is used for instruction; the other is a "probe" session, or test session. Teachers/practitioners identify how many trials will be implemented during each instructional and probe session. This decision is made by taking into account the learner's characteristics (how readily the learner acquires new skills) as well as the characteristics of the skill (how difficult the skill is). In general, more than one discrete skill is taught at a time. For example, if the skill is reading words, at least two words should be taught at once. At least five trials should occur in each instructional session for each skill. Chained skills are generally taught with total task instruction, meaning all steps of the chain are taught simultaneously as the chain should be performed. Probe sessions often have fewer trials (two or three) per target skill than instructional sessions. The purpose of probe sessions is simply to test (measure) whether learning is occurring. With chained skills, one opportunity to practice the skill each day may serve as the probe session.

Partial model prompts

The teacher/practitioner models only part of the target skill - either verbal or motor. Ex: When teaching a learner how to raise his or her hand during class, the teacher raises her hand part of the way.

Full model prompt

The teacher/practitioner models the target skill for the learner with ASD. Full model prompts can be verbal if the skill being taught is verbal, or they can be motor responses if the skill being taught involves moving a body part. Ex: When teaching a learner how to raise his or her hand during class, the teacher raises her hand while saying, "Raise hand." When teaching a learner how to request more, the teacher says, "More, please. Say, "More, please."

step 4 selecting reinforcers

When choosing reinforcers for learners with ASD, teachers/practitioners identify: -What has motivated learners in the past -Learners' deprivation state (i.e., What do they want that they can't easily get?) Teachers/practitioners identify a reinforcer that is appropriate for the target skill and instructional task.

simultaneous prompting step 4 selecting reinforcers

When choosing reinforcers for learners with ASD, teachers/practitioners identify: 1. What has motivated learners in the past 2. Learners' deprivation state (i.e., What do they want that they cannot easily get?) Teachers/practitioners identify a reinforcer that is appropriate for the target skill and instructional task.

step 5 identifying activities and times for training

When identifying the activities and times for teaching with the least-to-most prompting procedure, the teacher/practitioner must consider a number of issues. These include whether (a) teaching can occur in the situation in which the learner with ASD needs the skill, (b) the teaching will be embedded into other activities, and (c) the skill will be taught during direct instructional sessions (individual or group).

Least to most prompting

also referred to as the system of least prompts and sometimes as increasing assistance. With this procedure, a prompt hierarchy is used to teach new skills. The hierarchy is comprised of at least three levels. The first level provides learners with opportunities to respond without prompts. The remaining levels include prompts that proceed from least to most amounts of assistance.

step 6 selecting the number of levels in the hierarchy

When selecting the number of prompt levels to use, teachers/practitioners consider: -Task characteristics. With easy skills, fewer levels of the hierarchy are recommended, and with more difficult skills, more levels of the hierarchy may be necessary. These decisions are made individually for each learner and task. Often, a three-level hierarchy is adequate (independent level, intermediate level, and controlling prompt level). However, sometimes, the intermediate prompt levels can be broken down into multiple levels to further simplify the process for the learner. For example, when teaching a learner to "sound out" words, the intermediate prompt levels might be the sounds for individual letters or blends, or rules for applying phonetic principles (e.g., "an e' on the end makes the middle vowel say its name"); and the controlling prompt level might be a verbal model of the word. -Learner characteristics. As levels are added to the prompting hierarchy, learners are required to wait longer during initial instruction to obtain the assistance needed to respond correctly. Having to go through several prompt levels before adequate help is available may result in less attention and more interfering behavior (e.g., disruptive, stereotypical, repetitive). For example, if a learner with ASD has difficulty staying engaged in a task for a long period of time, a prompting hierarchy that includes several levels would not be a good choice. On the other hand, if a learner needs quite a bit of assistance to complete a skill successfully, a prompting hierarchy with more levels would be appropriate. -Time available for instruction. In general, when more levels are included in a prompting hierarchy, each trial takes longer (particularly during initial instruction) and fewer trials can be implemented during instructional sessions.

graduated guidance step 6 determining the length of the response interval

With graduated guidance, a short response interval (a couple of seconds) often occurs after delivery of the target stimulus, attending cue, and task direction. Because chains are being taught, this short response interval is an opportunity for the learner to start the chain on his or her own. When determining the length of the response interval, teachers/practitioners must consider: -Learner characteristics. Teachers/practitioners should consider factors such as how long it usually takes the learner to respond when the learner knows how to do the behavior. Adding a couple of seconds to this typical length of time is generally adequate for determining the length of the response interval. -Task characteristics. Teachers/practitioners should consider how long it takes another learner with ASD to use a similar skill. For example, if it takes another learner 4 seconds to respond to a verbal prompt, the teacher might try using 4 seconds as the response interval for this particular learner with ASD. Teachers/practitioners also should consider the amount of time a learner will be allowed to begin a task as well as how long the learner will have to complete the task. For example, a learner with ASD may begin writing his name within 4 seconds of the cue; however, it may take him 2 minutes to complete the task. In this case, setting the response interval at 6 seconds for the learner to start the task, and 2.5 minutes to complete it is reasonable. When selecting a response interval, teachers/practitioners time how long it takes the learner to complete similar skills/tasks. This information gives teachers and other practitioners a good starting point for the response interval.

How do I know when to start fading the use of prompts?

With prompting procedures, monitoring learners' progress is the way to make decisions about when to fade the use of prompts. With graduated guidance, teachers/practitioners fade prompts in two ways. First, they immediately withdraw the use of a prompt within the context of an ongoing activity when a learner with ASD begins using the target skill. They also fade the use of prompts when learners' independent use of the target skill increases and when their prompted responses decrease. When using simultaneous prompting, teachers/practitioners make decisions about fading prompts by evaluating both instructional and probe data. When learners with ASD use the target skill correctly 100% of the time during teaching sessions and 75% of the time during probe sessions, teachers/practitioners fade prompts by increasing the response interval during the probe sessions and by decreasing the intensity of the controlling prompt during instructional activities

Prompts

generally given by an adult or peer before or as a learner attempts to use a skill. Prompting can be used to teach a variety of skills, including seeking information, pointing to objects, identifying numbers/objects, and remaining "on task.

Gestural prompts

give learners with ASD information about how to complete target skills or tasks by using gestures. Teacher/practitioner makes some kind of gesture to prompt the learner to use the target skill. Ex: When teaching a learner how to write his or her name, the teacher mimics hand-writing, or points to the faucet when teaching the child to turn on the water to wash his or her hands.

prompting procedures

increases the probability that learners with ASD use target skills correctly. contains 3 components: -antecedent -target skill -consequence

controlling prompt

last level of LTM prompt hierarchy a prompt that ensures that the learner responds correctly. This procedure can be used with both discrete skills and chained skills

target skill

learners response

Visual prompts

often incorporated into teaching activities to help learners with ASD acquire target skills. can be used to teach a wide variety of skills, including academics, daily living, and vocational tasks. Visual prompts may include checklists, pictures/photographs, classroom schedules, or written instructions it is important to identify supports that are developmentally and age appropriate for individual learners with ASD Ex: Task analysis checklist, transition picture card, photographs, pictures/line drawings

Verbal Prompts

range in intensity level from least to most restrictive and include any verbal assistance given learners to help them use target skills correctly. Ex: When teaching a child to read the word "dog," the teacher might give a hint (e.g., "It says bow wow") or another clue (e.g., "It starts with "d"). Teacher/practitioner verbally gives a hint, a clue, or a direction.

graduated guidance step 3 selecting the cue or task direction

teachers and other practitioners identify the event or object that will cue the learner to perform the target skill/behavior. A cue basically tells the learner that it is time to use the target skill/behavior. Cues and task directions are bridges used in instruction to help learners identify the target stimulus and then engage in the target response. Teachers/practitioners select at least one of the following cues to begin the teaching exchange: 1. Material or environmental manipulation. Getting the materials set up and ready before the learner comes to the activity (e.g., setting up tasks for individual work time, setting the table before snack, placing playdough and toys on the table, arranging desks for small group work). 2. Task direction. Telling the learner to get his coat on to go home, giving a picture card to go wash hands, presenting a flashcard with a sight word on it and asking, "What is this?" 3. Naturally occurring event. Ringing phone, fire alarm, school bus arriving after school. Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following as a time to give the cue/task direction: 1. At the first prompt level (independent level). For example, if the teacher wants a learner with ASD to learn to wash his hands, the target stimulus is dirty hands, and the cue might be the teacher saying, "Time to wash your hands." This task direction would not be repeated. This is most appropriate when a learner with ASD is starting to use the target skill independently. 2. At each step of the prompt hierarchy. In a prompt hierarchy, prompts are sequenced from least to most assistance. For example, if a teacher wants a learner with ASD to learn to wash his hands, the target stimulus is dirty hands, and the cue might be the teacher saying, "Wash your hands." If the learner does not respond, the teacher might then say, "Wash your hands" while pointing to the faucet. If the learner still does not respond, the teacher again says, "Wash your hands" while taking the learner's hand and placing it on the faucet. In this example, the cue/task direction is first provided at the independent level, and then at each additional prompt level of the hierarchy. This is most appropriate when a learner is first being taught how to use the target skill.

Graduated Guidance

teachers/practitioners provide a controlling prompt (i.e., a prompt that ensures the learner will do the skill correctly) and then gradually remove the prompt during a teaching activity. This procedure differs from other prompting procedures because teachers/practitioners make judgments during the teaching activity based upon the learner's response. As learners start to use the skills, the prompts are withdrawn, but quickly reinstated if learners regress, or stop using the skills. This procedure should only be used with chained skills that include a physical component (e.g., putting on a coat, washing hands). For example, when individuals wash their hands, they get soap, turn on the water, rub their hands together, turn off the water, and dry their hands.

simultaneous prompting step 3 selecting a controlling prompt

teachers/practitioners select a prompt that ensures that the learner with ASD performs the target skill correctly. This prompt is referred to as the controlling prompt. Teachers/practitioners try out different prompts to see which ones are successful in getting the learner with ASD to do the task correctly. The issue is not whether the prompt occasionally gets the learner to do the behavior. A controlling prompt elicits the correct behavior on a very consistent basis (nearly every time it is used). In general, teachers and other practitioners should use the least intrusive prompt that is still controlling. For example, if pointing to the sink and saying, "Better wash your hands" is enough to get the learner to start the sequence of washing hands, that would be better than using a physical prompt. Models are good prompts, but learners must be able to imitate others for models to be effective.

target stimulus

the "thing" or "situation" to which we want the learner to respond by performing the target skill. If a learner's hands are dirty from finger painting, messy hands should be the target stimulus to wash hands. If the child wants a toy a peer has, the target stimulus is the toy and the peer. The target skill is asking for the toy.

Simultaneous prompting

two types of sessions are needed: instructional and probe. In the instructional sessions, the task direction or cue (i.e., a signal to the learner to use target skill) and controlling prompt (i.e., prompt that ensures that the learner will do the target skill successfully) are delivered simultaneously. In the probe sessions, the cue or task direction is delivered without the prompts. The probe sessions are used to determine whether learning is actually occurring. Simultaneous prompting has been found to be one of the most effective near-errorless teaching procedures and is relatively easy to implement.

Physical prompts: Full and Partial

used when learners with ASD do not respond to less restrictive prompts (e.g., modeling, verbal, visual). Physical prompting is useful when teaching motor behaviors Full Physical Prompt: The teacher/practitioner leads a learner through the task by providing full physical assistance (e.g., hand-over-hand) to ensure correct use of the target skill. Partial Physical Prompt: The teacher/practitioner provides minimal physical assistance to help the learner use the target skill correctly. Taps, nudges, and light pushes are used.

Model prompts

used when verbal or visual prompts are not sufficient in helping learners with ASD use target skills correctly. When using model prompts, teachers/practitioners demonstrate, or model, the target skill. Modeling may be used to prompt discrete and chained skills