PSC 2440 Test 1

Foreign policy level

-An additional level that is frequently used that falls between the system and the domestic -Examines the decision-making by foreign policy elites, emphasizing the two-level game -Assumes that decision-makers need to appeal to audiences at both the domestic and system levels -Emphasizes the idea that interests must be balanced between the international and the domestic

CR influenced by the work of Thomas Hobbes

-Argued that individuals were selfish by nature and in a world without government, they would inevitably come into conflict with one another -Humans are driven by passions -State of nature=state of perpetual conflict -Life in the Hobbesian world is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" -This applies to the international system in that actors are motivated by the pursuit of power

Wilson's 14 Points

-One of the founding documents of the contemporary liberal perspective -An attempt by liberals to remake the international order after WWI -Wilson rejected the realpolitik (power politics) practiced in Europe during the 19th century -Proposed a series of reforms intended to create interdependency, backed by international institutions -A new age of European politics that was not chaotic, constant warfare -Proposed a free trade system, an end to secret diplomacy and secret alliances, arms control, freedom of the seas, the diplomatic settlement of colonial claims, and the creation of the League of Nations -European states would not go along with this, opting for punishing Germany. The US would withdraw into isolationism after Wilson's death -This project will fail miserably

Thucydides: the melian dialogue

-One of the most famous passages in the History and the starkest expression of power politics -We see Athenians defy norms that should govern actions between fellow greeks->defy norm of neutrality -The Athenians seek to use hard power to coerce the Melians into compliance -"The strong do what they can and the weak do what they are told" -Ultimately, Athens destroys Melos when Melos refuses to comply -Demonstrates hubristic over-reach and the breach of commonly held values on the part of Athens. Shows the disconnect between the values expressed by Pericles at home and Athenian actions abroad

Zero-sum game

-One state's gain represents a loss for another state -A state rather gain nothing than let the other state gain anything -No capacity for mutual gain->reflected in prisoner's dilemma -This is why defection is common and cooperation is difficult

4th Great Debate

-Ongoing debate in IR theory that covers a number of themes -Explaining vs understanding -Positivism vs postpositivism -Rationalism vs reflectivism

Goals of the European Union

-Overall goal is an "ever closer union" -To join the EU, a state must meet several criteria: -Stable democracy -Respect for human rights -A stable market economy that can compete within the EU -Accept obligations of membership, including the acceptance of relevant EU laws over national laws -EU seeks to insure that states harmonize upward in terms of the variety of standards and regulations put forward by the EU -States are no longer free to set their own standards, must align with EU standards -The EU is also committed to improving living standards throughout Europe and will engage in redistributive policies to assist newer, less developed members

The Kyoto Accords

-Passed in 1997, the Kyoto Accords sought to address the problem of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions -A much broader problem/more costly problem to address -The Accords called for significant reductions in GHG emissions by 2010 -Annex I countries (the developed world) were legally bound to meet the reduction targets -Annex II countries (the developing world) were called upon to meet the targets, but were not bound to do so -Multiple methods were adopted for reducing GHG emissions and punishments for Annex I countries were also incorporated into the Accords

Morgenthau and power

-Politics is an expression of human drives, namely the desire for power -Politics is where we compete for power and where our desire for power plays out -At the domestic level, the state's executive power can tame human drives and desires and keep order and stability (checks and balances, democratic process) -No such executive power exists at the system level, so human passions play out more readily, leading to greater levels of conflict -Chaotic, conflictual politics, system can be characterized as anarchic Understanding politics from the bottom->up

Domestic sovereignty

-Populations obeys and owes allegiance to the government (i.e. pay taxes, obey law) -Citizens actively consent to the government -Does not mean non-democratic states do not have legitimacy

Rule 5

-Preservation of sovereignty and independence is limited to the Great Powers. Each will seek to preserve each other's sovereignty. However, secondary powers can be divided if it serves the interest of maintaining balance -Preservation and respect of sovereignty only applies to Great Powers, not extended to non-Great Powers

Power and polarity

-Realists argue hard power is what matters in the international arena -The international system will be stratified based on the distribution of power, which will affect state interests -First-tier powers will be primarily concerned with other first-tier powers, second-tier with second tier. A third tier power will not be a threat to a greater power -Also regional balances of power (i.e. the Middle East) -The polarity of the system is determined by the number of first-tier, or Great Powers, in the system -Multipolar systems: 4 or more Great Powers -Bipolar systems: 2 Great Powers -Unipolar systems: 1 hegemonic power -Polarity is a secondary structure in the anarchic system, which will constrain and influence state behavior and will affect the overall stability of the system -Within the realist tradition, there is a debate about which distribution of power is the most stable (tripolar systems are always unstable)

Interdependence

-Refers to the complexity of interactions between states, such that states forge a variety of ties between one another->can be political, social, cultural or economic -Focus mostly on economic interdependence -When interdependence is high, cooperation is easier and conflict is less likely because states are linked together to such a degree that conflict will be more costly -Create interdependencies such that actor behavior is constrained so they can't pursue independent foreign/economic policy -Ordering preferences in such a way that rational actors will prefer to maintain them because it would be costly to sever them

Hubris

-Role of hubris and overreach on the part of the Great Powers -Feels unbound to order, excessive confidence/pride, refusal to accept limits -Leads actors to violate norms of the community

Rules of the balance of power system

-Rules as normative: they are an agreement among great powers that serve as a way for great powers to have self-restraint -After Napoleonic Wars: no state should have as much power as Napoleon did

Classical Liberalism

-Scientific analysis -Abandon non-quantifiable variables->incorporate natural human variables -Neoliberal Institutionalism does not disagree with Classical Liberalism -Will emphasize cooperative possibilities in IP -Does not assume cooperation -Explores conditions in which cooperation will become possible -Goal is to ensure the conditions are developed and maintained -If we maintain these conditions, likelihood of conflict will be reduced

Neoliberal Institutionalism

-Scientific model of IP -Abandons emphasis on human nature, which is unquantifiable -Replaced with rational actor model -Explicitly concerned with influencing policy making

Bargaining tends to work best under certain conditions

-Scope of the issue: is it global or local? What are the costs and benefits? -Extent to which issues are linked -How decision-making rules are made and who has influence over these rules -Legalization of a process to make it more transparent

Revisionist powers

-Seek to challenge it and assert dominance within the balance of power -Not satisfied with balance of power -Seeks membership in club of great powers -In best interests to destabilize system bc interests are not satisfied in existing world -How other states deal with revisionist states will increase or reduce the likelihood of conflict

Smith: The Theory of Moral Sentiments

-Smith is primarily an economist and theorist of free market capitalism against the prevailing mercantilist economic theory of the time -Free markets more productive that mercantile system (state plays a role in directing the economy->corruption) -Free trade as a system that will facilitate cooperative outcomes in IP->development of interdependence -Smith developed a moral theory emphasizing rational self interest and sympathy -Human beings are tied together by bonds of sympathy->creates an incentive for good behavior -Sympathy ties individuals together through a sense of fellow-feeling -Allows the development of basic trust between individuals, which is necessary for a functioning free market system -When we engage with economic interactions with us, we expect them to play by the rules of the game (extend a level of trust to strangers) -Abide by terms of contract

Offensive realism

-States seek to maximize power vis-à-vis their opponents -Pursue power without limits in order to deter potential aggressors -Argue that bipolar systems are more stable, as two superpowers can concentrate solely on one another -Weaker states engage in both bandwagoning and buck-passing behavior

Rule 2

-States will continue to compete for power, but their action is constrained by the other Great Powers. Each state will act to ensure that no other state gains too much -This contributes to a sense of commonly agreed upon norms of community and limits to the pursuit of power

The human rights regime

-The human rights regime is most effective when all actors participate at multiple levels of analysis -The case of South Africa: -The UN stripped South Africa of voting rights and put economic sanctions in place -MNCs divested from South Africa -NGO's mobilized publics in the West to pressure their states to cut ties with the South African regime -The ANC in South Africa supported the sanctions regime

Westphalian sovereignty

-The state asserts the right to conduct its domestic affairs without interference from other states -The principle exists but it is very often breached -Unacceptable for countries to claim non-interference as an excuse to abuse citizens

International legal sovereignty

-The state is recognized as sovereign by other states in the international system -Grants a state all the privileges that other recognized states enjoy -Highly political process, power plays a role

Crisis and escalation dominance

-Throughout the Cold War, the US and the USSR, would enter into crisis situations -In each crisis, the credibility of threat is being tested through what is, in essence, a game of chicken -During the crisis, each side will incrementally increase the level of threat up until the point where one side is given the choice of an unacceptable escalation (the use of nuclear weapons) -At this point, a rational actor will back down and withdraw -For the winner, this represents a relative gain, and a demonstration of the victor's credibility, both to the enemy and to the winner's allies

Prisoner's Dilemma

Game theory that illustrates why cooperation is difficult

Relative gain

How much more or less a state gains vis-à-vis the other state

Rule 4

Negotiation is better than fighting, but war is seen as an acceptable tool of foreign policy, if it is needed to maintain balance

Spillover

Positive spillover effect is the notion that integration between states in one economic sector will create strong incentives for integration in further sectors, in order to fully capture the perks of integration in the sector in which it started

Actual power

Potential power->enhanced/modified/constrained->tangible sources (industrial development/access to resources) or intangible sources (national image, public support, leadership)

Cooperative rivalry

Some issues will arise, such as the problem of state-owned enterprises in China or cybersecurity, but these can be resolved through the bargaining process

Buckpassing

Where weaker states stay on the sidelines while more powerful states deter aggressors

Results of the Kyoto Accords

​​-By 2010, none of the Annex I countries had met their reduction targets -As a region, Europe saw reductions, but this was based more on poor economic performance in several Eastern European states. Western European states in fact increased their emissions -The Accords generally called for a radical restructuring of economic systems -Many in the developed world argued that they were being economically harmed by the Accords, vis-à-vis Annex II states -China was included in Annex II. In 1997, Chinese emissions were low, before the country began rapidly industrializing. Today, China is the top emitter of GHGs -Led the US to reject the Kyoto Accords, arguing that China was given the opportunity to free ride at the expense of the developed world -Unconvincing in persuading the US into accepting unequal gains->China would be able to develop without limit, while US would be hobbled

Non-state actors

-Defined as voluntary organizations that are able to operate and exercise influence internationally -Have interests in diverse issue areas: political, economic, social, cultural -Include: IGOs: intergovernmental organizations, NGOs: non-governmental organizations, MNCs: multinational corporations

Kantian Perpetual Peace

-Democracy -Trade and interdependence -International law and organization -Think of it as a pyramid, each side will reinforce/weaken the other -Is possible because human beings are capable of learning and enlightenment -Individuals desire freedom, which promotes democracy and trade. International law and organizations facilitate the further development of trade and democracy

Power potential

-Determined by factors such as: geography, natural resources, population -Represents the resources available to an actor that can be mobilized to influence other actors in the international system -Does not automatically translate to actual power. A variety of factors will affect whether an actor can actually mobilize its power potential

Rationalism

-Emphasis on positivism and foundationalism -About empirical evidence that makes up theories

Two pillars of classical realism

-Not positivism: understanding of human nature is key to understanding IR -Egoism: human nature and Anarchy->humans are driven by desire for power

Structural Realism

-Positivist for empiricism->phenomena that can be quantified -Uses science to explain/predict actor behavior in IP -Human nature is something that is not quantifiable->Structural realism strips it from the model -Strip out key variables in name of parsimony -CR is a critique

Defensive realism

-States will engage in balancing behavior and restrain themselves on the assumption that going too far will provoke other states -States understand that aggression tends to have too high a cost as a result of the offense-defense balance -States tend to recognize the high cost of aggression, which serves to constrain and limit their behavior -Occupation tends to face resistance (high cost) -Multipolar systems are more stable, as they better enable balancing behavior -Rational actor model comes into play

System

-Structure: examines the nature of the international system and how this influences the behavior of actors -Process: looks at the actual interaction between actors and what the impact this has on behavior

The Prisoner's Dilemma: First Alteration

-The game has multiple iterations. Multiple interactions between players allows the development of common goals, known as "frustrate the warden" -Players will be less likely to defect if they have to continually face the other -Incentivizes more cooperation and pushes them to a solution of mutual cooperation -Development of shared interests over time

Interdependence

-Trade develops interdependent ties between state which leads to higher costs if these ties are severed as a result of conflict -System of mutual gain -Trade also promotes communication between actors, which increases the ability to trust other states and accurately broadcast intentions -Trade requires peace and stability. Conflict disrupts trade which increases costs for all actors

Smart power

-Using the full spectrum of power based on the contextual intelligence available and depending on the actors involved -An understanding that in certain contexts, coercion may be necessary, while in others, diplomacy may be effective -Recognizes that one end of the spectrum may undermine the other and actors in the international system must understand the relationship between their hard power and soft power resources

Functionalism

-War is caused by relative economic disparities between states -Continuous cooperation between experts creates functional units, then formal institutions, which spills over into political cooperation -Begins with small scale forms of cooperation implemented at system level between states, then expanding -Economic disparities lessen and likelihood of conflict is reduced

Trust and cooperation

-When interdependency is high, trust can be developed between actors, such that intentions can be trusted -With the possibility of trust and cooperation, collective goods can be pursued

Cooperation and bargaining

-While actors are concerned with absolute gains, relative gains are still factor -In these instances, actors can mitigate the impact of relative gains through bargaining -Bargaining occurs through international institutions, where transparent rules can be put in place -If state continue to be concerned with relative gains, the failure is in the bargaining process -Successful when states become satisfied with mutual gains

Nuclear deterrence

-With the development of nuclear weapons, the cost of conflict becomes prohibitive, such that the cost of war will always outweigh the benefits -A stable system of mutual deterrence requires second-strike capability: each side must possess nuclear weapons and possess a sufficient number such that one state cannot completely wipe out the nuclear arsenal of the other with a first-strike -For a system of mutual nuclear deterrence to work, each side must also demonstrate a willingness to use nuclear weapons

Resolution of the Crisis

-With the eventual resolution of the crisis, Khrushchev publicly disassembled and removed the missiles, and the US pledged publicly that it would not invade Cuba without a direct provocation -Secretly, the US removed the missiles from Turkey, which the American military considered obsolete -For realists, this represents a victory for the US and a relative gain -The Soviets lose a hard power advantage in return for a public proclamation by the US and the US loss of missiles that were no longer needed -Domestically in the Soviet Union, the resolution of the crisis in the American's favor would lead to Khrushchev's ouster

Second face of power

A controls the agenda in a way that limits the options available to B. B may or may not know that A is exercising power over B's available options

Third face of power

A helps create or shape B's basic beliefs, values, and perceptions. B is unlikely to recognize the effects of A's power

Anarchy

A state of international politics in which there is no higher authority (no centralized authority)

First face of power

Actor A uses threats or rewards to change Actor B's behavior against B's initial preferences. B knows this is happening and overtly feels the effect of A's power

Self-help system

Due to the anarchic nature of the system, states must look out for their own interests first and foremost

Power

Most broadly defined as the capacity to influences others and get them to act in a way that benefits you in some way

Rule 1

No state can be allowed to achieve a preponderance of power and become a hegemonic power (as Napoleon did)

The State

The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 -Ended the 30 Years War -Established secular rule, where leaders, not the Church determined the official religion -Established the principle of sovereignty and the sovereign state -Modern state system is usually called the Westphalian system

Credible threat

The idea is to convince your enemy, assumed to be a rational actor, that the cost of going to war will outweigh the benefits

Bandwagoning

Where weaker states align with stronger states to share gains

Competition and cooperation

​​-As self-interested actors, states seek to insure their national interests -High politics vs low politics -High: security -Low: economics -Interests are ranked hierarchically: security interests are #1

Rational Actor Model

-A common model used by the realist and liberal perspectives to predict actor behavior -Characteristics include: -Cost-benefit analysis by the actor, who will seek to maximize benefit while minimizing cost -Rank-ordering of preferences given a set of options, where the most preferred outcome represents maximizations of benefits, while the least preferred represents lowest benefits -Transitivity in the ordering of preferences, such that is the most preferred outcome is unavailable, the actor moves to the second, then the third, and so on

Locke: Human Nature and the State of Nature

-A critic of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan -Human beings, by nature, are rational, self-interested (not selfish) beings -Disagrees with Classical Realist assumption -They are capable of foresight and understanding the long-term consequences of their actions -The state of nature is a relatively peaceful place, marred by occasional outbursts of violence -Because we are rational and self-interested, we are capable of cooperation -Does not argue that people get along all the time -Conflict is possible -Does not look that different from the rational actor model

Non-zero sum game

-Actors focus on absolute gains -There is the possibility of mutual gains, states can both benefit from cooperation -If an actor gains something from an interaction, it will be satisfied. Thus, mutual gains become possible, further strengthening interdependent ties -Relative gains will still matter, but disparities can be resolved through the process of bargaining -When conflict emerges as a result of differences in relative gains, this is due to an unsuccessful bargaining process

Assumptions of a collective security organization

-Aggression is always wrong -Aggression is clearly defined, such that all members agree on what constitutes an act of aggression->should be a consensus about aggression so the organization acts automatically without a debate -Equality of threat, in the sense that members will come to the aid of any victim of aggression -Relies on the idea of peace as a collective good: all states enjoy peace, or none do

Rule 3

-Alliances will be temporary and utilitarian, to prevent any state from gaining too much. Most importantly, each Great Power must be willing to ally with any other Great Power when the equilibrium of the system is in jeopardy -Rivals not enemies in this system

Thucydides: Pericles' funeral oration

-An early passage in the history where Pericles outlines Athenian values -Athens, as a democracy, allows citizens to flourish and be free -Athenians fight for their democracy and for their values, unlike Sparta -Athens is a beacon for the rest of the Greek world -The case for Athenian exceptionalism and the root of Athenian hubris->idea that Athen owes it to the rest of the Greek world to pursue power and bring democracy to the rest of the world

The balance of power

-An important mechanism that mitigates conflict at the system level and cultivates community among powerful states -Morgenthau argues that a stable balance of power is like a natural equilibrium state -Stable balances of power reduce the likelihood of conflict between powerful states->when the equilibrium is upset, the likelihood of conflict increases -Disequilibrium is generally the result of over-reach by one of the Great Powers, often in violation of the commonly agreed upon rules

Rationalism vs reflectivism

-An ongoing debate in the field of IR that addresses the purpose of IR theory and what it can accomplish -Boils down to the question of how scientific IR theory can be and how scientific it should be

Status quo powers

-Are satisfied with the existing balance of power -Security interests are best satisfied by balance of power, i.e. bipolar/multipolar

The Security Dilemma

-Because cooperation and trust are difficult to achieve, states will respond to the material capabilities (primarily military strength) of other states in the system -Based on the self-help nature of the system and the low level of trust, intentions cannot be accurately communicated to opponents -If one state increases its hard power capabilities, other states will respond by increasing their hard power capabilities -This will occur even if the first state says it is pursuing a purely defensive increase in hard power. Other states must assume that the action by the first state is a security threat and increase their hard power resources accordingly -When other states respond by increasing their hard power, the first state will once again increase its hard power, creating an arms race -In essence, the security dilemma refers to the problem that when a state seeks to secure itself, as it must in a self-help system, it inadvertently threatens other states, potentially destabilizing the system and leading to conflict

Functionalism and the EU

-Began in 1951 with the European Coal and Steel Communities -Created a free trade area in coal and steel between France and Germany, monitored by a supranational bureaucracy -Purpose was to remove two critical contributors to military production from national hands -Once these industries are integrated, spillover begins to occur: if you want to keep generating benefits, you need to reduce inefficiencies by being fully integrated -Solving one problem leads to new problems that need to be solved through further economic integration -The benefits of integrating coal and steel can only be fully achieved when other sectors of the economy are integrated -Would eventually lead to the creation of the European Economic Community and the common market

Reflectivism

-Begins with a rejection of some of the main assumptions of rationalism -Argues that the act of observing shapes the world -Emphasis on the concept of social construction

Norms and values

-CR argues that norms and values matter in IR -Will develop set of norms and power that will govern actions between one another -Limited normative environment -Norms are binding among powerful states -Rules regarding justice, community, and obligations toward one another -These are restraints on active behavior -Conflict breaks out when an actor breaks this framework

The Prisoner's Dilemma: Second Alteration

-Change payoffs. Reduce the cost of cooperation by altering the suckers payoff -Cooperation in face of defection is not punished as severely as classical model -In international institutions, a set of rules is put in place for members to abide by -Change payoffs: increase the cost of defection

Mearsheimer: Offensive Realism

-China is a revisionist power -Dissatisfaction lies in persistence of a unipolar system -Structural realists believe unipolar is unstable/declining -Mearsheimer would argue China is rising, make the system bipolar -China's rise will not be peaceful -China is bidding for regional hegemony, which puts it at odds with US interests in the region -China has recently taken a more global initiative -American power in China's region threatens China's security -Mearsheimer believes that it makes sense China wants to be regional hegemon because it makes them the most secure in security dilemma -Regional hegemony is the best way for a state to secure itself in an anarchic, self-help system -International institutions and international programs like the BRI will be used as tools for projecting power

Thucydides

-Chronicles the war between Sparta and Athens and derives lessons on power, justice, and international politics from this conflict -Overarching sense of Greekness->set of principles were developed -Neutrality was respected -Band together against external powers (barbarians/invaders) -Justice and community have a limiting effect on the pursuit of power and where these concepts are strongest, conflict is less likely -When ideas of justice and community are weakened or fail, Great Powers tend to act without limit->results in conflict

Collective security

-Collective security organizations are international institutions tasked with managing insecurity and resolving conflicts between states -Rely on the centralization of hard power as the best method for dealing with conflict -An all for one, one for all approach where participants pledge to band together to address any act of aggression against a member of the organization -Any potential aggressor will be deterred, knowing that it will have to face the combined, preponderant military power of every member of the organization -Examples: League of Nations, UN

The Great Powers in the 19th Century

-Competition was fierce between the Great Powers, particularly competition for territory both inside Europe and outside -Russia, for example, sought access to the Mediterranean Sea and fought multiple wars with the Ottoman Empire throughout the 19th century -Russian access to the Mediterranean would threaten British naval superiority, so the British consistently intervened to prevent the Russian from gaining too much

The Montreal Protocol

-Considered one of the most successful environmental treaties, but a number of conditions were in place that contributed to its success -The Protocol addressed the problem of ozone depletion, which was demonstrably attributed to the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) -Big whole in ozone layer because of this clear evidence -The chemical industry had developed an alternative to CFCs -Developed world pledged to assist the developing world in transitioning away from the use of CFCs -Developed world absorbing a short term cost in favor of long term benefits -Unequal gains so this is considered a bargaining success, an acceptance of absolute gains

2nd Great Debate

-Corresponds to the behavioral revolution in political science -Emphasized positivism in IR theory -Sought to make IR a "hard science" -Criticized by traditional IR theorists who argued that interpretive judgment was necessary and that positivism led to reductionism

Soft power

-Deals more with values and ideas and is used primarily to persuade others -Co-opt

Hard power

-Deals primarily with material capabilities, such as military strength, economic power that can be converted to military strength that can be used to compel other actors -Command

Thucydides: the sicilian invasion

-Debate between the cautious Nicias and the ambitious Alcibiades -Nicias argues that Athens should not invade Sicily as it would be too risky and costly->proposes a vast expenditure to deter the invasion -Alcibiades argues that glory for Athens will be achieved through invasion->pandering to the greed and base nature of the Athenian people -Assembly decides to invade and it is a disaster->fleet is lost, many sold into slavery, first step in fall of Athens -For CRs, this case represents hubristic over-reach and the close connection between domestic politics and international behavior -The Great Power is often its own worst enemy

Kirshner: The Classical Realist View

-Difference between being hegemon and bidding for hegemony -Must understand the realities of power on the ground -Bidding for hegemony is dangerous and costly. Lessons of history tell states that bidding for hegemony usually fails (costly/risky) -Bipolar systems genuinely fall apart -Nuclear weapons stabilizes the systems not the nature of bipolar system -Structural realism's emphasis on system level fails to account for this important variable -Domestic politics matters in foreign policy decision making -The domestic level will be where we find the source of hubristic over-reach -Result of human nature in domestic politics, which leads to disastrous policies that lead to collapse -Big difference between what a state should do and what it can do -Mearsheimer talks in hypotheticals

Democratic Peace Theory

-Empirical fact that no two democracies have gone to war with one another since 1815 -Definition of democracy varies -War is usually constant definition Democracies do not fight one another for 2 main reasons: -The democratic process tends to be a slower one, with institutional checks on power that prevent rapid decision-making -Norms of democracy promote the non-violent resolution of conflict

Positivism

-Epistemic realism: there is a world of facts that exists independently and can be observed -Assumes a universal scientific language that can be used to objectively describe this world -Correspondence theory of truth: the nature of the world can be summed up using true/false distinctions that correspond with immutable facts

The International System

-First assumption: systemic structure is anarchic, in the sense that there is no higher authority than the state -Due to the anarchic nature of the system, states must operate in a self-help environment -Anarchy serves as a constraint on state behavior -Top-down view of motivator behavior -It is the system to blame (not the individuals) -Makes cooperation between states difficult

Individual

-Focuses on leadership -Might examine the psychology of personality of the leader, the institutional constraints on the leader, and situations (such as rises) where these constraints might be relaxed

How to deal with the rise of China

-For CR, the potential for conflict is high, but not inevitable, given the fact that China is increasing its hard power resources and seeking to assert itself as a major power both in Asia and in other parts of the world -The solution is accommodating China's rise and integrating them into the balance of power system, such that they become a status quo power. US can recognize China as a fellow Great Power -Satisfy certain demands, but prevent them from achieving other goals i.e. accepting China as dominant power in Asia -However, run the risk of reenforcing their revisionism -If power thinks they can gain more by undermining the system, they may continue to do so. Thus, don't appease them -Examining domestic politics will reveal their imperialistic beliefs

The goal of functionalism

-For David Mitrany, one major theorist of functionalism, this process allows actors to "sneak up on peace" -Low level, non-controversial cooperation necessitates increasing levels of cooperation and integration in a path dependent process that locks actors in and increases the cost of removing themselves from the process because it will be too costly -Once economic integration is complete with the creation of the EEC, the next challenge is political cooperation, leading to the creation of the European Union -The European Commission: interest of the EU (further integration and regulatory frameworks that reduce barriers to trade) -The European Council(s): represents interests of the member states -European Parliament: interests of the citizens of Europe

Complex interdependence

-For liberals, this represents the most stable international system -Deep ties exist between actors, which are reinforced by international institutions -Democracy is not necessary for system of complex interdependencies (non-democratic states can cooperate with democratic states) -The "shadow of the future", that is, the knowledge that actors will have to interact with one another multiple times, will constrain actor behavior -States need to be convinced that they will interact with each other regularly -However, interdependent ties must be maintained, through trade, diplomacy, and other types of interactions. If these ties weaken or become broken, actors will believe they have reached the "last move", increasing the likelihood of conflict

The State

-For realists, the state is the primary actor in international politics (state-centric theory) -State is most significant factor in IP bc they can most mobilize hard power -States are rational, self-interested actors -States are unitary actors, in the sense that realists are not concerned with the internal characteristics of states -Based on this assumptions, realists will conclude that states are like units, in the sense that despite their internal characteristics, at the international level, states will have similar interests -Regardless of what goes on inside the state, it always prioritizes security interests because it is in the anarchic system

German Unification and the balance of power

-German unification: completed with the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 -In previous conflicts, Prussia seized territory from secondary powers like Denmark (which is acceptable) -With the seizure of Alsace-Lorraine from France, Prussia violated a key rule of the balance of power system and upset the equilibrium of that system -For CRs, this is another case of hubris, leading to conflict -A breach of normative community of Great Powers because France is a fellow Great Power -Germany declares itself outside of the normative Great Powers -This war would definitively change the balance of power, since France and Germany would become permanent enemies

Deterrence

-Hard power is a tool that will be used to reduce the likelihood of conflict -In a self-help system, the best way to confront your enemy is through deterrence -Deterrence requires a military buildup to increase hard power -Presenting a credible threat -Convince your opponent that you will use force, which will be costly

The Sovereign State

-Has a bounded territory with a stable population -Executive power -Gov't exercises control over the territory and possesses the sole legitimate right to use coercive force within that territory

3rd Great Debate

-Here we see significant diversification in the field and the development of reflectivist theory -Strongly influenced by Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolution -Emphasis on the idea that theories are incommensurable with one another and the idea that the choice of theory is based on little more than a matter of taste

Cooperation is possible in the form of alliances

-However, the durability of the alliance depends on what each state is gaining from the alliance, what other states are gaining, and whether the national interests of the participants are being met -I.e. NATO -Structural realists: structural/relative gain for why NATO still exists -US provides security umbrella for NATO members, which enables Western Europeans to freeride? -Argues US gaining is more relative to the European states in the long run -Because European states accept US security guarantee, they are accepting lower status/won't gain enough hard power to compete with US -Looks like US is paying the most, but really gains the most -In general, cooperation is difficult, due to the fact that trust is low->cheating will be assumed

1st Great Debate

-Idealism vs realism -Idealism emerged after World War I and was greatly influenced by Wilson's 14 Points -More cooperation -Sought to create a new world of international politics -Realism emerged as a critique emphasizing power politics and arguing that idealism was naive

The Cuban Missile Crisis

-In response to American medium-range missiles in Turkey, the Soviets placed missiles in Cuba -When the US discovered this, it responded by demanding their withdrawal and initiating a naval quarantine of Cuba, promising to search and turn back any ship carrying missiles or other military resources to Cuba -During the crisis, the US stopped and searched several ships, and Soviet ships ran the blockade, leading the US to order American ships to fire on any other ship that did this -In Cuba, Soviet technicians continued to assemble the missiles and the Cubans shot down a US U2 spy plane -However, as American resolve became more clear, Khrushchev ordered that 14 ships heading towards Cuba turn back

The International System

-Liberals agree that the international system is anarchic, but they argue that the effects of anarchy can be mitigated -Neoliberals will argue that it is a self-help system, but can be mitigated when conditions for cooperation are met -Examine the system from the systemic process level of analysis -High quality interactions at system level lead to reduction in conflict/increase in cooperation -Focus on how the interactions between states can foster cooperation and interdependence

Actors in the international system

-Liberals emphasize the role of both state and non-state actors -Neoliberals are more likely to use domestic level analysis -Multiple actors in the system allows for multiple channels of communication, deepening the interdependent ties that exist between them -Liberals will also be more likely to employ multiple levels of analysis

Actor behavior

-Liberals generally apply the rational actor model to actor behavior -They depart from realists in the sense that there is no fixed hierarchy of interests -Security interests matter, but such interests are not necessarily paramount -Hierarchy of interests in this theory allows other interests to be prioritized -Depending on the actors involved and the issue-area at play, interests will vary. Thus, economic interests may be the most important, given a particular set of actors -Power will also shift based on the issue-area and the actors involved. Liberals will emphasize both hard and soft power

Domestic

-Looks at internal processes and institutions in order to predict how an actor with behave internationally -Emphasizes institutional structures, decision-making processes, the internal organization of the actor, and how various organizations within the actor interact with one another

Collective security and hard power

-Military force is generally seen as a last resort -Other tactics, such as diplomatic pressure, economic sanctions, and other actions short of the use of force are pursued first to try to pressure the aggressor to withdraw -If military force is used, all members are expected to contribute