PSC 162 Exam III

Parenting and Punishment with operant and classical conditioning:

a. how to reinforce: schedules of reinforcement b. how to punish -availability of alternatives -behavioral and situational specificity - timing and consistency -conditioning secondary punishing stimulus -avoiding mixed messages c. what is more effective way to change behavior? reinforcement or punishment?--reinforcement! d. dangers of punishment -arouses emotion in the punisher and punished -difficult to do consistently -difficult to gauge the perceived severity of the punishment -teaches about power (authoritarian personality) -punishment motivates concealment and behaving differently when the punisher is vs. is not around -inconsistent punishment leads to punished not knowing rules

Philosophical concepts on which behaviorism was based Key Philosophical Ideas:EMPIRICISM

all knowledge comes from experience (versus the idea that the structure of the brain/mind determines our experience of reality). implies that at birth the mind is essentially empty. Philosopher John Locke called the mind of a newborn baby a tabula rasa (blank slate) ready to be written on by experience. Psychologist John Watson wrote, "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief and yes, even beggar man or thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, vocations, and race of his ancestors." (A good epigraph for Funder's Ch. 15)

Improving Self-Knowledge RAM:RELEVANCE

as with getting to know another person, you can evaluate yourself only on the basis of what you see yourself do, & this is limited by the situations you have experienced & even by what you have allowed yourself to do.

Existentialism

broad philosophical movement that began in Europe in the mid-1800s and continued beyond World War II. -It was a reaction, mostly in Europe, against rationalism, mechanistic science, the industrial revolution, and modern warfare—a set of issues that still bother people but not in quite the same way.

classical conditioning:

building on what is already there through association unconditioned stimulus: loud noise (door slammed) ---> unconditioned response: human startle response (innate) the unconditioned stimulus occurs, and the unconditioned response follows innately--without prior learning, automatically, and effortlessly -if this happens in the context of a formerly neutral stimulus, say a child's bedroom, entering the bedroom may remind the child of the boom which causes a startle or fear reaction, which is "classically conditioned" to the room stimulus

Carol Dweck

children who are incremental theorist do better in the face of failure than do entity theorist (study with children and puzzles)

George Kelly

chronically accessible constructs, REP test, sociality corollary

Tory Higgins

declarative self -->ideal self and the ought self -the two non-actual selves represent different focuses to life -ideal self- reward based, resembles the go system (jeffery gray) focused life on the pursuit of pleasures and rewards -the second focus is punishment based and resembles the stop system (jeffery gray), emphasizes avoiding punishments/other bad events -ought self represents the goal state based on that focus-where no punishments or other bad events will occur. -everyone had both kinds of goals. But individuals balance their goals differently -primarily pursue reward, you focus on the ideal self , failures to attain your goal produce depression -primarily avoid punishment, you focus on the ought self, fail to attain goal you get anxious

Improving Self-Knowledge RAM: UTILIZATION

emphasizes importance of accurate memory for & honest evaluation of your behavior, which might become easier with time (age).

Improving Self-Knowledge RAM:DETECTION

emphasizes the importance of avoiding distractions — such as worrying too much about the image you present —& focusing on the person you want to understand (yourself).

Philosophical concepts on which behaviorism was based Key Philosophical Ideas:ASSOCIATIONISM

explains how learning happens. Behaviorists claim that any two things, including ideas, become associated if they are repeatedly experienced close together in time; often, but not always, this closeness occurs as the result of a cause-and-effect, or stimulus-response, relationship.

Philosophical concepts on which behaviorism was based Key Philosophical Ideas:HEDONISM

explains why anyone does anything at all; claims that people (and organisms in general) learn for two reasons: to seek pleasure and to avoid pain. This is related to a social philosophy called utilitarianism, which claims that the best society is one that creates the most happiness (the most rewards, the "greatest good") for the greatest number of people.

Gordon Allport

first psychologist to focus on the study of personality. rejected behaviorism and psychoanalysis on personality because it did not go deep enough. -the trait approach, address personality processes "for some the world is a hostile place, where men are evil and dangerous; for others it is a stage for fun and frolic. It may appear as a place to do one's duty grimly;or a pasture for cultivating friendship and love" (1961). -Made a long list of traits, most NOT used in conversation. Found more than 2,800 traits in the english language.

Unconditional Positive Regard Rogers' Therapeutic Goal: A "Fully Functioning Person"

from important people in one's life paves the way to becoming a fully functioning person (as also claimed by Bowlby, in attachment theory).

Martin Seligman

helped to start the positive psychology movement 1998

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs, optimistic humanism; two existential assumptions: -phenomenology, or experience, is central -people potentially have free will ~added two more assumptions: -people are basically 'good' (compassionate, creative; not just driven by selfish sexual and aggressive drives) -people generally wish to make themselves and the world better (to build things, to improve things, to help others, to achieve self-actualization)

Schizoid (personality disorder)

i. 3% of the population, similar prevalence in men and women ii. inability to take pleasure from any kind of social interaction, ranging from interesting convo to sexual activity iii. indifference to others' opinions, absence if strong feelings; presents a bland façade to the world iv. important life event may leave the person literally at a loss for how to react; s/he may seem not to react at all v. people live solitary lives (unlikely to marry), they can sometimes perform adequately in jobs that don't require much interaction with others

paranoid personality disorder

i. 5% of the population, more common in women than men ii. assume the worst, skilled in identifying patterns of events and behaviors of others that "prove" they are being plotted against iii. they are reluctant to trust or confide in anyone iv. they may first appear calm, rational and analytic, it gradually becomes clear that they're stubborn, angry, and bitter v. frequently become embroiled in lawsuits

OCD (Personality Disorders)

i. 8% of the population ii. 8 characteristics any combination of any 4 to be diagnosed: 1.over-concern with rules and details a. deep reverence for rules, organization, and details to the point of absurdity 2. perfectionism a. nothing is ever good enough 3. workaholism a. cannot take a weekend or an evening off because they "have so much to do" and yet they may never seem to get much done 4. inflexibility a. set ways of thinking and behaving; not open to change. Applies values, ethics and principles mindlessly rather than with an appreciation for context; even considering a change in rules or procedure can make them anxious and even more rigid 5. packrat a. compulsively unable to throw anything away, even things with no possible use or sentimental value, become very anxious about discarding anything because they just might need it one day 6. inability to delegate a.has to do everything for himself because nobody can do things right, there is one and only one way to wash a dish, mow the lawn, paint a wall, or make a decision 7. miserly a. hoarding pennies against unlikely future catastrophes and meanwhile they live way below their means 8.rigid and stubborn a. they like to do things the same way time after time, day after day, even the contemplation of change upsets them

borderline (personality disorder)

i. 9 characteristics, combination of 5 is needed for diagnosis: 1. rapid mood shifts a. emotional vulnerability; frequent shifts in mood, as often as every few hours or even less b. they can swing from happiness to sadness and from anger to affection quickly with little or no apparent cause; shortly the feelings will pass as if nothing happened 2. uncontrollable anger a. frequently experience anger that is inappropriate, intense, or out of control, with very little impetus or non (that anybody else can see) at all; anger will also pass quickly 3. self-destructive acts a. a wide and dangerous range or self-destructive acts are possible, including self-mutilation and suicide b. suicide attempts are common and eventually 8-10% are successful; danger affliction with death rates comparable to the most threatening physical disease c. even among the non-suicidal, self-mutilation is common and may include compulsively "cutting" parts of the body including the hands, arms, and even genitals d. reason for cutting is unclear, possible explanation include feeling guilty, indulging in self-punishment, and the possibility that these individuals are so emotionally disconnected that they must hurt themselves to know they're alive 4. self-damaging behaviors a. self-damaging behaviors are less directly physical than self-destructive acts, but are still harmful; acts may include drug abuse, compulsive gambling, eating disorders, shop lifting and reckless driving b. pattern appears to involve undermining oneself at (or just before) the moment of success (dropping out of school just before graduating) c. some cases of "runaway brides" may fit this pattern 5. identity disturbances a. many people with BPD literally don't know who they are b. they must have great difficulty understanding how they appear to others and be confused about their values, career goals, and sexual identities c. they don't understand their own actions—cutters for example can say almost nothing meaningful about why they do it and BPD sufferers may try to be social chameleons, avoiding behavioral choices and fading into the background by doing what everyone else is doing 6. chronic emptiness a. they may complain of feeling "empty" and bored all the time; they may indicate that they desperately need to "get a life" b. unable to find activities that are satisfying and enjoyable, or to establish personal relationships that give their lives purpose and meaning 7. unstable relationships a. their interpersonal relationships are confusing, chaotic, noisy, unpredictable and unstable b. may be attributed to "splitting"; not being able to handle the fact that other people have a mix of good and bad characteristics 8. fear of abandonment a. many people with BPD put a great deal of effort into frantically trying to fend off being abandoned by others; sometimes fear of abandonment is realistic, often not b. they find it difficult to be separated from significant others for any length of time; (they might panic when someone is a few minutes late because they think the person left for good) c. self-destructive behaviors might be attempts to seek attention and/or manipulate people into staying (if you leave me, ill kill myself)

Axis I, II, and III psychological disorders (in the DSM)

i. Axis I disorders: Includes severe psychopathologies (Schizophrenia or Depression) ii. Axis II disorders: Includes personality disorders (personality disorders are social) iii. Axis III disorders: Lists physical conditions related to the patients mental health.

Idiographic approach to personality assessment

i. Idiographic (Person-Specific Goals) ii. Different researchers have conceptualized idiographic goals in different ways: iii. Current Concerns — ongoing motives that persist in the mind until the goal is either attained or abandoned (Eric Klinger). ⁃ At any given moment, people can list around half a dozen concerns that frequently come to mind. ⁃ Some of these current concerns can make you emotionally aroused when you think about them consciously, and you will find many of them drifting into your day- and night-time dreams. ⁃ The more a current concern is valued, committed to, or under threat, the more frequently a person will think about it. ⁃ If words related to a person's current concerns are quickly presented on a computer screen, his or her thought processes are momentarily disrupted, showing that the concerns are pre-activated at an unconscious level. ⁃ Some concerns are narrow and some are broad, and a given concern may last from a few seconds to a lifetime. ⁃ Once a concern is resolved, you typically forget it quickly. iv. Personal Projects — A personal project is something you do (Brian Little). ⁃ It's made up of the efforts you put into goals. ⁃ This idea is similar to life tasks (Nancy Cantor), the organizing goals people pursue at particular times in their lives (making the team, getting married, getting a job). v. Personal Strivings — idiographic goals help to organize areas of a person's life; e.g., "I'm trying to be a good listener when I interact with friends." (Robert Emmons, at UCD) ⁃ The personal strivings that a person reports offer useful insights into personality. ⁃ Strivings can also be a source of difficulty, as people commonly report two or more strivings that are inconsistent with each other. One study by Emmons found that people whose strivings are in conflict tend to experience more psychological distress and even more physical illness over time than those whose strivings are compatible.

George Kelly's personal construct theory

i. Kelly emphasized what he called personal constructs, the cognitive structures through which a person interprets, or construes, experience. ii. One way to assess personal constructs — Role Construct Repertory Test (REP Test) iii. When a person completes the Role Construct Repertory Test (REP Test), the person believes he or she is comparing particular people ("figures") in freely chosen terms. ⁃ Constructs and "contrasts" are both chosen by the test taker to describe important people in his or her life. ⁃ By asking the test taker to identify constructs and contrasts and use them to compare particular people, the test reveals 22 constructs and 22 contrasts used by the test taker to construe or understand the social world. ⁃ Research has shown that individuals more readily bring to mind particular constructs, called their chronically accessible constructs. ⁃ The REP test reveals these chronically accessible constructs. iv. Personal constructs come from past experience, but according to Kelly they are not determined by past experience. (This is a sign of Kelly's rejection of the idea that people are determined; instead he views them as having choice and responsibility.)

dependent (personality disorder)

i. about .5% of the population; more common in women ii. typically rely too heavily on a parent, sibling, or spouse to take care of everything for them—reliance goes beyond anything that might be reasonable due to age, illness, or physical handicap iii. they may exhibit a submissive interpersonal style iv. afraid to disagree with anyone about anything because they fear having to think or even exist on their own. At the same time, you may detect bitter, resentful edge to their feelings and behavior just under the surface. They don't really agree with you but theyre afraid that if they say so you might not take care of them v. akin to anxious attachment and rejection sensitivity but taken to an extreme

antisocial (personality disorder)

i. diagnosed in over 3% of males but only 1% f females; might be affected by testosterone ii. dangerous pattern includes behaviors such as vandalism, harassment, theft, and a wide variety of illegal activities such as burglary and drug dealing iii. impulsive and engage in risky behaviors such as reckless driving, drug abuse and dangerous sexual practices iv. typically irritable, aggressive, and irresponsible v. damage done to others doesn't bother them, they rationalize by saying "life is unfair"—the world is full of suckers and if you don't take what you can, youre a sucker too vi. first impression may appear articulate and charming but watch out vii. children who are under care of this disorder are at high risk for neglect or abuse viii. wide variety of negative outcomes may accompany this disorder: unemployment, divorce, drug addiction, imprisonment, murder and suicide ix. more common in low-SES urban populations

Narcissistic (personality disorder)

i. less than 1%, higher in men ii. full diagnosis is rare, the related trait of narcissism is quite common and has important implications iii. DSM-IV has 9 characteristics and 5 is required for diagnosis: 1. grandiose sense of self-importance a. they believe against all evidence that they are a superior being and expects recognition. This belief in superiority is independent of any real basis b. expect recognition with or without a specific reason. They truly are surprised when the recognition is not forthcoming c. from the lack of recognition, the narcissist is forced to conclude that other people are terribly unperceptive, unappreciative, or just jealous 2. preoccupation with fantasies of ultimate attainment a. walks around much of the day with a head full of visions of unlimited wealth, absolute power and flawless beauty or perfect love b. fantasies may lead person to become detached from what is really going on and unrealistic about achieving goals 3. belief that s/he should associate only with others who are "special" a. seems to see their self-image reflected in those they associate with; they may feel it's important to hang out with people who are wealthy, famous, brilliant or attractive b.may be inordinately attracted to elite institutions such as famous universities, exclusive neighborhoods, similar social circles mostly having to do with appearance, wealth, and fame. c. The basis of institutions appeal is not quality, pleasantness or the lifestyle or excitement, rather the attraction is most people can't get in, which is irresistible to a narcissist 4. requires excessive admiration a. NEED to be admired by others. They may try to evoke praise and not be subtle about it or simply about accomplishments, wealth, friends or appearances b. If you tell them their haircut, accomplishments, car is the best thing ever, they will agree without any insincerity c. Need for constant praise suggests that the narcissists seemingly high self-esteem is actually fragile, even brittle d. Is isn't based on real accomplishments, the narcissists grandiose self-image is always a danger of destruction, and s/he seems to sense this-humiliated narcissist will become furious and violent 5.sense of entitlement a. expects special treatment b. rules apply to other people c. narcissist is shocked when they're treated as exceptional d. appears to be no upper limit to the sense of entitlement; narcissist never gets enough to conclude its all that's deserved 6. exploits others a. feels justified in taking advantage of others whenever possible; the purpose is merely to get what s/he deserves b. may blithely lie, cheat, or simply leave the dirty work to be done by other people; s/he has much more important things to do, and you don't 7. lack of empathy a.exploitation is accompanied by the lack of empathy for others b. empathy is not called for because they are the only person who really matters c. assumes everything about themselves must be of great interest, may offer lengthy and inappropriately detailed monologues about his activities or feelings d. the narcissist can be shockingly inconsiderate of the feelings of others—bragging about how healthy they are in front of a sick person 8. enviousness a. further clue to the fragility of the narcissists self-esteem is their proneness to envy b. acutely aware of small differences in prestige, wealth, or attractiveness, gloats about being superior to those who have less and seethes envy regarding those perceived as having more c. the true narcissist would be happy with a small office as long as everyones was smaller d. obsession with wealth has much less to do with how much money they need or want to spend than with a need to feel superior to others 9. arrogant behavior and attitudes a. not generally difficult to spot; their arrogance gives them away b. belittle others and brag about themselves c. rude to service people, seeming to revel in their small degree of social superiority over waiters and cashiers d. boastful about small or nonexistent accomplishments and sarcastic and condescending about the virtues or accomplishments of anybody else

Self-consciousness interacting with priming from a scrambled word task to affect behavior

i. research has shown that some people may automatically tend to process information as self-relevant even if its not ii. this processed information was shown to affect behavior for self-conscious participants - study: priming self-conscious participants with stereotypes of the elderly a. can affect behavior of self-conscious person b. scramble words (stereotypes with elderly) c. after study, researchers timed how people walked and found that if they were primed with elderly words they walked slower d. participants took the information given and made it self-relevant

histrionic (personality disorders)

i. ~2% of the population, equally common in men and women but expressed differently: provocative dress vs. macho bragging (Charlie Sheen) ii. center of attention through dress, behavior, physical appearance, may also express strong opinions that turn out not to have much basis. When asked to defend views, they lack slightest idea what they really think and give impression of having expression opinion just for effect iii. may express strong emotions for happiness, sadness, liking, or disliking that suddenly changes or disappears iv. may describe casual acquaintances as "dear, dear friends" and consider relationships closer than they are v. people who know them may have trouble taking them seriously, they are difficult to get along with and experience difficulties in relationships and occupational life without knowing why

schizotypal (personality disorder)

i. ~3% prevalence rate, more common in males ii. some people are idiosyncratic, they experience odd thoughts, have seemingly strange ideas and behave unconventionally iii. odd or unkempt clothing, unique ideologies or "theories of everything" iv. interpersonally awkward to the point of strangeness, continues as interactions progress, particular difficulty in close relationships v. None of these characteristics is especially rare, and taken one at a time they may not pose serious problems, but when they appear in combination and are extreme, a diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder is made. At its extreme this disorder can approach schizophrenia, a serious condition characterized by major distortions of reality, jumbled thinking, and even hallucinations.

Attachment security and insecurity

ii. Shaver - the attachment system can be subliminally primed by threats a) secure people - activate positive but not negative attachment concepts b) anxious people - activate both positive and negative attachment concepts c) avoidant people - activate both but only activate negative ones when a cognitive load is applied

Tory Higgins's self-discrepancy theory (and emotional outcomes of different kinds of perceived discrepancies)

ii. self-discrepancy: chronic drive toward one or other selves leads to a specific kind of regulatory focus a. promotion focus: strive for ideal self, to attain what you most hope for, for accomplishment & growth ("go system") -reward and gain-seeking b. prevention focus: strive for ought self; to not fall short of your obligations, for stability and security ("stop system") -punishment and loss averse iii. ideal and ought selves are hypothetical standards and success or failure to meet them have divergent emotional correlates a. success in attaining your ideal self→ happiness b. success in attaining your ought self→ relief c. failure to attain your ideal self → depression d. failure to attain your ought self→ anxiety -shame/guilt because did not attain standard for society

Carl Rogers

inventor of client centered therapy, non-directive psychotherapy; optimistic humanism; two existential assumptions: -phenomenology, or experience, is central -people potentially have free will ~added two more assumptions: -people are basically 'good' (compassionate, creative; not just driven by selfish sexual and aggressive drives) -people generally wish to make themselves and the world better (to build things, to improve things, to help others, to achieve self-actualization)

Differences in perception and thought between individualistic and collectivistic cultures INDIVIDUALISTIC

- Self as independent agent - Value independence, self-reliance, uniqueness - Strive for personal achievement -Goal: focus on what YOU want - "The squeaky wheel gets the grease" -Use personality traits to describe self (e.g., "dependable")

Differences in perception and thought between individualistic and collectivistic cultures COLLECTIVIST

-Interdependence among people -Value interdependence, cooperation, harmony - Strive for group status -Goal: to fit in, promote group harmony -"The nail that stands out gets pounded down" -Use interpersonal roles to describe self (e.g., "daughter")

The I and Me (William James)

"Imagine for a moment that you are gazing into a mirror and you make the following observation: I see myself, I see Me. There are two aspects of the self. There is the I, the active observer, and there is the Me in the mirror, the Me as observed."

The Declarative Self Self-esteem Leary (1999):

"Sociometer" that signals & helps you track your success or failure in meeting social standards

operant conditioning:

learning based on rewards and punishments (often systems of rewards and punishments) a. animal or person learns to operate on the world in such a way as to change it in an advantageous way (skinner) -reinforcement: something that follows a behavior and makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future positive reinforcement: providing something good following a desired behavior negative reinforcement: removing something bad from the environment following a desired behavior

Conditions of Worth (Rogers' Therapeutic Goal: A "Fully Functioning Person")

limit one's freedom to think and act (e.g., when you think that people value you based only on certain things being true about you, or you behave based on certain norms/rules as if they were set in stone).

Carol Dweck

motivational theory -describes the relationships between views of the world, goals and behavioral responses -two components to the theory: 1. some people hold entity theories, belief that personal qualities such as intelligence and ability are unchangeable leaving them to respond helplessly to any indication that they do not have what it takes entity -->judgement --> helplessness 2.incremental theories, belief that intelligence and ability can change with time and experience. their goals involve not only proving their competence but increasing it incremental --> development --> mastery

Improving Self-Knowledge RAM:AVAILABILITY

raises fewer issues for self-knowledge, because much of what you do is available to you, if you notice it.

Laura King

research suggests that causes and effects are often confused - thinking or rationality (making sense of things) preceeds emotional balance (PA), whereas the opposite may be true, emotional balance (PA) leads to rationality (making sense of things)

John Dollard and Neal Miller

social learning theory- the habit hierarchy -the behavior you're most likely to perform at a given moment is at the top of your habit hierarchy -the affect of rewards, punishments and learning is to rearrange the habit hierarchy -if you're awarded for something it moves up on the habit hierarchy if you're punished for something it moves lower motivation and drives --> what you want -we have needs which produce drives -a drive is a state of psychological tension that feels good when the tension is reduced -pleasure comes from satisfying the need that produced the drives -primary drives: food, water, physical comfort, avoidance of physical pain, sexual gratification -secondary drives: positive drives for love, prestige, money and power; as well as negative drives such as the avoidance of fear and of humiliation.

Chronic accessibility

some concepts are more or less constantly primed and re-primed ... possibly for evolutionary reasons (e.g., noticing gender) -possibly for genetic reasons (e.g., having a temperament that leans toward positive or negative emotions) -possibly because of social/cultural experiences (frame switching)

Priming

some concepts have been activated recently, perhaps cued by something that happened earlier today or a just few minutes ago; some are more consistently activated, due to a person's past experiences, traumas, socialization/culture, or physiology (e.g., as seen in dreams)

operant conditioning (punishment)

something that follows a behavior and makes the behavior less likely to occur in the future

Barbara Fredrickson

the broaden and build model of positive emotion

Phenomenology

the conscious experience of a world that is: immediate (in the here and now); based on personal interpretations of reality or CONSTRUALS (i.e., not react directly to reality but to our perceptions of reality)

John Dollard and Neal Miller

the frustration-aggression hypothesis -the natural biological rxn of any person or animal to become frustrated or lash out if something is blocking them from their goal

Existentialists

thought science, technology, and rationalist philosophy had lost touch with human experience and endangered our sense of moral freedom and responsibility.

humanistic psychology

to understand aspects of the mind that are uniquely human and that assign meaning to life.

Walter Mischel

triggered the person-situation controversy by claiming that personality traits are not important and that situations are much more powerful determinants of behavior. approach combines two important ideas: 1) phenomenological 2) view of the cognitive system that describes thought as proceeding simultaneously on multiple tracks hat occasionally intersect -combination of two ideas is CAPS (cognitive-affective personality system)

William james

view of the core unchanging self -thinking is for doing

Value dimensions according to research by Shalom Schwartz and Lilach Sagiv

*According the Schwartz and Sagiv, everybody everywhere wants to achieve these goals Schwartz and Sagiv said that these 10 goals can be organized into two dimensions: 1. Openness to change-conservatism dimension Stimulation is high on openness to change and low on conservatism 2. Self-transcendence-self-enhancement dimension Achievement is high on self-enhancement and low on self-transcendance

David McClelland

*Studies of these motives use the TAT to measure needs (I think all we have to know for question #13 below is that McClleland used TAT in his assessment of motives such as need for achievement, affiliation, and power. Perhaps Dr. Shaver would ask us a question like, "Which measurement did McClleland use to assess the three motives that drive human behavior (achievement, affiliation, power)?" Some possible answers might be Rorscach, surveys, etc. If we understand that TAT measures are usually used to reveal unconscious motives and desires, then that's what we would use to study motives! :)

Carol Dweck's analysis of different ways of explaining one's failures

- some people aim to be judged in a certain way (as smart) and others aim to learn and develop -goal orientations are associated with different implicit theories about the nature of the world--personal constructs -some people are entity theorists and believe that personal qualities such as intelligence and ability are unchangeable, leading them to respond helplessly to any indication that they don't have what it takes (failure→ helplessness) -other people are incremental theorists, they believe that intelligence and ability can change with time and experience. -their goals involve not only proving their competence but increasing it (failure-->mastery striving) -Measuring the two styles: -a self-report questionnaire (S data) is used to identify the two motivational styles, participants choose between two options such as: 1. smartness is something you can increase as much as you want to 2. you can learn new things, but how smart you are stays pretty much the same -if you choose the first option, you are an incremental theorist, if you choose the second, you are an entity theorist -type of goal someone pursues can be determined either from within or from without it's assumed that most people are entity theorists or incremental theorists but some goals can be determined by the way a task is structured: a. teachers should be sure their students see class as a place to learn and improve not fail or succeed b. leaders in an organization should create an organizational climate in which employees see work as a place to learn and grow not a place to succeed or fail

William james

-Differentiated between the I and the Me -Me: the object of self knowledge, how you describe yourself (something others could say about you) -the me includes everything we hold dear, our personality traits, our body, and other things like our home, possessions and family members if someone were to harm any of these we would be angry (i.e. if someone hurts your child they might as well just punch you in the face) -I: the mysterious entity that does the knowing -more research on the me -the central aspect of the self is our psychological self -our abilities and personalities, self image maintains your behavior. your self image influences your behaviors -the "really real self" the inner observer, the I, appears to be the part of the self that remains constant across situations and throughout life -the self can have two different meanings the I (ontological self) and the me (epistemological self)

The Little Engine That Could" Pg 482

-In the U.S., there is a lot of emphasis on "The Little Engine That Could". -This represents "a high cultural need for achievement" -Different cultures have different emphasis on achievement.

Sartre's concept of "Bad Faith" (Existentialism)

-Leading an unexamined life -Leaving the fundamental questions about existence unaddressed -Just going along with the culturally prevailing view of what you should do and what it all means

Features of learned helplessness in animals and humans

-One feels fear when one knows what the danger is, and has a reason to think the danger is impending. -One feels anxiety when it is not clear exactly what the danger is, or one has no idea when the danger might actually arrive. -A chronically anxious person may be someone who has experienced no more than the usual ration of "hard knocks" but who has never been able to learn when to expect them or how to control them. -This feeling of unpredictability and anxiety can lead to learned helplessness, a maladaptive condition related to depression. -characterized by the feeling that you have no control over problematic situations. -Originally studied by Seligman, in dogs, as a model of depression. (Subsequently studied in many other animals.) -In humans there is a larger cognitive component. People in a state of learned helplessness tend to view their problem(s) as: Personal/internal - they see themselves as the problem; they have made the problem part of their sense of self ("I am unlovable") Pervasive/global - they view the problem as affecting every part of their life ("I will never be happy about anything because I am unlovable") Permanent/stable - they see the problem as unchangeable; it will never go away ("I will always be unlovable, and this will always ruin my life.") This pattern of cognition, or attribution, is a precursor of depression.

Self-Knowledge vs. Knowledge of Others

-Others' judgments more accurately predict behavior than do self-judgments for nearly 60 behaviors that have been measured. E.g., talkativeness, assertiveness, humor. -However, self-judgments predict emotional experiences in daily life better than do others' judgments. We have unique insight for our own feelings.

Accurate Self-Knowledge

-The process for gaining accurate self-knowledge can be described in terms of Funder's Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM). -Although the RAM was developed to explain the accuracy of judgments of other people, to some degree you come to know yourself the same way you know anybody else: You observe what you do & try to draw appropriate conclusions. -If you are fully aware of what you do, & interpret your own actions appropriately, you come to know yourself accurately. But this isn't necessarily easy to do.

Clusters of Axis II personality disorders

-cluster A: personality disorders characterized by severely confused thinking and lack of control with reality; schizotypal, schizoid, and paranoid disorders ("thinking disorders") -cluster B: behavioral disorders; patterns of behavior that interfere with social relationships ad can make a person difficult to be around and in some cases even dangerous: histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial and borderline personality disorder -cluster C: emotional disorders, marked by emotional upset, fear, and anxiety: dependent, avoidant, and obsessive compulsive personality disorders

Narcissism (what it is, how it works)

-develops from reactive arrogance compensating for intense shame -reactive arrogance grows out of experiencing shame as a child so its displayed outward (empty pride, no footing) -look at #43c for the DSM of narcissism -Charlie Sheen, Elliot Rogers (UCSB killer)

Philosophical concepts on which behaviorism was based Key Philosophical Ideas:

-empiricism -associationism -hedonism

Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi

-flow -helped to start the positive psychology movement

Adolph Hitler

-henry murray studied him -narcissistic personality disorder -sense of self importance and lack of empathy coupled with impressive political skills made these individuals utterly ruthless and successful in their drive for power

The Implicit Association Tes

-invented by Greenwald and colleagues -the IAT measures the strength of association in an individual's cognitive system that the individual may not be aware of -variations on this task have been used to measure implicit self-esteem, and thoughts and feelings about race & gender roles, & could be used to measure almost any kind of implicit knowledge; thoughts & emotions that we may be completely unaware of -in terms of the procedural self; the IAT measures reaction time in which participants are asked to push one of two buttons as quickly as possible -idea is that when two closely associated categories share the same button, responding will be easy and quick. if two categories that are less associated or conflict with each other share the button, then responding will be more difficult and slower -quick reaction time shows good association

Interaction between a young adult's prior quality of relationship with mother and subliminal presentation ("priming with") the sentence "Mommy and I are one"

-studies have shown that the subliminal sentence "Mommy and I are one" has positive efects on mood and behavior, whereas scrambled versions of the sentence, "One I and mommy are" do not -this implies that a grammatical sentence, not just single prime words used in Shaver's studies, can be processed unconsciously -the effects of, "Mommy and I are one" differ depending on the quality of a person's relationship with his or her mother, even though this quality isn't mentioned supraliminally (perceive consciously) at all -the effect of "Mommy and I are one" prime on implicit positive mood was greater when the relationship with their mother in was better in childhood

Harry Triandis

-suggested that individualistic and collectivist societies can be further categorized as either vertical or horizontal -vertical societies: assume that individual people are importantly different from each other -horizontal societies: tend to view all persons as essentially equal collectivist vertical society might enforce strong authority on its member (i.e. china), whereas a collectivist horizontal society might have weaker authority but a strong ethic that enforces quality and sharing (i.e. Israel) individualistic vertical society would have strong authority but also the freedom (and the obligation) to support oneself in a market economy (i.e. France), whereas an individualistic horizontal society would value individual freedom but also assume that meeting everyone's needs is a shared obligation (i.e.Norway)

perceptual defense (repression-sensitization)

-the process of failing to perceive stimuli that an individual might find disturbing or threatening -screens out info that could make the person anxious or uncomfortable Experiment: words were flashed on a screen like apple, child, dance or penis, rape, ***** Sweat gland activity was recorded as well as being asked if they saw the word RESULTS: for emotionally charged words, subjects said they didn't see the word even when their sweat gland activity was high. Some unconscious part of their brain could read the word while the conscious part couldn't. The brain has defense mechanisms that allow embarrassing info to not enter the conscious mind

The flow state is characterized by:

-tremendous concentration and lack of distractibility; -thoughts that concern only the activity at hand; -time seeming to pass quickly. [Examples: painting, skiing, reading an engrossing book, running, playing music with friends, . . . ]

John Dollard and Neal Miller

-when you have psychological conflict, this conflict between desire and fear and the way it can change over time is addressed in the approach-avoidance conflict (theory has five assumptions) 1. increase in drive strength increases tendency to approach or avoid the goal 2. two competing responses, the stronger one (the one with greater drive strength behind it), will win out 3. the tenancy to approach a positive goal increases the closer one gets to the goal 4. the tendency to avoid a negative goal also increases the closer one gets to that goal 5. the avoidance gradient (assumption 4) is stronger/ steeper than the approach gradient (assumption 3).

Three Problems related to Bad Faith (according to Sartre):

1.Ignoring the troubling facts of existence means living a lie, which Sartre considered cowardly and immoral. (Notice that he still had opinions about morality even though he asserted that life is inherently meaningless.) 2.Even if you temporarily avoid angst, you will not be deeply happy, because you will sense that you are on shaky ground (avoiding, repressing). 3.Choosing not to worry about the meaning of life and surrendering your choices to external authorities is still making a choice.

1. Anguish 2. Forlorn-ness 3. Despair

According to the French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre (1965) angst consists of three kinds of feelings"

Rationale for "positive psychology"

An attempt to correct the overemphasis on weakness and pathology that had dominated psychology for at least half a century (the disease model). Purpose: To define, understand scientifically, and facilitate the creation of fulfilling lives. Positive emotions and traits are important for preventing problems, coping with problems, and recovering from problems.

authoritarianism and the F Scale;

Authoritarians tend to be uncooperative and inflexible when playing experimental games, more likely to harm another person when an authority figure orders them to, experience fewer positive emotions than nonauthoritarians, are likely to oppose equal rights for transexuals, and watch more television. When they feel that their standard of living is declining, crime is worse, etc. they become 6x as likely to favor restrictions on welfare and 8x as likely to support laws to ban abortions. They crave strong leaders even to the point of following dictators. Combination of fearfulness & pseudo conservativism. correlation to the California F scale (Fascism)

Humanistic Psychotherapy

Based on the importance of authentic communication between the therapist and the client to: -help the client perceive his or her own thoughts and feelings without the therapist trying unilaterally to change them in any way (i.e., the therapist must be a good and supportive listener). -make the client feel understood and appreciated no matter what the client thinks, says, or does on a particular occasion (unconditional positive regard). This time-consuming process promotes insight and the removal of conditions of worth, according to Rogers' theory, and helps a client become a more self-actualized, more fully functioning person. This method is especially appropriate for students.

Anguish (angst consists of three kinds of feelings)

Because choice is inevitable and imperfect.

Philosophical concepts on which behaviorism was based

Behavioral psychologists study how a person's behavior results from his or her environment, particularly the rewards and punishments (physical and social) provided by the environment. Learning - changing behavior as a function of experience

The Broaden and Build Model of Positive Emotions (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001)

COGNITIVE RESOURCES Problem solving skills, attention, mindfulness PHYSICAL RESOURCES Better health SOCIAL RESOURCES More successful and long-lasting relationships PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCES Optimism

American vs. Japanese reactions to failing a test (e.g., of creativity)

Canadian students who failed a test of creativity quickly searched for ways to think well of themselves in other contexts, whereas Japanese students showed no sign of this response. Canadian's who failed an experiemental task persitited less on a second task and denigrated its importance. Japanese participants had the opposite reaction, working harder and viewing the task as something important they should strive to better at. Confucius say, "failure always open opportunity for learning."

Authentic Existence (Existentialism)

Courageously facing facts related to mortality and existence. being honest, insightful, and morally responsible taking responsibility for your goals, choices, and identities accepting that nothing protects you from bouts of loneliness and unhappiness accepting that everything, including you, ages, changes, and eventually disappears or becomes insignificant, except by our own valuation of it A courageous examination of your own experience reveals ... You are ultimately alone in making some important choices. Life has no meaning beyond what you give it. Any meaning in life seems to be partly an illusion (a defense). Human beings are the only animals that know they are going to die.

Emotional intelligence and characteristics of people who are low in emotional intelligence

Def: accurately perceiving emotions in oneself and others and controlling and regulating one's own emotions Alexithymic-people who have so little emotional awareness that they are unable to think or talk about their own feelings

Julie Norem

Defensive pessimism -focused on the strategies college students used in dealing with their academic work -found that optimistic students deal with anxiety about exams by expecting to do their best. Others expect the worst so that they can be pleasantly surprised when their worst does't happen -->these individuals are known as defensive pessimists -found both kinds of students succeeded in terms of exams however, optimists seem to enjoy life more. (demonstrates two routes to a common goal, showing different ways people cope)

Julie Norem's studies of "defensive pessimism"

Defensive pessimism — expect the worst, so you'll be pleasantly surprised when the worst doesn't happen. Optimism — expect/hope for the best Optimism and defensive pessimism are different strategic routes to a common goal (success). Defensive pessimists are just as successful as optimists. But optimists enjoy life more.

Forlorn-ness: (angst consists of three kinds of feelings)

Each of us is alone with our existential choices.

"Angst"

Existential Anxiety

Factor analyses of personality trait terms in different cultures: China

Extraversion, conscientiousness, unselfishness, harmfulness, gentle temper, intellect, and dependency/fragility

Flow: Miyalyi (Mike) Csikszentmihalyi

Flow is a focused and ordered state of consciousness that occurs when the present activity is autotelic (enjoyable for it's own sake); occurs when there is a Balance, a fit, between skills and challenges.

Mischel's insights into delay of gratification Mischel (1999)

Followed this same sample of individuals longitudinally from pre-school into early adulthood. Results: Early delay of gratification tendencies predicted many important life outcomes in adulthood. Greater delay in childhood predicted higher SAT scores, better high school and college grades, better jobs, lower likelihood of criminal behavior, and lower divorce rates. (Similar to Big Five conscientiousness.) These results made Mischel, the situationist 'bad guy' in Funder's book, more of a believer in personality. The ability to delay gratification was stable across a 20-year period! (It is similar in that respect, too, to Big Five conscientiousness, which is fairly stable over years.)

Self-Discrepancy Theory Tory Higgins

Higgins proposed you have 3 kinds of self-relevant schemas & their interaction determines how you feel about life. 1.Actual self — the self-schema that represents what you think you are really like 2. Ideal self — the self-schema that represents what you aspire to be at your best 3. Ought self — the self-schema that represents what you feel you should be — as opposed to what you would like to be

Phenomenology

How You Construe Your Experience

The I and Me (William James)

I - Self as subject -The Knower -Ontological self -The self that experiences life & makes decisions -Sometimes referred to as the homunculus or soul -Not much research on the I

Dollard and Miller's analysis of ambivalence in approach-avoidance conflicts

If you deprive an animal of food but shock it when it gets to the food, when the animal gets to the point of equilibrium-- which is the balance between the approach gradient and avoidance gradient (which is steeper)—they will show ambivalence. Freud was interested in this in relation to fear or repression of sex or aggression

Axis II disorders:

Includes personality disorders (personality disorders are social)

Axis I disorders:

Includes severe psychopathologies (Schizophrenia or Depression)

Despair: (angst consists of three kinds of feelings)

Lack of control over many critical life outcomes and our inability to change them (including the inevitability of death)

Axis III disorders:

Lists physical conditions related to the patients mental health.

Seymour Epstein's Cognitive-Experiential Self Theory and its use in studies by Laura King

Logic used with Positive Affect (PA) showed the interaction of the two systems (The Rational System and the Experiential System) - King's research suggests that causes and effects are often confused - thinking or rationality (making sense of things) preceeds emotional balance (PA), whereas the opposite may be true, emotional balance (PA) leads to rationality (making sense of things)

David McClelland's use of the TAT to assess motives such as need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power

McClleland used TAT in his assessment of motives such as need for achievement, affiliation, and power. Perhaps Dr. Shaver would ask us a question like, "Which measurement did McClleland use to assess the three motives that drive human behavior (achievement, affiliation, power)?" Some possible answers might be Rorscach, surveys, etc. If we understand that TAT measures are usually used to reveal unconscious motives and desires, then that's what we would use to study motives

The I and Me (William James)

Me - Self as object -The Known -Epistemological self -The self as observed & described -Based on declarative knowledge about the self -Most research focuses on the Me

nomothetic approach to personality assessment

Nomothetic (Not Person-Specific) Goals The Big Three, or Five, or Two -Three primary motivations drive human behavior (according to David McClelland): the need for achievement, the need for affiliation (or intimacy), and the need for power. -Studies of these motives use the TAT to measure needs. -Criticism: Although many goals fall into one of these categories, not all of them do. Five categories of goals emerged repeatedly in a number of other studies (by Emmons, on UCD students): (1) enjoyment, (2) self-assertion, (3) esteem, (4) interpersonal success, and (5) avoidance of negative affect. Two kinds of goals could be classified when examining goals generated by a group of college students: (1) goals related to work and (2) goals related to social relationships (Robert Kaiser and Daniel Ozer) - similar to Freud's stated goals for psychotherapy: to allow a client "to love and to work."

Fredrickson's "broaden and build" conception of positive emotions The Broaden and Build Model of Positive Emotions (Barbara Fredrickson, 1998, 2001, and beyond)

Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention, cognition, and action, which ultimately contribute to the building of physical, cognitive, and social resources for psychological well being.

Factor analyses of personality trait terms in different cultures: Spain

Positive valence ('goodness'), negative valence ('badness' or evil), conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, pleasantness and engagement

Humanism

Psychology needs to address issues such as conscious experience, interpretations, construals, and meanings.

Value dimensions according to research by Shalom Schwartz and Lilach Sagiv

Schwartz and Sagiv said that the 10 possibly universal values are: 1. Power 2. Achievement 3. Hedonism 4. Stimulation 5. Self-direction 6. Understanding 7. Benevolence 8. Tradition 9. Conformity 10. Security

The Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow

Self-Actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological -When the lower needs are satisfied, an individual will work to satisfy the next set of needs until he or she reaches self-actualization, if conditions allow that.

Behavioral consistency in the US and Korea

Self-determination: Individualist view is that the cause of behavior lies within the self. Thus, behavior is consistent across contexts. Behavioral consistency is associated with better mental health in the US Collectivist view is that individuals are embedded in context. Thus behavior is context-dependent Behavioral consistency is NOT associated with mental health in Korea

What certain forms of amnesia reveal about the nature of memory for one's own traits

Studies showed that even when someone has lost their memory the way in which they would deal with a given situation (which is what they have actually experienced but they don't remember) is consistent with accounts from people who witnessed them undergo the situation.

Funder's Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM).

Target --> relevancy --> availability -->detection --> utilization -->judge

Dollard and Miller's analysis of ambivalence in approach-avoidance conflicts

Tendencies to approach or avoid a goal that is both attractive and dreaded may change over time. Both tendencies increase as the goal gets closer, but the avoidance gradient is steeper than the approach gradient. Ambivalence (and backing out) will be at the point where the two gradients cross.

Optimistic Humanism: Rogers and Maslow(reactions to behaviorism and to pessimistic existentialism)

They began with two existential assumptions: 1.phenomenology, or experience, is central 2. people potentially have free will

Optimistic Humanism: Rogers and Maslow(reactions to behaviorism and to pessimistic existentialism)

They then added two more assumptions: 1.people are basically 'good' (compassionate, creative; not just driven by selfish sexual and aggressive drives) 2. people generally wish to make themselves and the world better (to build things, to improve things, to help others, to achieve self-actualization)

Optimistic Humanism: Rogers and Maslow Humanistic Psychology: Fully functioning Person

This time-consuming process promotes insight and the removal of conditions of worth, according to Rogers' theory, and helps a client become a more self-actualized,

Self-Actualization: Carl Rogers(inventor of client-centered, non-directive psychotherapy

To develop one's capacities, achieve one's potential, be authentic; to Rogers, positive self-actualization is the meaning of existence (a departure from pessimistic existential philosophy, which seemed to Rogers to be way too grim). fostered by unconditional love and is it is restricted by "conditions of worth."

Harry Triandis's concepts for comparing cultures

Tough (just a few goals for everyone to achieve) vs. easy (many different goals, some of which almost everyone can achieve) Emphasis on achievement, emphasis on love or affiliation Complexity (modern vs. tribal, for example; but this notion of complexity is, as Funder explains, complicated) Tightness-looseness (e.g., regarding left-handedness) Heart (fairness, mercy, gratitude, hope, love, religiosity) vs. head (curiosity, critical thinking, artistic creativity and excellence) [San Francisco and LA, high on head]

Harry Triandis's concepts for comparing cultures

Tough vs. easy: Some cultures have "tough" goals, few ways to attain. Some have "Easy" goals (there are many and there are many ways to attain them). Tightness-looseness: cultures that are ethnically homogeneous and densely populated tend to be tighter than cultures that are more diverse or spread out. Basically if "tight", the culture allows less deviance from the norm. "Loose", more room to be different from the normal standards.

"Angst"

Two Fundamental Questions About Our Existence: -Why am I here? -What should I be doing? Not being able to answer these two questions leads, according to the existentialists, to existential anxiety -- a pervasive sense of uncertainty and dread. (Maybe existentialism is less popular, or less urgent, today because we have SSRI anti-depressant medications.)

Major philosophical questions about existence:

What is the nature of existence ("being")? What does life mean? How much choice do we have? How responsible are we for what we do and who we become?

The I and Me

William James (1890) distinguished two types of self:

Construal (Phenomenology )

Your particular experience of the world