Psy 201 Exam 3 (Ch. 10) Matthews

Adler (Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

-- (1870-1937), another follower of Freud, also felt that Freud had placed too much emphasis on sex. -- believed that people are basically motivated by an inferiority complex. In some people, feelings of inferiority may be based on physical problems and the need to compensate for them. -- believed, however, that all of us encounter some feelings of inferiority because of our small size as children, and that these feelings give rise to a drive for superiority. As a child, -- was crippled by rickets and suffered from pneumonia, and it may be that his theory developed in part from his own striving to overcome bouts of illness. -- believed that self-awareness plays a major role in the formation of personality. He spoke of a creative self, a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the person's potential. Because each person's potential is unique, -- views have been termed individual psychology.

Jung (Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

-- (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist who had been a member of Freud's inner circle. He fell into disfavor with Freud when he developed his own psychodynamic theory—analytical psychology. In contrast to Freud, -- downplayed the importance of sex, which he saw as just one of several important instincts. --, like Freud, was intrigued by unconscious processes. He believed that we not only have a personal unconscious that contains repressed memories and impulses, but also a collective unconscious containing primitive images, or archetypes, that reflect the history of our species. Examples of archetypes are the all-powerful God, the young hero, the fertile and nurturing mother, the wise old man, the hostile brother—even fairy godmothers, wicked witches, and themes of rebirth or resurrection. Archetypes themselves remain unconscious, but -- believed they affect our thoughts and feelings and cause us to respond to cultural themes in the media.

Horney (Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

-- (1885-1952) was criticized by the New York Psychoanalytic Institute because she took issue with the way in which psychoanalytic theory portrayed women. Early in the 20th century, psychoanalytic theory taught that a woman's place was in the home. Women who sought to compete with men in the business world were assumed to be suffering from unconscious penis envy. Psychoanalytic theory taught that little girls feel inferior to boys when they learn that boys have a penis and they do not. But -- argued that little girls do not feel inferior to boys and that these views were founded on Western cultural prejudice, not scientific evidence. -- agreed with Freud that childhood experiences are important in psychological development. Like other neo-Freudians, however, she asserted that unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses are less important than social relationships. She also believed that genuine and consistent love can alleviate the effects of a traumatic childhood.

Observational Learning (Social Cognitive Theory/Learning Theory Perspective)

-- (also termed modeling or cognitive learning) is one of the foundations of social cognitive theory. It refers to acquiring knowledge by -- others. For operant conditioning to occur, an organism must first engage in a response, and that response must be reinforced. However, -- occurs even when the learner does not perform the -- behavior. Direct reinforcement is not required either. -- others extends to reading about them or seeing what they do and what happens to them in books, TV, film, and the Internet.

Humanistic-Existential Perspective

-- and -- dwell on the meaning of life. Self-awareness is the hub of the -- search for meaning.

Existentialism (Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

-- in part reflects the horrors of mass destruction of human life through war and genocide, frequent events in the 20th century. The European -- philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger saw human life as trivial in the grand scheme of things. But psychiatrists like Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, and Medard Boss argued that seeing human existence as meaningless could give rise to withdrawal and apathy—even suicide. Psychological salvation therefore requires giving personal meaning to things and making personal choices. The view that people are completely free and responsible for their own behavior.

Self-Esteem (Sociocultural Perspective)

-- is connected with patterns of acculturation among immigrants. Those patterns take various forms. Some immigrants are completely assimilated by the dominant culture. They lose the language and customs of their country of origin and identify with the dominant culture in the new host country. Others maintain almost complete separation. They retain the language and customs of their country of origin and never acclimate to those of the new country. Still others become bicultural. They remain fluent in the language of their country of origin but also become conversant in the language of their new country. They blend the customs and values of both cultures. They can switch "mental gears"; they apply the values of one culture under some circumstances and apply the values of the other culture under others. Perhaps they relate to other people in one way at work or in school, and in another way at home or in the neighborhood. Research evidence suggests that people who do not fully surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher -- than those who do. On the other hand, Latin American and Asian American immigrants who are more proficient in English are less likely to be anxious and depressed as they navigate within their new cultures

Repression (Psychodynamic Theory Freud)

-- is defined as the automatic ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from awareness. People forget many ugly experiences, and some research evidence suggests that people might -- them. Other investigators allow that forgetting and distortion of memory occurs, but view the Freudian concept of -- as little more than a myth.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development (Psychoanalytic Perspective)

-- spoke of mental or psychic structures to describe the clashing forces of personality. Psychic structures cannot be seen or measured directly, but their presence is suggested by behavior, expressed thoughts, and emotions. -- believed that there are three psychic structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. -- stirred controversy by arguing that sexual impulses are a central factor in personality development, even among children. He believed that sexual feelings are closely linked to children's basic ways of relating to the world, such as nursing and moving their bowels. -- believed that a major instinct, eros, aims to preserve and perpetuate life. Eros is fueled by psychological, or psychic, energy, which -- labeled libido. Libidinal energy involves sexual impulses, so -- considered it to be --. As the child develops, this energy is expressed through sexual feelings in different parts of the body, or erogenous zones. To --, human development involves the transfer of libidinal energy from one erogenous zone to another. He hypothesized five periods of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. In psychodynamic theory, the process by which libidinal energy is expressed through different erogenous zones during different stages of development.

Individualism (Sociocultural Perspective)

-- tend to define themselves in terms of their personal identities and to give priority to their personal goals. When asked to complete the statement "I am ...," they are likely to respond in terms of their personality traits ("I am outgoing," "I am artistic") or their occupations ("I am a nurse," "I am a systems analyst") A person who defines herself or himself in terms of personal traits and gives priority to her or his own goals.

Disease (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

-- was believed to reflect an imbalance among the humors

Social Cognitive Theory (Learning Theory Perspective)

-- was developed by Albert Bandura (1986, 2012) and other psychologists. In contrast to behaviorism, which focuses on observable behavior and the situations in which behavior occurs, -- focuses on learning by observation and on the -- processes that underlie personal differences. A cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning and person variables, such as values and expectancies, play major roles in individual differences. -- differ from behaviorists in that they see people as influencing their environment just as their environment affects them. -- agree with behaviorists that discussions of human nature should be tied to observable behavior, but they assert that variables within people—person variables—must also be considered if we are to understand people.

Ego Identity (Erikson/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

A firm sense of who one is and what one stands for. For Erikson, the goal of adolescence is the attainment of --, not genital sexuality. The focus is on who we see ourselves as being and what we stand for, not on sexual interests.

Unconditional Postive Regard (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

A persistent expression of esteem for the value of a person, but not necessarily an unqualified acceptance of all of the person's behaviors. Rogers assumed that we all develop a need for self-regard, or self-esteem. At first, self-esteem reflects the esteem in which others hold us. Parents help children develop self-esteem when they show them --—that is, when they accept them as having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior at the moment. Rogers was optimistic about human nature. He believed that people are basically good, and that when they develop in an atmosphere of --, they will become generous and loving—not selfish.

Traits (Trait Perspective)

A relatively stable aspect of personality that is inferred from behavior and assumed to give rise to consistent behavior.

Introversion (Eysenck/Trait Perspective)

A trait characterized by intense imagination and the tendency to inhibit impulses.

Extraversion (Eysenck/Trait Perspective)

A trait characterized by tendencies to be socially outgoing and to express feelings and impulses freely.

Creative Self (Adler/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

According to Adler, the self-aware aspect of personality that strives to achieve its full potential. Adler believed that self-awareness plays a major role in the formation of personality. He spoke of a --, a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the person's potential.

Individual Psychology (Adler/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Adler's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self. Because each person's potential is unique, Adler's views have been termed --.

Emotional Instability (Eysenck/Trait Perspective)

Also called neuroticism.

Behaviorist View (Learning Theory Perspective)

At Johns Hopkins University in 1924, John B. Watson sounded the battle cry of the -- movement: This proclamation underscores the -- view that personality is plastic—that situational or environmental influences, not internal, individual variables, are the key shapers of personality. In contrast to the psychoanalysts and structuralists of his day, Watson argued that unseen, undetectable mental structures must be rejected in favor of that which can be seen and measured. In the 1930s, Watson's battle flag was carried onward by B. F. Skinner, who agreed that psychologists should avoid trying to see into the "black box" of the organism and instead emphasize the effects of reinforcements on --. The views of Watson and Skinner largely ignored the notions of personal freedom, choice, and self-direction. Most of us assume that our wants originate within us. Watson and Skinner suggested that environmental influences such as parental approval and social customs shape us into wanting certain things and not wanting others. In his novel Walden Two, Skinner (1948) described a Utopian society in which people are happy and content because they are allowed to do as they please. From early childhood, however, they have been trained or conditioned to be cooperative. Because of their reinforcement histories, they want to -- in decent, kind, and unselfish ways. They see themselves as free because society makes no effort to force them to -- in particular ways. The American poet Robert Frost wrote, "You have freedom when you're easy in your harness." Society in Skinner's Walden Two made children "easy" in their "harnesses," but the harnesses were very real. Some object to -- notions because they play down the importance of consciousness and choice. Others argue that humans are not blindly ruled by reinforcers (i.e., rewards and punishments). In some circumstances, people have rebelled against the so-called necessity of survival by choosing pain and hardship over pleasure, or death over life. Many people have sacrificed their own lives to save those of others. The -- "defense" might be that the apparent choice of pain or death is forced on some just as conformity to social custom is forced on others.

Eysenck (Trait Perspective)

British psychologist -- (1916-1997) focused much of his research on the relationships between two personality traits: introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability. (Emotional instability is also called neuroticism.) Carl Jung was the first to distinguish between introverts and extraverts. -- added the dimension of emotional stability-instability to introversion-extraversion. He catalogued various personality traits according to where they are situated along these dimensions. For example, an anxious person would be high in both introversion and neuroticism—that is, preoccupied with his or her own thoughts and emotionally unstable.

Antisocial Personality (Biology and Traits/Trait Perspective)

Characterized by frequent conflict with society and lack of feelings of guilt or anxiety—is the other side of the coin when it comes to personality. Whereas shy children readily acquire fears and are highly reactive to stress, children who are on the path to developing -- show low responses to threats and stressors. As children, they show a pattern of deceit, callous disregard for the feelings of others, and lack of interest in conforming their behavior to social rules. As adults, they are likely to become involved in criminal activity. Adrian Raine has extensively studied the intersection of biology and the --. In a review of the literature, he found a number of brain impairments that are related to the development of an -- in the ventral prefrontal cortex (part of the so-called executive center of the brain) and the amygdala (a part of the limbic system involved in emotional reactivity).

Phallic Stage (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Children enter the -- during the third year. The major erogenous zone is the -- region (the penis in boys and the clitoris in girls). Parent-child conflict is likely to develop over masturbation, to which parents may respond with threats or punishment. During this stage children may develop strong sexual attachments to the parent of the other gender and begin to view the parent of the same gender as a rival for the other parent's affections. The third stage of psychosexual development, characterized by a shift of libido to the -- region. Children have difficulty dealing with feelings of lust and jealousy. These feelings, therefore, remain unconscious, but their influence is felt through fantasies about marriage with the parent of the other gender and hostility toward the parent of the same gender. In boys, this conflict is labeled the Oedipus complex, after the legendary Greek king who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. Similar feelings in girls give rise to the Electra complex. According to Greek legend, Electra was the daughter of the King Agamemnon. She longed for him after his death and sought revenge against his slayers—her mother and her mother's lover. The Oedipus and Electra complexes are resolved by about the ages of 5 or 6. Children repress their hostilities toward the parent of the same gender and begin to identify with her or him. In psychoanalytic theory, identification is the key to gender-typing: It leads children to play the gender roles of the parent of the same gender and to internalize his or her values. Sexual feelings toward the parent of the other gender are repressed for several years. When the feelings reemerge during adolescence, they are displaced, or transferred, to socially appropriate members of the other gender.

Oedipus Complex (Phallic Stage/Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Children have difficulty dealing with feelings of lust and jealousy. These feelings, therefore, remain unconscious, but their influence is felt through fantasies about marriage with the parent of the other gender and hostility toward the parent of the same gender. In boys, this conflict is labeled the -- complex, after the legendary Greek king who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. A conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love.

Electra Complex (Phallic Stage/Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Children have difficulty dealing with feelings of lust and jealousy. These feelings, therefore, remain unconscious, but their influence is felt through fantasies about marriage with the parent of the other gender and hostility toward the parent of the same gender. Similar feelings in girls give rise to the -- complex. According to Greek legend, -- was the daughter of the King Agamemnon. She longed for him after his death and sought revenge against his slayers—her mother and her mother's lover. A conflict of the phallic stage in which the girl longs for her father and resents her mother.

Black Bile, Choleric, Sanguine, Phlegmatic, Melancholic (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

Depression, for example, represented an excess of --. Methods such as bloodletting and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance. Although Hippocrates' theory was speculative, the terms --, --, --, and -- are still used in descriptions of personality.

Oral Stage (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

During the first year of life, a child experiences much of her or his world through the mouth. If it fits, into the mouth it goes. This is the --. Freud argued that -- activities, such as sucking and biting, give the child sexual gratification as well as nourishment. The first stage of psychosexual development, during which gratification is hypothesized to be attained primarily through -- activities. Freud believed that children encounter conflict during each stage of psychosexual development. During the --, conflict centers on the nature and extent of -- gratification. Early weaning (cessation of breastfeeding) can lead to frustration. Excessive gratification, on the other hand, can lead an infant to expect that it will routinely obtain anything it wants. Insufficient or excessive gratification in any stage could lead to fixation in that stage and to the development of traits that are characteristic of the stage. -- traits include dependency, gullibility, and excessive optimism or pessimism (depending on the child's experiences with gratification). Freud theorized that adults with an -- fixation could experience exaggerated desires for "-- activities," such as smoking, overeating, alcohol abuse, and nail biting. Like the infant whose survival depends on the mercy of an adult, adults with -- fixations may desire clinging, dependent relationships.

Allport (Trait Perspective)

Early in the 20th century, -- and a colleague catalogued some 18,000 human traits from a search through word lists like dictionaries. Some were physical traits such as short, weak, and brunette. Others were behavioral traits such as shy and emotional. Still others were moral traits such as honest. This exhaustive list has served as the basis for personality research by many other psychologists.

Psychosocial Development (Erikson/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Erikson's theory of personality and development, which emphasizes social relationships and eight stages of growth. The first stage of -- is labeled the stage of trust versus mistrust because two outcomes are possible: (1) a warm, loving relationship with the mother and others during infancy might lead to a sense of basic trust in people and the world; or (2) a cold, ungratifying relationship with the mother and others might generate a general sense of mistrust.

Extraverted, Unstable, Extraverted, Stable, Introverted, Stable, Introverted, Unstable (Relationship between Eysenck and Hippocrates' Models)

Eysenck acknowledged that his scheme is similar to --. According to Eysenck's dimensions, the choleric type would be -- and --; the sanguine type, -- and --; the phlegmatic type, -- and --; and the melancholic type, -- and --.

Extraversion (Big Five/Trait Perspective)

Factor name I, contrasts talkativeness, assertiveness, and activity with silence, passivity, and reserve.

Agreeableness (Big Five/Trait Perspective)

Factor name II, contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and distrust.

Conscientiousness (Big Five/Trait Perspective)

Factor name III, contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness, negligence, and unreliability.

Neuroticism (Big Five/Trait Perspective)

Factor name IV, contrasts nervousness, moodiness, and sensitivity to negative stimuli with coping ability.

Openness to Experience (Big Five/Trait Perspective)

Factor name V, contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with shallowness and lack of perceptiveness.

Inferiority Complex (Adler/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Feelings of -- hypothesized by Adler to serve as a central motivating force. In some people, feelings of -- may be based on physical problems and the need to compensate for them. Adler believed, however, that all of us encounter some feelings of -- because of our small size as children, and that these feelings give rise to a drive for superiority.

Self Efficacy Expectations (Situation vs. Person Variables/Social Cognitive Theory/Learning Theory Perspective)

For example, people might predict other people's behavior on the basis of body language such as "tight lips" or "shifty eyes." -- are beliefs that we can accomplish certain things, such as doing a backflip into a swimming pool or solving math problems. People with positive -- tend to have high self-esteem and achievement motivation. Psychotherapy often motivates people to try new things by changing their -- from "I can't" to "Perhaps I can"

Latent Stage (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Freud believed that by the age of 5 or 6, children have been in conflict with their parents over sexual feelings for several years. The pressures of the Oedipus and Electra complexes cause them to repress all sexual urges. In so doing, they enter a period of --, during which their sexual feelings remain unconscious, they prefer playmates of their own gender, and they focus on schoolwork. A phase of psychosexual development characterized by repression of sexual impulses.

Genital Stage (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Freud believed that we enter the final stage of psychosexual development, the --, at puberty. Adolescent males again experience sexual urges toward their mother, and adolescent females experience such urges toward their father. However, the incest taboo causes them to repress these impulses and displace them onto other adults or adolescents of the other gender. Boys might seek girls "just like the girl that married dear old Dad." Girls might be attracted to boys who resemble their fathers. The mature stage of psychosexual development, characterized by preferred expression of libido through intercourse with an adult of the other gender. People in the -- prefer to find sexual gratification through intercourse with a member of the other gender. In Freud's view, oral or anal stimulation, masturbation, and sexual activity with people of the same gender all represent pre-- fixations and immature forms of sexual conduct.

Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious, Preconscious, Unconscious, Unconscious, Unconscious (Psychodynamic Theory Freud)

Freud labeled the region that pokes into the light of awareness the -- part of the mind. He called the regions below the surface the -- and the --. The -- mind contains ideas that are out of awareness but can be made conscious by focusing on them. The -- mind is shrouded in mystery. It contains primitive instincts such as sex and aggression. Some -- urges cannot be experienced consciously because mental images and words cannot portray them in all their color and fury. Other -- urges may be kept below the surface by repression because they would create anxiety.

Maslow and Self-Actualization (Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Freud wrote that people are basically motivated to gratify biological drives and that their perceptions are distorted by their psychological needs. The humanistic psychologist --—whose hierarchy of needs we described—argued that people also have a conscious need for --, or to become all that they can be. Because people are unique, they must follow unique paths to--. People are not at the mercy of unconscious, primitive impulses. Rather, the main threat to individual personality development is control by other people. We must each be free to get in touch with and actualize our selves. But -- requires taking risks. Many people are more comfortable with the familiar. But people who adhere to the "tried and true" may find their lives slipping into monotony and mediocrity.

18,000, Physical, Behavioral, Emotional

How many human traits did Allport catalogue and what were three of them?

Collectivism (Sociocultural Perspective)

In contrast, many people from cultures in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America tend to be --. -- tend to define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong and to give priority to the group's goals. They feel complete in terms of their relationships with others. They are more likely than individualists to conform to group norms and judgments. When asked to complete the statement "I am . . .," -- are more likely to respond in terms of their families, gender, or nation ("I am a father," "I am a Buddhist," "I am Japanese") A person who defines herself or himself in terms of relationships to other people and groups and gives priority to group goals.

Self-Actualization (Maslow and Self-Actualization/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

In humanistic theory, the innate tendency to strive to realize one's potential. The humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow—whose hierarchy of needs we described—argued that people also have a conscious need for --, or to become all that they can be.

Psychoanalytic Perspective (Psychoanalysis)

In the unconscious mind, primitive drives seek expression, while learned values try to keep them in check. The conflict can arouse emotional outbursts and psychological problems. To explore the unconscious mind, Freud used a form of mental detective work called --. For this reason, his theory of personality is also referred to as -- theory. In --, people are encouraged to talk about anything that pops into their mind while they remain comfortable and relaxed.

Situation Variables (Social Cognitive Theory/Learning Theory Perspective)

Include rewards and punishments. Rewards and punishments. We cannot predict behavior from -- alone. Whether a person will behave in a certain way also depends on the person's expectancies about the outcomes of that behavior and the perceived or subjective values of those outcomes. There are various kinds of expectancies. Some are predictions about what will follow what.

Yellow Bile (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

Is associated with a choleric (quick-tempered) disposition

Conditional Positive Regard (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Judgment of another person's value on the basis of the acceptability of that person's behaviors. But when parents show children --—that is, when they accept them only when they behave in a desired manner—children may develop conditions of worth. Therefore, children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave.

Collective Unconscious (Jung/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Jung's hypothesized store of vague memories that represent the history of humankind.

Analytical Psychology (Jung/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Jung's psychodynamic theory, which emphasizes the collective unconscious and archetypes.

Erikson (Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Like many other modern psychoanalysts, -- (1902-1994) believed that Freud had placed undue emphasis on sex. Like Horney, he believed that social relationships (e.g., between a parent and child) are more important determinants of personality than sexual urges. -- also believed that to a large extent we are the conscious architects of our own personalities. --, like Freud, is known for devising a comprehensive theory of personality development. But whereas Freud proposed stages of psychosexual development, -- proposed stages of psychosocial development. Rather than label stages for various erogenous zones, -- labeled them for the traits that might be developed during the stages. The first stage of psychosocial development is labeled the stage of trust versus mistrust because two outcomes are possible: (1) a warm, loving relationship with the mother and others during infancy might lead to a sense of basic trust in people and the world; or (2) a cold, ungratifying relationship with the mother and others might generate a general sense of mistrust. For --, the goal of adolescence is the attainment of ego identity, not genital sexuality. The focus is on who we see ourselves as being and what we stand for, not on sexual interests.

The Big Five (Trait Perspective)

OCEAN More recent research suggests that there may be -- basic personality factors, not two. These include the two found by Eysenck—extraversion and neuroticism—along with conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience

Self-Concept (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Our -- consist of our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy. Rogers believed that we all have unique ways of looking at ourselves and the world—that is, unique frames of reference. It may be that we each use a different set of dimensions in defining ourselves and that we judge ourselves according to different sets of values. To one person, achievement-failure may be the most important dimension. To another person, the most important dimension may be decency-indecency. A third person may not even think in these terms.

Archetypes (Jung/Neo-Freudian/Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Primitive images, or --, that reflect the history of our species. Examples of -- are the all-powerful God, the young hero, the fertile and nurturing mother, the wise old man, the hostile brother—even fairy godmothers, wicked witches, and themes of rebirth or resurrection. -- themselves remain unconscious, but Jung believed they affect our thoughts and feelings and cause us to respond to cultural themes in the media.

Biology and Traits (Trait Perspective)

Researchers have also been investigating -- factors that are connected with, and may give rise to, personality --. For example, researchers estimate that the heritability of the extraverted personality is 40% to 60%. Research suggests that brain levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine are involved with extraversion and that levels tend to be higher in extraverts than in introverts. Researchers have also found evidence that genetic factors are part of a child's basic temperament and are involved in shyness and behavioral inhibition. The antisocial personality—characterized by frequent conflict with society and lack of feelings of guilt or anxiety—is the other side of the coin when it comes to personality. Whereas shy children readily acquire fears and are highly reactive to stress, children who are on the path to developing antisocial personalities show low responses to threats and stressors. As children, they show a pattern of deceit, callous disregard for the feelings of others, and lack of interest in conforming their behavior to social rules. As adults, they are likely to become involved in criminal activity. Adrian Raine has extensively studied the intersection of -- and the antisocial personality. In a review of the literature, he found a number of brain impairments that are related to the development of an antisocial personality in the ventral prefrontal cortex (part of the so-called executive center of the brain) and the amygdala (a part of the limbic system involved in emotional reactivity).

Self-Ideals (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Rogers also believed that we have mental images of what we are capable of becoming. These are termed --. We are motivated to reduce the difference between our self-concepts and our --.

Self-Esteem (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Rogers assumed that we all develop a need for self-regard, or --. At first, -- reflects the -- in which others hold us. Parents help children develop -- when they show them unconditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them as having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior at the moment. Rogers was optimistic about human nature. He believed that people are basically good, and that when they develop in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, they will become generous and loving—not selfish. But when parents show children conditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them only when they behave in a desired manner—children may develop conditions of worth. Therefore, children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave.

Client-Centered Therapy (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Rogers believed that the path to self-actualization requires getting in touch with our genuine feelings, accepting them, and acting on them. This is the goal of Rogers's method of psychotherapy, --.

Frames of Reference (Self-Concepts/Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Rogers believed that we all have unique ways of looking at ourselves and the world—that is, unique --

Self (Rogers' Self Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Rogers defined the -- as the center of experience. Your -- is your ongoing sense of who and what you are, your sense of how and why you react to the environment and how you choose to act on the environment. Your choices are made on the basis of your values, and your values are also part of your --.

Acculturation (And Adjustment) (Sociocultural Perspective)

Self-esteem is connected with patterns of -- among immigrants. Those patterns take various forms. Some immigrants are completely assimilated by the dominant culture. They lose the language and customs of their country of origin and identify with the dominant culture in the new host country. Others maintain almost complete separation. They retain the language and customs of their country of origin and never acclimate to those of the new country. Still others become bicultural. They remain fluent in the language of their country of origin but also become conversant in the language of their new country. They blend the customs and values of both cultures. They can switch "mental gears"; they apply the values of one culture under some circumstances and apply the values of the other culture under others. Perhaps they relate to other people in one way at work or in school, and in another way at home or in the neighborhood. Research evidence suggests that people who do not fully surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher self-esteem than those who do. On the other hand, Latin American and Asian American immigrants who are more proficient in English are less likely to be anxious and depressed as they navigate within their new cultures The process of adaptation in which immigrants and native groups identify with a new, dominant culture by learning about that culture and making behavioral and attitudinal changes.

Neo-Freudians (Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Several personality theorists—--—are among Freud's intellectual heirs. Their theories, like his, include conflict and defense mechanisms. In other respects, they differ considerably.

Person Variables (Social Cognitive Theory/Learning Theory Perspective)

Social-cognitive theorists agree with behaviorists that discussions of human nature should be tied to observable behavior, but they assert that variables within people—--—must also be considered if we are to understand people. Competencies, encoding strategies, expectancies, subjective values, and self-regulatory systems and plans. Situational variables include rewards and punishments. -- include knowledge and skills, ways of interpreting experience, expectancies, emotions, and self-regulatory systems and plans

Conditions of Worth (Rogers' Self-Theory/Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

Standards by which the value of a person is judged. But when parents show children conditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them only when they behave in a desired manner—children may develop --. Therefore, children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave. Because each individual has a unique potential, children who develop -- must be somewhat disappointed in themselves. They cannot fully live up to the wishes of others and be true to themselves. Children in some families learn that it is bad to have ideas of their own, especially about sexual, political, or religious matters. When they perceive their caregivers' disapproval, they may come to see themselves as rebels and label their feelings as selfish, wrong, or evil.

Anal Stage (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

The -- begins in the second year. During the --, gratification is attained through contraction and relaxation of the muscles that control elimination of waste products. Elimination, which is reflexive during most of the first year, comes under voluntary muscular control, even if such control is not reliable at first. During the --, children learn to delay the gratification that comes from eliminating whenever they feel the urge. The general issue of self-control may bring conflict between parent and child. --fixations may stem from this conflict and lead to either of two sets of traits in adulthood. ---retentive traits involve excessive use of self-control: perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness. ---expulsive traits, on the other hand, "let it all hang out": they include carelessness, messiness, and even sadism. The second stage of psychosexual development, when gratification is attained through -- activities.

Ego (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

The -- begins to develop during the first year of life, largely because a child's demands for gratification cannot all be met immediately. The -- stands for reason and good sense, for rational ways of coping with frustration. The -- is guided by the reality principle. It curbs the appetites of the id and seeks ways to find gratification yet avoid social disapproval. The id informs you that you are hungry, but the -- decides to microwave enchiladas. The -- takes into account what is practical along with what is urged by the id. The -- also provides the conscious sense of self. Although most of the -- is conscious, some of its business is carried out unconsciously. For example, the -- also acts as a censor that screens the impulses of the id. When the -- senses that improper impulses are rising into awareness, it may use psychological defenses to prevent them from surfacing. Repression is one such psychological defense, or defense mechanism. The second psychic structure to develop, characterized by self-awareness, planning, and delay of gratification.

Superego (Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

The -- develops as the child incorporates the moral standards and values of parents and other members of the community. The child does so through identification, by trying to become like these people. The -- functions according to the moral principle. It holds up shining models of an ideal self and monitors the intentions of the ego, handing out judgments of right and wrong. It floods the ego with feelings of guilt and shame when the verdict is negative. Freud believed that a healthy personality has found ways to gratify most of the id's demands without seriously offending the --. Most of these demands are contained or repressed. If the ego is not a good problem solver, or if the -- is too stern, the ego will have a hard time of it. The third psychic structure, which functions as a moral guardian and sets forth high standards for behavior.

Id (Freud's Theory ofPsychosexual Development)

The -- is present at birth. It represents biological drives and is entirely unconscious. Freud described the -- as "a chaos, a cauldron of seething excitations." The conscious mind might find it inconsistent to love and hate the same person, but such conflicting emotions can dwell side by side in the --. In the --, one can hate one's mother for failing to gratify immediately all of one's needs while also loving her. The -- follows what Freud termed the pleasure principle. It demands instant gratification without consideration for law, social custom, or other people. The psychic structure, present at birth, that represents physiological drives and is fully unconscious.

Rogers' Self Theory (Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

The humanistic psychologist -- (1902-1987) wrote that people shape themselves through free choice and action. -- defined the self as the center of experience. Your self is your ongoing sense of who and what you are, your sense of how and why you react to the environment and how you choose to act on the environment. Your choices are made on the basis of your values, and your values are also part of your self. -- focuses on the nature of the self and the conditions that allow the self to develop freely. Two of his major concerns are the self-concept and self-esteem. Our self-concepts consist of our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy. -- believed that we all have unique ways of looking at ourselves and the world—that is, unique frames of reference. It may be that we each use a different set of dimensions in defining ourselves and that we judge ourselves according to different sets of values. To one person, achievement-failure may be the most important dimension. To another person, the most important dimension may be decency-indecency. A third person may not even think in these terms. -- assumed that we all develop a need for self-regard, or self-esteem. At first, self-esteem reflects the esteem in which others hold us. Parents help children develop self-esteem when they show them unconditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them as having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior at the moment. -- was optimistic about human nature. He believed that people are basically good, and that when they develop in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, they will become generous and loving—not selfish. But when parents show children conditional positive regard—that is, when they accept them only when they behave in a desired manner—children may develop conditions of worth. Therefore, children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave. Because each individual has a unique potential, children who develop conditions of worth must be somewhat disappointed in themselves. They cannot fully live up to the wishes of others and be true to themselves. Children in some families learn that it is bad to have ideas of their own, especially about sexual, political, or religious matters. When they perceive their caregivers' disapproval, they may come to see themselves as rebels and label their feelings as selfish, wrong, or evil. If they wish to retain a consistent self-concept and self-esteem, they may have to deny their feelings or disown parts of themselves. In this way, their self-concept becomes distorted. According to --, anxiety often stems from recognition that people have feelings and desires that are inconsistent with their distorted self-concept. Because anxiety is unpleasant, people may deny the existence of their genuine feelings and desires. -- believed that the path to self-actualization requires getting in touch with our genuine feelings, accepting them, and acting on them. This is the goal of -- method of psychotherapy, client-centered therapy. -- also believed that we have mental images of what we are capable of becoming. These are termed self-ideals. We are motivated to reduce the

Trait Perspective

The notion of -- is familiar enough. If I asked you to describe yourself, you would probably do so in terms of -- such as bright, sophisticated, and witty. (That is you, is it not?) We also describe other people in terms of --. -- are reasonably stable elements of personality that are inferred from behavior. If you describe a friend as "shy," it may be because you have observed anxiety or withdrawal in that person's social encounters. -- are assumed to account for consistent behavior in different situations. You probably expect your "shy" friend to be retiring in most social confrontations. The concept of -- is also found in other approaches to personality. Freud linked the development of certain traits to children's experiences in each stage of psychosexual development.

Culture

The seeds of individualism and collectivism are found in the -- in which a person grows up.

Humanism (Humanistic-Existential Perspective)

The term -- has a long history and many meanings. As a counterpoint (or "third force") to the predominant psychodynamic and behavioral models, it puts self-awareness at the center of consideration and argues that people are capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior. -- also has represented a reaction to the "rat race" spawned by industrialization and automation. The -- views of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emerged from these concerns. The view that people are capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior.

Hippocrates (Trait Perspective)

The trait perspective dates at least to the Greek physician -- (ca. 460-377 bce). -- believed that traits were embedded in bodily fluids. In his view, a person's personality depends on the balance of four basic fluids, or "humors," in the body.

Sociocultural Perspective

The view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation, behavior, and mental processes.

Psychodynamic Theories

There are several -- of personality, each of which owes its origin to Sigmund Freud. Each teaches that personality is characterized by conflict. At first the conflict is external: drives like sex, aggression, and the need for superiority come into conflict with laws, social rules, and moral codes. But at some point laws and social rules are brought inward—that is, internalized. The conflict is then between opposing inner forces. At any given moment our behavior, our thoughts, and our emotions represent the outcome of these inner contests. Sigmund Freud's perspective, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as forces that determine behavior. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a mass of contradictions. Some have lauded him as one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century. Others have criticized him as overrated. He preached liberal views on sexuality but was himself a model of sexual restraint. He invented a popular form of psychotherapy but experienced lifelong psychologically related problems such as migraine headaches, fainting under stress, and hatred of the telephone. He smoked 20 cigars a day and could not break the habit even after he developed cancer of the jaw. Freud was trained as a physician. Early in his practice, he was surprised to find that some people apparently experienced loss of feeling in a hand or paralysis of the legs even though they had no medical disorder. These odd symptoms often disappeared once the person recalled and discussed stressful events and feelings of guilt or anxiety that seemed to be related to the symptoms. Although these events and feelings lay hidden beneath the surface of awareness, they could influence behavior. From this sort of clinical evidence, Freud concluded that the human mind is like an iceberg. Only the tip of an iceberg rises above the surface of the water; the great mass of it lies hidden in the depths. Freud came to believe that people, similarly, are aware of only a small part of the ideas and impulses that dwell within their minds. He argued that a much greater portion of the mind—one that contained our deepest images, thoughts, fears, and urges—remains beneath the surface of conscious awareness, where little light illumines them.

Learning Theory Perspectives

Trait theory focused on enduring personality characteristics that were generally presumed to be embedded in the nervous system. -- theorists tend not to theorize in terms of traits. They focus instead on behaviors and presume that those behaviors are largely --. That which is -- is also, in principle, capable of being un--. As a result, -- and personality theory may not be a perfect fit. Nevertheless, -- theorists—both behaviorists and social-cognitive theorists—have contributed to the discussion of personality.

Anal-Retentive (Anal Stage/Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Traits involve excessive use of self-control: perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness.

Anal-Expulsive (Anal Stage/Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development)

Traits, on the other hand, "let it all hang out": they include carelessness, messiness, and even sadism.

Humanism vs. Existentialism, Maslow and Self-Actualization, and Rogers' Self-Theory

What are the areas of humanistic-existential perspective?

Individualism vs. Collectivism and Acculturation, Adjustment, and Self-Esteem

What are the areas of sociocultural perspective?

OCEAN Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

What are the big five trait perspectives?

Id, Ego, and Superego

What are the components of Freud's theory of psychosexual development?

Hippocrates, Allport, Eysenck, Big Five, and Biology and Traits

What are the five areas of trait perspective?

Yellow Bile, Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile

What are the four humors/types of Hippocrates?

Situation Variables vs. Person Variables and Observational Learning

What are the parts of the social cognitive theory of learning theory perspective?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, and Genital

What are the stages of Freud's theory of psychosexual development?

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development and Neo-Freudians

What are the two areas of psychoanalytical perspective?

Introversion and Extraversion and Emotional Stability-Instability

What are the two axes of Eysenck?

Oedipus and Electra Complexes

What are the two complexes of the phallic stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development?

Behaviorist View and Social Cognitive Theory

What are the two learning theory perspectives?

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

What are the two major concerns of Rogers' self-theory?

Bandura bobo doll video Albert Bandura performed an experiment in which children watched adults perform violent acts on an inflatable doll. They theory was that children watching this would not act violently (be worn out). However, the violence and aggression in the children was increased and they performed similar acts as well as more (like attraction to guns). The children as picked up hostile language in the process. The children also came up with new ways to attack the doll. The interest of the experiment was the novel aggressive acts. The children in control group not exposed to the adult violence did not display violence. The other group exposed to the adult violence displayed increased violence towards the doll.

What is the example of observational learning we looked at and what happened?

Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson

Who are the Neo-Freudians?

Phlegm (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

With a --atic (sluggish, calm, cool) disposition

Black Bile (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

With a melancholic (gloomy, pensive) temperament.

Blood (Hippocrates/Trait Perspective)

With a sanguine (warm, cheerful) one