PSY 140 - TOPHAT CHAPTER 04

attentional phase

-learner must notice the behaviors being modeled

Shaping

-special type of positive reinforcement used to teach new responses - reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response

If every sixth occurrence of a response triggers the delivery of a positive reinforcer, which schedule of reinforcement is being illustrated? A FI-6 B FR-6 C VR-6 D VI-6

B FR-6

variable interval

a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

Extinction

absence of a contingency -response not positively reinforced = future probability occurring decreases

Behaviorism

acquisition and modification of an organism's behavioral responses

positive

adding something

Secondary reinforcers

affect responses they follow -associated or paired with primary or already-conditioned secondary reinforcers

Cindy was extremely hungry. One night she was scarfing down an entire bag of Dorito chips. About 2/3 of the way through the bag, she felt something that didn't feel like a chip. She pulled it out and it was a used band aid. YUCK! Now she doesn't eat any type of tortilla chips because they make her feel nauseated. Match each correct term to the specifics of the event. 1 Neutral stimulus 2 Unconditional response 3 Conditional stimulus A Nausea B Dorito's chips & tortilla chips C Dorito chips D Band aid

Neutral stimulus = Dorito chips Unconditional response = Nausea Conditional stimulus = Dorito's chips & tortilla chips

Social

attention from others

escape

aversive stimulus already present response removes ongoing averstive stimulus

avoidance

aversive stimulus not currently present -will occur unless you emit a response to cancel the scheduled aversive event

The neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditional stimulus

Pavlovian conditioning

You sound a tone and squirt pickle juice into a friend's mouth a few seconds later. The juice makes your friend's mouth "pucker." Now the tone produces puckering of your friend's mouth when (s)he hears the tone. What involuntary response was caused or elicited in the example?

Puckering of the mouth, so puckering is both the unconditional response and conditional response

Motivation

Reinforcement/feedback provided when response is correct

partial reinforcement extinction effect

behavior exposed to a continuous reinforcement schedule will extinguish faster in extinction than behavior exposed to an intermittent reinforcement schedule

positive contingency

both response and consequence occur

Pavlovian extinction

conditional stimulus is presented without the unconditional stimulus

fixed interval (FI)

first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed

Operant antecedents acquire their influence over specific responses because...

in organism past, particular responses were rewarded, punished or extinguish responses

magnitude

intensity

Pavlovian conditioning affects __________

involuntary behaviors

instrumental

learn how to manipulate something

production phase

learner imitates the behavior observed

social learning

learning by imitation

Example of aversive stimulus

lightning and thunder

example of aversive stimuli

loud noise, electrical shock, or a burn to the skin

Biological preparedness

makes it easier to condition fear to snakes and spiders than to arbitrary stimuli like a flower and a tone

cognitive maps

mental representations of physical locations

Exchangeables

money and tokens are used in bartering and have value because they can be used to purchase other reinforcers

Larger reinforcers also produce

more future behavior than smaller reinforcers

primary

not learned; they naturally affect responses they follow

You sound a tone and squirt pickle juice into a friend's mouth a few seconds later. The juice makes your friend's mouth "pucker." Now the tone produces puckering of your friend's mouth when (s)he hears the tone. What originally caused the involuntary response in the example?

The pickle juice is what originally caused the puckering (the unconditional response and conditional response) so it is the unconditional stimulus

After the parents' intervention, Judy no longer swings her snake when her parents are around, but she does still swing the poor pet when her folks are not around. Select each of the following statements that is true. A Judy's snake swing when her parents are absent illustrates generalization B For Judy's response of snake swinging¸ the parent's presence serves as an SD. C For Judy's response of snake swinging¸ the parent's presence serves as an S-delta. D Judy's snake swinging illustrates the phenomenon of discrimination.

C For Judy's response of snake swinging¸ the parent's presence serves as an S-delta. D Judy's snake swinging illustrates the phenomenon of discrimination.

learned helplessness

organism forced to bear aversive stimuli, or stimuli that are painful or otherwise unpleasant, -becomes unable or unwilling to avoid subsequent encounters with those stimuli, even if they are "escapable," When the organism's escape responses are ineffective at decreasing the painful events being experienced, -the escape and avoidance responses eventually stop; the person has acquired learned helplessness.

Tangibles

physical objects that we can touch

Most effective pairing

Conditional stimulus precedes the unconditional stimulus

After developing a fear of the white rat, Little Albert also exhibited fear responses to other white objects that had not been paired with loud noise. This illustrates which phenomenon associated with classical conditioning? A Discrimination B Higher order conditioning C Extinction D Generalization

D Generalization

"After a response, a positive reinforcer is removed, and the behavior is weakened or decreased." This defines which of the following processes? A Positive reinforcement B Negative reinforcement C Positive punishment D Negative punishment E Extinction

D Negative punishment

Operant conditioning

How we learn about the consequences of our behavior

Reflexes

Involuntary responses that are triggered or elicited by an environmental event (stimulus)

Retention

Trainer models and learner tries to imitate trainer

True or false: Intermittent schedules are important because they make responses more resistance to the effects of extinctions

True

True or false: Sometimes, the response doesn't matter in Pavlovian condition

True

True or false: instrumental learning was renamed to operant conditioning

True

True or false: it is the predictive value of a conditional stimulus that is important

True

True or false: observational learning influences ones potential behaviour

True

True or false: positive reinforcement does not produce negative emotions and can be used to decrease behaviours without employing unpleasant events

True

negative reinforcement

some behavior removes a stimulus which leads to more of that kind of behavior in the future e.g. if a prisoner does charity work, (s)he will be free

aversive stimulus

something we will work to avoid

discriminative stimulus

stimulus/behaviour that is used consistently -gain a specific response and that increases the possibility that the desired response will occur.

What originally caused the involuntary response in the example?

the unconditional stimulus

systematic desensitization

therapeutic treatment for phobias -based on classical conditioning model

Example of positive punishment

trying to eat your brother's leftovers and getting yelled at

aversive stimuli

unpleasant/involve some degree of physical discomfort

secondary

v

operant learning involves _______________

voluntary responses

schedules of reinforcement

when a particular response triggers a consequence

generalized

work for most people and in most situations

noxious stimulus

work to avoid

Discriminative stimuli for reinforcement

set the occasion for a response to occur because the response has been reinforced in the learning history of the organism

S-deltas (SΔ)

signal to the person/animal to not emit or do the response in their presence -not rewarded

intermittent schedules

some occurrences of a response trigger a consequence while some do not

Basis of Pavlovian conditioning

the organism learns to do an involuntary reflexive response to a new, formerly neutral, stimulus.

contingencies

"if-then" relationships

Positive reinforcement is used to

(a) maintain a response at its current level, (b) increase a response over its current level, and (c) to teach new responses to the organism

observational learning/social learning

- does not negate the behavioral approaches to learning - people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling

interval schedules

- need specific amount of time elapse -before an occurrence of the targeted response will trigger the delivery of a positive reinforcer

taste aversion

-animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance -conditioned

fixed ratio

-targeted response must occur a specific number of times, - and the last one emitted triggers reinforcement which then "resets" the counter to the same number that was previously required -before the last response in the sequence produces reinforcement

The most important difference between Pavlovian and operant conditioning involves...

-unconditional stimulus (Pavlovian ) -reinforcer/punisher (operant

Instrumental/operant conditioning

-used interchangeably that refer to situations -when consequences of our behavior control future responding

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It's cold, so you light the fire wood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches. Match the definition to the specifics of the event. 1 Operant behavior 2 Pavlovian behavior 3 Conditional stimulus 4 Antecedent stimulus A Lighting a fire to get warm B Match C Involuntarily recoiling your hand when it gets burned D Cold weathe

1 Operant behavior A Lighting a fire to get warm -- 2 Pavlovian behavior C Involuntarily recoiling your hand when it gets burned -- 3 Conditional stimulus B Match -- 4 Antecedent stimulus D Cold weather

1 Explaining to Tanya how she can earn chips illustrates which rule for using consequences effectively? 2 Which rule for using consequences was likely violated when Dad choose to use potato chips as the consequence for completing a problem? 3 In the future should Dad help Tanya before or after dinner? 4 The potato chips could function as which type of reinforcer? A After Dinner B Power C Before Dinner D Contingency E Conditioned/Secondary Positive F Instructions G Conditioned/Primary Positive

1 = F Instructions 2 = B Power 3 = C Before Dinner 4 = F Conditioned/Secondary Positive

Pavlovian, respondent, classical conditioning

Refer to situations when we have a signal that tells us when another event will occur

1 Positive reinforcer

Stimuli that weaken responses they follow

2 Negative reinforcer

Stimuli that weaken responses they follow

You sound a tone and squirt pickle juice into a friend's mouth a few seconds later. The juice makes your friend's mouth "pucker." Now the tone produces puckering of your friend's mouth when (s)he hears the tone. What stimulus/event was paired with the unconditional stimulus (i.e., the pickle juice)?

The tone sound; it was the neutral stimulus before it was paired with the pickle juice. -Now it is the conditional stimulus after being paired with pickle juice that, by itself, elicits the conditional response of puckering.

Premack principle

access to an activity reinforcer to strengthen a response.

How is the Premack Principle Effective?

access to the activity reinforcer (a response the person likes to do) requires the person to first do a response that they do not enjoy

Social learning/modeling

acquire new behavior by watching others

When a learner watches another person and then acts in a way similar to how the other person acted, it is called ________. A Modeling B Imitation C Observational learning

all of the above

Pavlovian conditioning is an important component with the development of

anxiety and fear, which can have a dramatic and often negative impact on a person's life

positive punishment

behavior produces a stimulus which leads to less of that kind of behavior in the future just think of Asian mum stereotype- don't study - get a smack

positive reinforcement

behavior produces a stimulus which leads to more of that same kind of behavior in the future

negative punishment

behavior removes a stimulus which leads to less of that kind of behavior in the future e.g. 12 year old kid got his/her xbox smashed by dad because (s)he swore

What involuntary response was caused or elicited in the example?

both the unconditional response and conditional response.

Every time you learn something new

brain forms neural connections, which are related to cellular changes within your brain

unconditional stimulus

causes an unconditional response

Example of positive reinforcement

checking your email to receive a message from a friend

spontaneous recovery

conditional response occurs if the extinguished conditional stimulus is again presented

essential feature necessary for learning acquisition

exposure to an enriched environment - learning and cortical development are optimal when the person is exposed to highly enriched environments

4 Exchangeable reinforcer

Stimuli that can be bartered for other reinforcers

Maximizing conditioning

1. Present CS before the UCS 2. Interval of time between CS and UCS should be short (almost immediately) 3. Repeated pairings of the CS with the UCS are typically required 4. Some exceptions for the time interval, including taste aversion 5. Repeated pairings are not necessary in conditioned emotional responses

Sara really likes her favorite band. She buys their songs, views videos of the group on the internet, and would love to go to their concerts. She feels uplifted and good after listening to their music. The band's music is used as background for commercials advertising a brand of coffee. Recently, Sara started drinking the coffee even though she used to prefer tea. Which of the following explains why Sara now drinks that particular brand of coffee? A Classical conditioning B Higher order conditioning C Stimulus generalization D Stimulus discrimination

A Classical conditioning B Higher order conditioning

Which of the following best illustrates the effects of biological constraints? A Not being able to train an animal to act in way that disrupts its normal foraging B Training an animal to do tricks it would not do in its normal habitat C Biological preparedness D Depriving an organism of food to make positive reinforcers more powerful

A Not being able to train an animal to act in way that disrupts its normal foraging

Shariq is a young boy and he has developed the habit of throwing rocks. His father is concerned about his rock throwing and has started counting the number of times Shariq throws rocks (baseline). On Monday Shariq threw rocks 4 times, on Tuesday, 4 times, and on Thursday, Shariq was observed throwing rocks 5 times. His dad decided that rock throwing is a problem. He told Shariq that his rock throwing was dangerous to others and that it must stop. He informed him that from now on (starting on Friday), each time that Shariq threw a rock, he would receive a severe spanking. Shariq told his Dad he understood and would stop throwing rocks. On Friday, Shariq threw rocks 4 times and got 4 painful spankings. On Saturday Shariq threw rocks 6 times and get 6 spankings. On Sunday, Shariq threw rocks 6 times and again got 6 spankings. Although Shariq's father thinks that spankings could be......................., it would appear, based on Shariq's behavior, the spankings are actually acting as.........................for rock throwing. A Positive punishment; positive reinforcement B Negative punishment; positive reinforcement C Positive reinforcement; positive punishment D Positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement E Positive punishment; negative reinforcement

A Positive punishment; positive reinforcement

Assuming that a behavior increases in frequency, the stimulus that was contingently added after the behavior would be called a ________. A Positive reinforcer B Negative reinforcer C Punisher D Neutral stimulus

A Positive reinforcer

A reflexive, involuntary response is elicited by an antecedent stimulus. What does this mean? A Reflexive responses cannot be controlled with voluntary actions (such as thinking "I will not blink"). B Reflexive responses are controlled by an environmental event(s) that precedes them. C The stimulus that causes an involuntary response can be either naturally occurring or conditional. D Selecting a Big Mac at McDonald's when one is hungry is an example of a reflex.

A Reflexive responses cannot be controlled with voluntary actions (such as thinking "I will not blink"). B Reflexive responses are controlled by an environmental event(s) that precedes them. C The stimulus that causes an involuntary response can be either naturally occurring or conditional.

Taraji once ate an order of onion rings. Before she finished them, she became nauseous and within minutes got sick and vomited. A couple days later, she was eating a salad at a fast food franchise waiting for her friend to bring her order to their booth. Her friend had bought a hamburger, soda, and onion rings. Taraji became nauseous when she saw and smelled the onion rings. Which of the following might account for this? A The onion rings have triggered Taraji becoming ill. B The onion rings are a naturally occurring antecedent that elicit nausea. C Because she became nauseous and vomited that last time she was eating onion rings¸ they have acquired the capacity to elicit her feeling nauseous. D Taraji has been conditioned¸ because of her previous experience¸ to avoid foods that have become associated with causing her to be ill.

A The onion rings have triggered Taraji becoming ill. C Because she became nauseous and vomited that last time she was eating onion rings¸ they have acquired the capacity to elicit her feeling nauseous. D Taraji has been conditioned¸ because of her previous experience¸ to avoid foods that have become associated with causing her to be ill.

Psychology has identified three major types of learning. Which of the following is true in reference to the three types of learning? A The three types of learning are classical, operant, and social. B The three types of learning are associated with the behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic perspectives of psychology. C The three types of learning are predominantly associated with American psychologists. D Of the three types of learning, classical is probably the most important

A The three types of learning are classical, operant, and social.

Latent learning

Acquire knowledge but don't show what we've learned until there is some incentive to do so

Sherry likes to watch television. She has noticed that when a show is interrupted by a commercial, most of the time the sound level of the commercial is much higher than the sound level during regular programming. Now when her program "goes to a commercial," she immediately grabs her tv remote and lowers the sound. Her response of lowering the sound level during commercials is being controlled by which operant process? A Positive reinforcement B Negative reinforcement C Positive punishment D Negative punishment E Extinction

B Negative reinforcement

When a stimulus increases the future probability of a behavior when it is removed immediately following the response, what has occurred is called _____________. A Positive reinforcement B Negative reinforcement C Positive punishment D Negative punishment

B Negative reinforcement

Each of the following premises could function as a positive reinforcer. Match each of the positive reinforcers with the type of reinforcer it is most likely to be. 1 Bottled water when you're thirsty 2 A gold star on a quiz 3 Visiting a friend 4 Chips & dip when not deprived of food 5 A casino's poker chip A Exchangeable secondary positive reinforcers B Primary positive reinforcer C Activity secondary positive reinforcer D Tangible secondary positive reinforcer E Consumable secondary positive reinforcer

B Primary positive reinforcer D Tangible secondary positive reinforcer C Activity secondary positive reinforcer E Consumable secondary positive reinforcer A Exchangeable secondary positive reinforcers

"Grandma's Rule" requires that one complete a less desirable action before being permitted to engage in a more desirable action. Which of the follow statements are true? (Select all that apply.) A Engaging in the more desirable action is a primary positive reinforcer. B The more desirable action is an activity secondary positive reinforcer. C Grandma's Rule is another name for the Premack principle. D The less preferred action in the example will be increased.

B The more desirable action is an activity secondary positive reinforcer. C Grandma's Rule is another name for the Premack principle. D The less preferred action in the example will be increased.

Which of the following types of positive reinforcers is least likely to temporarily lose its reinforcing capacity even though one has "gotten it" recently? A Consumable secondary reinforcers B Tangible secondary reinforcers C Generalized conditioned reinforcers D Social

C Generalized conditioned reinforcers

In the video, Peggy says that running out of the dentist's office after the dentist says "This won't hurt a bit" is part of Pavlovian conditioning. However, running out of the office would prevent any painful stimulus from occurring. What type of behavior is this really? A Social learning B Conditional response C Operant behavior D Unconditional response

C Operant behavior

Which type of learning is based on how children would often imitate the aggression that adults exhibited? A Operant conditioning B Latent learning C Social learning

C Social learning

Negative reinforcement is negative in the sense that __________. A A consequence stimulus is delivered in a negative manner B It results in the removal of the behavior C The behavior results in the removal of a negative reinforcer D The behavior is decreased or weakened

C The behavior results in the removal of a negative reinforcer

A researcher was studying the relationship between the order of presenting the neutral stimulus (a click) and the unconditional stimulus (a small electric shock which elicited a muscle jerk, the unconditional response). In one series of trials, the electrical shock either occurred before the click or at the same time as the click. In a second series of experiments, the click was presented before the electrical shock. Which of the following is the most likely outcome of these studies? A Neither series of studies (i.e., the click followed by the shock, nor the shock accompanying or preceding the shock) is likely to result in the neutral stimulus becoming a conditional stimulus. B Only the trials where the shock preceded or occurred simultaneously with the click resulted in the click becoming a conditional stimulus. C Only the trials where the click was presented before the shock resulted in the click becoming a conditional stimulus. D The trials involving the click preceding the shock required fewer pairings to establish the click as a conditional stimulus than did those where the shock occurred first or along with the click.

D The trials involving the click preceding the shock required fewer pairings to establish the click as a conditional stimulus than did those where the shock occurred first or along with the click.

True or false: extinction decreases responding and the effects of extinction are immediate

False: While extinction decreases responding, the effects of extinction are NOT immediate

True or false: negative reinforcement is part of punishment

False: negative reinforcement is NOT part of punishment -involves something we avoid BUT -probability of behaviour increases with reinforcement

True or false: positive behaviour suppresses behaviour without contingency

False: positive punishment will NOT suppress behavior without the contingency

True or false: positive reinforcement has a shorter-lasting effect on behaviour

False: positive reinforcement has a longer-lasting effect on behaviour

Attention

Learner focuses on the trainer's response(s)

Reproduction

Learner imitates response without trainer's modeling

As she walked through her neighborhood, Jodie, a 6-year-old who has a cocker spaniel, saw a large brown dog. She walked up to the dog to pet it, and as her hand approached the dog's head, it bit her on the hand—doing considerable tissue damage. Jodie immediately began to cry and exhibit other fear responses (e.g., rapid heartbeat, "butterflies" in her stomach, etc.). Now when she sees any large dog, she gets nervous and frightened. Match the correct definition to the specifics of the event. 1 Neutral Stimulus 2 Conditional Stimulus 3 Unconditional Stimulus 4 Unconditional Response A Sight of a dog B Bite on the hand C Sight of a dog D Fear response

Neutral Stimulus = Sight of a dog Conditional Stimulus = Sight of a dog Unconditional Stimulus = Bite on the hand Unconditional Response = Fear response

John was raised in a rigid home where sexuality was a taboo topic. When he went to college, he lived in a dormitory where men and women had rooms on the same floors and shared common baths. His first morning there, he walked into the bathroom and saw a strikingly beautiful woman who was nude. John blushed in embarrassment and quickly backed out of the lavatory. That night, he met his blind date at the student union. He began blushing as soon as he saw his date because it was the same woman he had seen nude that morning. Match the correct definition to the specifics of the event. 1 Neutral stimulus & conditional stimulus 2 Unconditional stimulus 3 Unconditional response & unconditional response A Blushing B Student union C Sight of the woman D Nudity

Neutral stimulus & conditional stimulus = Sight of the woman Unconditional stimulus = Nudity Unconditional response & unconditional response = Blushing

3 Primary reinforcer

Unlearned reinforcers that work automatically

If the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus are presented simultaneously

conditioning is limited or nonexistent

reinforcement

consequences of a response increase the probability of behavior

appetitive stimuli

considered to be pleasant

punishment

decreases likelihood of a recurrence of a behavior

ratio

deliver a consequence depending on how many times the response has occurred

Stimulus Generalization

different environmental event that has not been paired with the unconditional stimulus also elicits or causes the conditional response or conditional responses occur from exposure to stimuli that are physically similar to the original conditional stimulus

neutral stimulus

does not affect

unconditional response

does not require learning; innate

Example of negative punishment

driving while intoxicated and losing your license

continuous reinforcement

each time the response occurs it triggers a consequence

retention phase

earner covertly practices and encodes the performance being observed

Power

einforcer must be strong enough to influence the response

aversive stimulus can

elicit reflexive involuntary responses

Negative reinforcement occurs in two forms

escape and avoidance

punisher

event or stimulus that decreases the future probability of behavior when it is added (positive) or removed (negative)

If the unconditional stimulus precedes the neutral stimulus (i.e., giving food and then ringing a bell)

excitatory conditioning does not usually occur (i.e., the bell does not elicit salivation;

it is always a good idea to use instructions by...

explaining to the person what the contingency involves e.g. from now on if you do "X," then this consequence will happen

example of appetitive stimuli

having your heart rate increase after kissing someone you love is considered a pleasant reflex

law of effect

how consequences of voluntary behavior influence subsequent behavior

but how quickly behaviour decreases behavior depends upon...

how regularly the consequence was delivered

extinction

if the conditional stimulus is presented without the unconditional stimulus, the strength of the conditional response decreases over time

Stimulus Generalization Example

if the original conditional stimulus was a 60-watt lightbulb, both 40-watt and 75-watt bulbs might also elicit the conditional response without ever pairing either of the bulbs (40 and 60 watts) with the unconditional stimulus or the conditional stimulus

modeled

imitated

activities

include going to a movie, listening to music, playing a game, etc.

cognitive orientation

influence one's potential behavior

reflexes

innate skills; do not require learning

Latent learning

knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it

What stimulus/event was paired with the unconditional stimulus?

neutral stimulus before it is paired with the unconditional stimulus, and it is the conditional stimulus after it has been paired with the unconditional stimulus

higher order conditioning

neutral stimulus is systematically and repeatedly paired with an existing conditional stimulus

variable ratio (VR)

number of times the targeted response must occur changes (i.e., varies) around a mean average

reinforcer test/contingency analysis

objectively determine whether an event is a positive reinforcer for another person's behavior in that setting

Pavlovian conditioning

one form of learning that involves acquiring a change in behavior by associating two stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination

opposite of stimulus generalization -conditional responses only occur when the original conditional stimulus is introduced Similar stimuli do not elicit a response

backward conditioning

present neutral stimulus after the unconditional stimulus

simultaneous conditioning

present neutral stimulus simultaneously with the unconditional stimulus

short-delayed, long-delayed, and trace conditioning

presenting neutral stimulus before the unconditional stimulus

With operant conditioning, the response does change the __________________

probability of consequence

antecedent stimuli

recognized the importance of the environmental events that preceded behavior

Conditional stimulus

redundant and provides no new information about the unconditional stimulus - not predictive about when the unconditional stimulus occurs

Learning

relatively permanent change in one's mental processes or behavior that is a function of interactions with the environment

negative

removing something

negative contingency

response occurs but consequence is that it is removed/avoided

conditional responses

result of learning

appetitive stimulus

reward

Example of negative reinforcement

taking a long route home to avoid a scary dog

extinction burst

temporary increase in responding

Immediacy

there must not be much of a delay between the occurrence of the response and the occurrence of the consequence

Consumables

things we eat but do not need in order to live

elicited

triggered

motivational phase

when the observer exhibits behavior similar to what the model displayed, the observer's new behavior will generate consequences - affect whether the observer will continue to emit the behavior

Stimulus Discrimination Example

when we go to a parade, we are conditioned to respond differently based on the type of vehicle we see -conditioned to flinch when we see firetruck or policecar = accompanied by loud horn or siren -learn to recognize the defining features of emergency service vehicles. We also know that the loud horn or siren is accompanied by the lights; otherwise, the emergency service vehicles are relatively quiet. Thus, we can differentiate which vehicles produce loud noises