PSC 151: The Self (4/11)

Motivational Influences on the Self-Concept Self-Esteem:

-A person's overall self-evaluation, or sense of self-worth -Those with a positive self-image tend to be happy, healthy, productive, & successful. -Those with a negative self-image tend to be more depressed, pessimistic about the future, & prone to failure -But: having an extremely inflated sense of self-worth isn't good either; EX: -terrorists-high self esteem, doesn't lead to positive outcomes

Function of the Self-Concept

-As a schema, the self-concept organizes our self-knowledge and influences what we notice, think about, and remember --Notice self-relevant information --Beliefs about self guide how we think about others --Self-reference effect: We process information more efficiently and remember it better when it relates to the self. (see next slide) NOTES -Notice self-relevant info: cocktail party effect, any loud space, can't pick out anything that anyone is saying, but across your room, you can distinctly hear that someone said your name; self-concept directing self to something that is relevant -beliefs about self guide how we think about others; evaluate others on own traits, you think of yourself as shy or extroverted=you notice in other people whether they are shy or extroverted -I'm athletic/unathletic=traits you tend to notice in other people

Are positive illusions adaptive? Benefits

-Self-serving biases may help protect people from depression and biological cost of stress -Depressed people tend to see themselves realistically; non-depressed people have positive illusions

Cultural Influences on the Self Individualistic Cultures

-Value independence, self-reliance, uniqueness -Strive for personal achievement -Ex: US, Australia, UK, Canada --Self is separate entity from family and friends; has independent view of self

Cultural Influences on the Self Collectivistic Cultures

-Value interdependence, cooperation, social harmony -Strive for group status -Ex: Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, China --others overlap with the self

Social Influences on the Self Social Tuning:

-We "tune" our self-concepts to others in the current social context -e.g., Interacting with someone who holds stereotypic vs. counterstereotypic views of women NOTES -adjust in subtle way -learn interacting with confederate, attitudes towards women: some had stereotypic views=weak, warm, incompetent vs. counterstereotypic=strong, cold, insensitive -participate rate self before interaction on variety of traits, seen as more stereotypic, think will interact with someone who has stereotypic views who about to talk to -wanted to ahve smooth interaction and affiliate with person -you shift self-concept for what you think they want and expect you to be like -low affiliation=don't like person, has stereotypic viewes, you shift away and see self as counter-stereotypic -coded participants beh, how stereotypically were females behaving; women acted diff in interaction as well

Self-Enhancement What various mechanisms of self enhancement are used? (1-4)

-We are motivated to maintain a positive view of the self -To do this, we use various mechanisms of self-enhancement: --Downward social comparisons --Self-serving cognitions --Self-handicapping --Basking in reflected glory NOTES -self esteem feels good to see in positive light, want to maintain pos view of self; general motivation=have others see you in positive light -to do this we use variety of psych tools, enable us to see ourselves in positive light -get self-esteem boost, compare self to them

Social Comparison Theory:

-We evaluate our opinions and abilities by comparing ourselves to others -Especially likely when we're unsure about our opinions or abilities -Comparisons happen quickly and automatically -Then, can sometimes adjust our judgments according to how appropriate the comparison is NOTES -don't know if good at soccer or not, you compare self to team=better? Worse? Give sense of how you are doing -best friend already took same class in diff school, retaking it here, not fair to compare your grade to her (she got A)

Observation Self-Perception Theory Def?

-We learn about ourselves the same way we learn about other people: -When we're uncertain about our attitudes and opinions, we infer them by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.

Limits of Introspection

-We think introspection tells us a lot, but often it can be misleading --We're often unaware of the situational factors that influence our behavior --We assume that introspection will provide accurate and complete information when it doesn't, which can lead us to underestimate our biases --We have incorrect causal theories (introspection gives us reasons for our behavior that aren't really true)

Self-Awareness Theory Define:

-When people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values NOTES -could be uncomfortable and aversive,we don't like introspecting, focus attention on self=compare and evaluate beh to internal standards, if beh doesn't match standards, could be aversive=falling short of standards

Observation Self-Perception Theory EX:Facial Feedback Hypothesis

-facial expression, posture effect emotions, we feel facial muscles, feeling our postures, make inference about how we're feeling from that -subjects hold pencil in teeth=forces mouth into smile -hold pen between lips, mushed facial muscles into frown =how feel about life? -people thought life going better, cartoons funnier when mouth was in smile=infer emo experience from how face arranged in particular situation -recent studies weren't able to replicate it, need more data

Limits of introspection 1.We're often unaware of the situational factors that influence our behavior

-look inside head, no evidence of what shaped our beh, we weren't aware of it EX: set out stockings, which pair do you think is nicest? (all were identical) -gravitate towards things on right rather than left; why like these? -generated other reasons=there's more sheen on quality of fabric, color is more special in this -picked reasons that made sense in retrospect

Types of Social Comparisons Compare to Similar others

-usually provides the most accurate information --good at SPA, most useful to compare how well you are doing, compare self to someone who has similar background in SPA

Observation: Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: eg Suspension bridge study

-went up to people crossing bridge=while crossing bridge-feel phys arousal OR after crossed bridge and sat down for awhile=heart rate is normal -DV=how many participant asked later call and ask on date; 65% going across bridge vs. 30% sat down; guys approached in middle of bridge=experiencing phys arousal=feeling scared, i'm over scary void, i must be in love, i should call her later, emotional experience changed based on explanation most salient to them in that moment vs. men after walked across bridge, not experiencing phys arousal (Misattriubtion of arousal)

Limits of introspection 2.We assume that introspection will provide accurate and complete information when it doesn't, which can lead us to underestimate our biases

-why do other people buy iphones? She bought iphone b/c all her friends did -but when asked about self; we don't find evidence of social influence, must have bought iphone for other reasons -interviewed Drs about choice of vehicle=BMWs -why think colleagues have their BMWs? b/c status thing, why you have your BMW? I did reaearch, there's vibration free system; looked inside head, we don't notice when being influenced by group

Limits of introspection 3.We have incorrect causal theories (introspection gives us reasons for our behavior that aren't really true)

.incorrect causal theories: ask people what's mood like today? Why think feeling that? Many say how much sleep i got last night. Look at corr between sleep and mood today, think should be there, but not actually influencing mood -don't have access to accurate info -lack of access=incorrect conclusion about -too much access to inaccurate info, doesn't give pic of reality

How does the self-concept develop? How do we come to know ourselves? Various sources influence the self-concept:

1.Introspection=what do I like and want? 2.Observation=watching our behaviors 3.Social Context

Self-Awareness Theory If don't match, two possible consequences:

1.Match behavior to standards "shape-up" 2.Escape self-focused attention "ship out"

Ways to avoid Overjustification Effect: 1-3

1.No initial intrinsic interest, you can't undermine it 2.Task-contingent vs. Performance-contingent -Task: reward for completing task vs. not; if you do math hw, get ice cream cone=produce OE effect; get mixup=why am i doing this? Did this for external reward -Performance: based on performance, get A+ vs. B, then get ice cream, =less likely to produce OJE 3.Unexpected Reward: don't expect, dont see OJE, doing it just to do it, didn't have initial reasoning for extrinsic award; comes later, can't engage in self-perception process, reward wasn't there when engaged in beh

Self-Enhancement What various mechanisms of self enhancement are used? 1.Self-Serving Cognition 1-3

1.People take credit for success, but distance themselves from failure. EX: taking a test (did well on test=I'm really smart; did poorly on test=badly written) 2.People are unrealistically optimistic (EX:nobody expects to get divorced, expect that their marriage will last) 3.People assign greater importance to things that they are good at EX: better at essay Q, I'm better at mult choice=I think its more fair, reasonably accurate way of testing -great at sports, poor interpersonal skills; athletics is really important, who cares about interpersonal? This is what is important to be good at

Self-Awareness Theory If don't match, two possible consequences: 1.Match behavior to standards "shape-up"

1.shape up: match beh to standards, change beh to how you think your beh should be EX:put giant bowl of candy, please just take one Sometimes put mirror, sometimes didn't -nore likely to follow sign when mirror is present, self-awareness present, they abide by what they think they should do; less likely to cheat on exams when mirror is present, more self-observation

Causes and Effects of Self-Awareness CHART 1.Self-focusing persons 2.Self-focusing situations LEADS TO

2.Self Awareness->3.Accessibility of Self-Discrepancy->4.Expectation for Discrepancy Reduction LEAD TO 5a. High->Match behavior to standards 5b.Low->withdraw from self-awareness NOTES -in self-focusing situation: mirror, on surveillance camera; self-focusing person=introspective or not -increases self awareness -heigntens awareness of discrepancy -expectation for discrepancy reduciton --no way i will change grade in class by studying -tend to have low expectations for exp reduciton, will ship out and distract self, won't have to think about aversive mismatch

Self-Awareness Theory If don't match, two possible consequences: 2.Escape self-focused attention "ship out"

2.ship out: escape self-focused attention, getting drunk and avoid negative thoughts, binge watching shows and escape self focused attention

Self-Enhancement What various mechanisms of self enhancement are used? 3.Basking in Reflected Glory What is it matched by?

BIRGing -Increasing self-esteem by associating with successful others EX: university apparel EX:-increase self-esteem, associate self with successful others; done with other individuals/groups as well, more likely to wear UCD following victory comapred to following a loss CORFing "cutting off reflected failure" e.g., "we won" but "they lost";distant self from unsuccessful others=use diff pronouns to talk about team if won or lost:

Observation: Two-Factor Theory of Emotion:

Emotional experience as a self-perception process that has two stages: 1.Experience physiological arousal 2.Seek an appropriate explanation for it e.g., Suspension bridge study Misattribution of Arousal: When we pick the wrong explanation for why we feel the way we do

Emotion in a Social Context:

-Back to the two-factor theory of emotion (Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation) -We can use others to help us interpret how we're feeling -e.g., Schachter & Singer study -Epinephrine vs. placebo -Informed or misinformed about drug's effect -Waited with happy or angry confederate -Misinformed group's emotions matched confederate's emotional state NOTES -cog interpretation; use others, why am i feeling this way? -use others to interpret how we're feeling -came into lab: injected with epinephrine: heart increases vs. placebo -participants in E group: informed or misinformed about drug's effect "Will make pulse increase, feel agitated" vs "will make you feel calm and serene" 3 conditions: injected with drug=agitated, injected with drug=calm, not injected with drug, not told anything -confederate in lab=happy condition, skipping around room vs. angry confederate=looks grumpy -how participatns feel? -misinformed groups emotions matched confederate's emotional state, exhibited some beh's; looking around, used that person as a reference -correctly informed, has cog int=know heart rate increased -misinformed epi group=unexplained, heart is racing, think injected with calming drug, why am i agitated? Look at confederate, he's angry, I must feel angry. People we're around influences us through process of cog interpretation

Are positive illusions adaptive? Costs

-Can lead to patterns of self-defeating behaviors -Can hurt social relationships NOTES -self-handicapping=describe research into 20 page document, send it in, they reject=don't get grant over and over; researchers wait until last minute, of course not good, no implications for self=creating obstacles to success -can hurt social relationships

Types of Social Comparisons Upward Social Comparison:

-Comparing ourselves to people who are better than us on a particular trait or ability -Useful if we want:something to strive toward. Can be motivating. Can also make you feel bad, compared to your role model, you're not doing so well

Types of Social Comparisons Downward Social Comparison:

-Comparing ourselves to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability -Useful if we want: to feel better about ourselves -spontaneously compare self to those around, change how we feel about self in the moment

Self-Verification

-Desire to have others see us as we see ourselves -People want others to confirm their self-concepts (including negative aspects) --Those high in self-esteem like people to view them in a positive way --But, those low in self-esteem often prefer that people share their negative views; happens at level of specific trait NOTES -important that others see us in the way we see ourselves -But those in low self esteem often prefer that people share their negative views; happens at level of specific trait. I see myself as socially awkward, people treating you as extroverted, dont like it and want people to see you way you see self -resting bitch face, annoyed hearing about that; thats not how i see myself, want you to see me as me -you're so organized! NO, i'm not, im really messy usually, just in this specific moment im organized -prove in way you see yourself, prove that you are scatterbrained

Observation: Self-Perception theory Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation Overjustification Effect:

-Intrinsic motivation: internal desire to do something, find it enjoyable and interesting, come from inside self -Extrinsic motivation: do it for external awards and pressure -Overjustification Effect: The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors. EX: -rewarding people for beh, less likely to do beh when reward is no longer there -Macy you got grades up, go to NY; then she stopped going to class, giving ext reward didn't work, i am doing this beh to get reward

How does the self-concept develop? 1.Introspection

-Looking inward to examine our thoughts, feelings, and motives -Not as common as you might think -Not as accurate as you might think

Social Context: Social Influences on the Self: Looking-Glass Self

-Looking-Glass Self (Cooley): The emergence of the self is dependent on social experiences --We learn who we are by taking the perspective of others, and observing how they treat and react to us. NOTES -take perspective of others, if others tend to treat you like your shy, through experience, you see yourself as shy; other people are looking glass, come to know and learn what we are like -overtime people influence how we think of self

The Self-Concept -what is the first step?

-Our knowledge about who we are and what we are like -First step = self-awareness -Have to recognize the self as an object before you can learn about the self as an object -Who possesses self-awareness? NOTES -schema about the self; collection of beliefs about the self=attributes, behaviors, attitudes, preferences -must be aware that there is a self to learn about in the first place -recognize self as thing you can learn about -babies don't develop self recognition until age 2 -great apes, maybe dolphins are capable of self recognition -Use dot on forehead test on infant, plop baby in front of mirror, reach forehead in mirror=recognize themselves in mirror, see themselves as entity in world

Self Reference Effect: Riding a bike in the winter. Walking to class on a cool fall day. Running away from a strange figure at night. Falling in a mud puddle on a rainy day. Calling a friend late at night. Waking up late for an exam. Eating at a nice restaurant.

-Self ref effect: EX: participants given list of random activities 1 condition=imagine yourself engaging in each of these activities 2 condition=just memorize these activities, or imagine someone else engaging -remember activities more accurately when imagining self engaging in each activity; relate course material to self, can better remember it later on

Self-Enhancement What various mechanisms of self enhancement are used? 2.Self-handicapping

-Self-sabotaging behaviors performed to protect the self from possible failure --Creating excuses (e.g., minimize amount of time spent studying, focus on lack of sleep) --Creating obstacles (e.g., actually don't study, stay out all night partying) Costs: -Increases actual risk of failure -Social costs (disliked by peers) NOTES -anticipate future failiure, have buffer in place -creating excuses: im not going to do well on test, think of reasons why besides you, worried won't do well; i didn't have much time to study, didn't get sleep last night, I'd be surprised if i did well-think up excuses for might not do well, ready made excuse to explain bad results away -create actual obstacles to success=if fail, reason, doesn't feel as bad, external reason you created=didn't study for test, partied all night before, doesn't negatively impact self-esteem b/c there was obst -benefit of self handicapping:buffer self esteem against the neg feelings that come with failing COSTS increases actual risk of failure -keep telling self -Social costs, people who self-handicap are negatively evaluated by peers while doing it