PSY 202 Final Exam

What words hint that an interaction was identified?

"Depends on", "Especially when", and "only when"

Provide an example of an operational definition from your knowledge of psychology in everyday life.

"I own a car" and "I don't own a car" survey

Provide a headline that includes a clue that a multiple regression has been used:

"Vacations are important for happiness, even when the length of the vacation is controlled for"

Autumn criticized my experiment for its internal validity. Which if these did she probably say?

"You didn't use random assignment!"

Which of the following phrases is a factorial design clue often found in a journal article?

"depends on"

7. If Sally assign participants to two groups. Then participants squeeze a force gauge as hard as they can. Afterwards, participants from one group, the Group A, receive a motivational speech from Hallie Toegel. Participants from the other group, the Group B, receive a boring lecture from Forrest Toegel. Then participants squeeze a force gauge as hard as they can again. Then, participants from Group A receive a boring speech from Forrest and participants from Group B received a motivational speech from Hallie. Then all participants squeezed the force gauge as hard as they can again. a. Is this design a between-groups design or a within-subjects design? b. What is the name of this design?

*

How many levels, or conditions were in the example in question 7?

*

If you were to run a full counterbalancing procedure, how many orders of conditions would you have in the example in question 7?

*

Choose the correlation coefficient, r, with the STRONGEST relationship.

-0.76

A correlation coefficient that is close to ___ would indicate a strong negative correlation.

-1.0

How are basic and applied research different?

-Basic research studies "how" and "why", while applied research studies new applications of knowledge. -Basic knowledge is research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems. Applied research is research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem

Which feature separates control variables from independent and dependent variables?

-Confound: A general term for the potential alternative explanation for the research finding; a threat to internal validity -Control variables are held constant or measured throughout a study for both control and experimental groups

_______________________ is used to control order effects in an experiment.

-Counterbalancing -Counterbalancing: In a repeated-measures experiment presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different sequences to control for order effects

Dr. Defgh conducts a study where she randomly assigns participants to different experimental conditions. The testing for each condition occurs in a different room of the psychology building. After collecting her data, she learns that the air conditioning in one of the rooms had been turned off during data collection. What kind of threat to internal validity should Dr. Defgh be concerned with?

-Design confound -Design confound: a threat to internal validity in an experiment in which a second variable happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the result

Practice effects and carryover effects are examples of ________ effects.

-Order -Order Effects: In a within-group design, a threat to internal validity in which exposure to one condition changes participants' responses to a later condition

Name three advantages of within-subjects designs.

-Participants in your groups are equivalent because they are the same participants and serve as their own control -Within-subjects designs require fewer participants than other designs -Instead of measuring the average effects of the IV, you can measure the effects of the IV for each individual person

The likelihood that a study will return an accurate result when the independent variable really has an effect is called _____.

-Power -Power: The likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result when an independent variable truly has an effect in the population; the probability of not making a Type II error.

What is a threat to internal validity that is found in within-subjects designs but not in between-groups designs?

-Practice effects -Practice Effects: A type of order effect in which participants' performance improves over time because they become practices at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation/treatment)

Name and describe the kinds of biases of intuition discussed in the text.

-Present/present bias: A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the events and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice -Conformation bias: The tendency to consider onlt the evidence that supports the hypothesis, including asking only the questions that will lwad to the expected answer -Bias blind spot: The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning -Availability heuristic: A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying preclominatly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence in evalutating a conclusion -Being swayed by a story -Being biased about being biased

Dr. YarrMeerk wants to know what kind of exercise makes people happiest. He randomly assigns participants to either a weight-lifting or cardio group. Each group does the assigned exercise for 30 minutes. They then report on their mood on a scale of 1-10. What could Dr. YarrMeerk do to eliminate potential confounds in his experiment?

-Random assignment -Random Assignment: The use of a random method to assign participants into different experimental groups

Why might a researcher choose to use a pretest/posttest design?

-To be sure random assignment made each group equal. -Pretest/Posttest Design: An experiment in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest

What kind of situation is especially problematic for regression to the mean?

-When one group has an extremely high score at the pretest -Regression to The Mean: A phenomenon in which an extreme finding is likely to be closer to its own typical, or mean, level the next time it is measured because the same combination of chance factors that made the finding extreme are not present the second time

Dr. Abcdef is curious as to whether exposing people to Dr. Toegel's magic key to understanding causes them to perform between on tests. She assigns half her participants to study Dr. Toegel's magic key to understanding for 5 minutes and the other half to study to Dr. Toegel's magic key to understanding for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether their performance is bad, good, or very good. She finds that most of the students do very well on the tests regardless of group assignment. This outcome would be known as what kind of effect?*

-a ceiling effect -Ceiling Effect: An experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on the dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the high ens of their possible distribution

What kind of quasi-experimental design involves repeated measurement of a variable before and after some event?

-interrupted time-series design -A one-group pretest-posttest design is a quasi- experimental research design in which the same dependent variable is measured in one group of participants before (pretest) and after (posttest) a treatment is administered.

A correlation coefficient that is close to ___ would indicate no correlation.

0.0

What information is required to be in an IRB application?

1. Purpose of the research 2. Scientific rationale behind the study 3. Research setting where the study will take place 4. Whether prospective participants will be vulnerable to coercion or undue influence 5. Inclusion and exclusion criteria 6. Recruitment and enrollment procedures 7. Method of advertising and the content of the advertising 8. Time required for participation 9. Study procedures to be performed 10. Payment amount and payment schedule and the risks and potential benefits of the research

A correlation coefficient that is close to ___ would indicate a strong positive correlation.

1.0

At a minimum, how many variables are there in an association claim?

2

Dr. Ghijk is conducting a 2 × 4 between-groups factorial design. How many independent variables are in his study?

2

A factorial design with three independent variables, two with two levels and one with three levels, would be represented in a factorial design as

2 x 2 x 3.

A factorial design with two independent variables, one with two levels and the other with three levels, would be represented in a factorial design as

2 x 3.

What kind of factorial notation can be used for Dr. Stuv's new study?

2x2x2

A factorial design with three independent variables, one with 3 levels, one with 4 levels, and one with two levels, would be represented in a factorial design as

4 x 3 x 2

Provide three examples of frequency claims.

41% of children worldwide experience moderate food insecurity, just 15% of Americans smoke, 74% of the world smiles yesterday

The American Psychological Association's ethical guidelines have ________ principles and ________ standards.

5, 10

Dr. Ghijk is conducting a 2 × 4 between-groups factorial design. How many cells are in his design?

8

Self-selection bias

A bias in a sample that occurs when individuals self-select to participate in a study, leading to a non-representative sample.

Observer bias

A bias that occurs when observer expectations influence the interpretation of participants' behaviors or the outcome of a study.

Observer effects

A change in behavior of study participants in the direction of observer expectations.

Liking for Amanda Bynes movies

A construct measured by survey questions about one's preference for movies featuring Amanda Bynes.

A study conducted in the "real world" is often said to be conducted in ______________

A field setting

When a researcher uses deception, a debriefing session is required. What needs to be included in the information provided during debriefing?

A full explanation of the hypothesis being tested, procedures to deceive participants, and the reason(s) why it was necessary to deceive them

What is problematic about being swayed by a good story?

A good story may not be supported by facts. It might be based on personal experiences.

Unobtrusive observation

A method of recording behavior in a natural setting without the participants being aware of being observed, to avoid reactivity.

Random assignment

A method used in experiments to assign participants to different groups, which boosts internal validity.

Sample

A part of a population that is selected for study to represent the entire population.

Double-negative question

A question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity.

What is the difference between a ratio scale of measurement and an interval scale of measurement?

A ratio scale of measurement has a zero value that actually means "nothing" or "the absence of something," but an interval scale does not.

What is one reason that a researcher might want to avoid conducting a small-N design?

A researcher might want o to avoid conducting a small n design because external validity/generalization to other participants

Convenience sample

A sample chosen based on those who are easiest to access and readily available.

Nonprobability sample

A sample selected using nonrandom sampling techniques, such as convenience, snowball, purposive, and quota sampling, which may result in a biased sample.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately represents the population of interest.

Sampling bias

A sampling problem that occurs when the respondents are not representative of the target population.

Random sampling

A sampling technique where every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, which boosts external validity.

Snowball sampling

A sampling technique where participants refer their friends to the study, which is unlikely to turn up a representative sample.

What is a "hypothesis"?

A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate

Forced-choice question

A survey question format in which respondents give their opinions by picking their best of two or more options.

Open-ended question

A survey question format that allows respondents to answer any way they like.

Forced-choice question format

A survey question format that removes neutral options from closed-ended survey questions, forcing respondents to provide definite answers and preventing fence-sitting.

Likert scale

A survey question format using a rating scale containing multiple response options anchored by the specific terms strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree.

Semantic differential scale

A survey question format using a response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives.

Non-leading question

A survey question that does not suffer from the problems of double-barreled, double-negative, or leading questions.

Socially sensitive topic

A topic in a questionnaire that may elicit biased or inaccurate responses due to its sensitive nature.

Double-barreled question

A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because its wording encourages one response more than others, thereby weakening its construct validity.

Leading question

A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because its wording encourages one response more than others, thereby weakening its construct validity.

Which design is weakest?

A-B design (stable baseline design)

If we found that, overall, there was a very weak relation that showed that amount of deep talk was positively associated with reports of well-being, that would be an example of a

An association claim

In a scatterplot, the direction of the relationship can be seen by the __________

Angle of the regression line

Probability sampling

Another term for random sampling, where every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Research that is done specifically to solve a practical problem, like increasing memory ability or decreasing symptoms of depression, is known as _______________ research.

Applied Research

Longitudinal designs that measure two variables across time are NOT helpful for fully answering/addressing which rule of causation?

Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?

Dr. Ghijk notices that 20 students in their longitudinal study of 100 college students dropped out of the experiment over time. When they look at the missing data, they discover that those 20 students had significantly lower pretest scores than the 80 with complete data. What type of threat is this an example of?*

Attrition

Research that is done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology, like distinguishing the components of extraversion or predicting the time it takes a person to determine whether an object is a face or another object, is known as _______________ research.

Basic Research

A news outlet reported on a study with dementia. The study found that among patients with dementia, bilingual people has been diagnosed 3-4 years later than those who were monolingual. What are the variables in this bivariate association?

Being bilingual or not, and age at dementia diagnosis

What are the principles of the Belmont report?

Beneficence (treating people in ways that benefit them), Justice (striving to treat all groups of people fairly), Respect for people's rights and dignity (recognizing that people are autonomous agents/ protect people's rights).

In the table, what does the beta for cognitive skills at 54 months mean?

Better cognitive skills at 54 months is not associated with political conservatism at age 18 when controlling for gender, ethnicity, SES, and parenting qualities.

Name three kinds of factorial-design arrangements and state which arrangement requires the most participants, the second-most participants, and the fewest participants.

Between groups: Most Within subjects: Least Mixed: Middle Amount

Imagine that Dr. Toegel is talking to herself about biases that might influence a hiring decision. Being an expert in psychology (or at least a specific area of psychology), she exclaims: "I am sure other people might engage in faulty thinking, but I never would!" What is kind of bias described in the chapter is Dr. Toegel experiencing?

Bias blind spot

Why are convergent and discriminant validity often evaluated together?

Both involve collecting information from a lot of psychological measures of theoretical interest.

Both Carson and Alexia are studying the effects of creativity on task completion. Carson randomly assigns participants to either a creativity or non-creativity condition. Alexia divides participants into either a creativity or non-creativity condition based on self-reported ratings of how creative participants are on average during a week. Both Carson and Alexia measure task completion in the same way. Is Carson is conducting a true experiment or a quasi-experiment? How about Alexia?

Carson is conducting a true experiment and Alexia is conducting a quasi-experiment

Science journalists have argued that cigarette smoking leads to a variety of health problems. What type of claim are they making?

Casual Claim

Provide three examples of language that would hint that a person is making a causal claim.

Causes, changes, may lead to

According to the Belmont Report, which groups of people are entitled to special protection?

Children, people with intellectual or developmental disabilities, prisoners

What are three examples that are not required to be in an IRB application?

Classroom research, data sets, oral history

Cindy decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. Which of the following is a step Cindy will do in conducting her meta-analysis?

Collect all the studies that have been conducted on daily stress and cardiovascular health.

Which of the following is never found in a one-group, pretest/posttest design (i.e., an A-B design)?

Comparison group

What kind of bias is invoked if a person asks questions only to get the answers that he/she/they want?

Confirmation Bias

Different factors that could account for significant results that are not ruled out by the experimental design are called what?

Confounds

Which of the following is true of control variables?

Control variables are kept the same for all participants.

Explain why control variables are necessary in experiments and why they are not actually variables.

Control variables give you internal validity

In addition to a group or condition in which participants are exposed to the experimental variable, what kind of group or condition is necessary to include in order to determine effects of an experimental manipulation?

Control/comparison group

If one variable is measured and the other is too?

Correlational

__________ controls for order effects in within-groups designs.

Counterbalancing

Which of the causal criteria could be met using a longitudinal design?

Covariance, Temporal Precedence, Internal Validity

Which is one of the three criteria necessary to make a causal claim?

Covariance, Temporal precedence, and Internal Validity

Describe each of the three causal criteria: Covariance, Temporal Precedence, Internal Validity

Covariance: The degree to which the two variables go together. Also 1 of the 3 criteria for establishing a casual claim; the proposed casual variable must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable Temporal Precedence: 1 of 3 criteria for establishing a casual claim, stating that proposed casual variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome Internal Validity: 1 of 3 criteria for establishing a casual claim, studies ability to rule out alternative explanations for casual relationships between two variables

If I demonstrate, in a sample of people, that my new self-report measure of extroversion correlates with an observation of the number of conversations each person has in a day, I have demonstrated __________ validity.

Criterion

According to its conceptual definition, a variable should be related to a particular behavior. If a researcher is able to demonstrate that their measure of the variable is related to the behavior, then he has established what kind of validity?

Criterion validity

In multiple regressions, this is another name for dependent variable: ____________________

Criterion variable

A correlation-based statistic called ________ is commonly used to determine internal reliability.

Cronbach's α (alpha)

________ can be examined in both simple bivariate designs and longitudinal designs.

Cross-sectional correlation

________ psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that works primarily in the "generalization mode".

Cultural

Observational data

Data collected through direct observation of behavior, which can be useful in frequency claims, association claims, and causal claims.

What kind of variable does a researcher measure in an experiment?

Dependent variable

What is a way to describe an interaction? A difference in ___________.

Differences

In the study depicted in the figure above, how could a researcher transform the pretest/posttest between-subjects study into a repeated measures within-subjects design?

Each participant would have to play both video games and then have their blood pressure taken

The d score is a standardized measure of the degree to which the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable relative to the control group. What kind of measure is this?

Effect Size

In the table, what does the beta for egalitarian parenting mean?

Egalitarian parenting predicts lower levels of political conservatism at age 18 when controlling for gender, ethnicity, SES, authoritarian parenting, and maternal sensitivity.

What are some tips that can help you 'read with a purpose'?

Empirical journal articles, chapters, and review articles. Highlight, annotations, and have a reason for reading.

_______________ is the approach of collecting data and using it to develop, support, and/or challenge a theory.

Empiricism

The number of main effects that need to be examined is ________ the number of independent variables.

Equal to

If one variable is manipulated and one is measured?

Experimental

Carmen Yarmar wants to evaluate effects of a computer-based training program, so he invites 40 people into the laboratory. All 40 people take a quiz about responding to an opioid overdose. She randomly assigns 20 people to a no-education group. This group watches animal videos. The other 20 people were randomly assigned to an education group. This group watched educational videos about responding to an opioid overdose. After exposure to the assigned condition, both groups take the same quiz about responding to an opioid overdose. What kind of design did Carmen use?

Experimental Design

If a researcher wants to identify results that can apply to the most number of people possible, what kind of validity would they be trying to maximize?

External Validity

The question "Can the causal relationship generalize to other people, places, and times?" refers to what type of validity?

External validity

________ validity tends to be higher in experiments than in other types of studies.

External validity

Random selection enhances ___________ validity, and random assignment enhances ______ validity.

External; internal

True or false: Data from small-N designs are always averaged across participants.

FALSE

True or false: Inferential Statistics are typically not important in a small-N designs?

FALSE

If a measurement looks like it is a plausible operationalization of a conceptual variable, then it has ________

Face validity

In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is ______.

Factor

Which of the figures pictured above programs for generalization?

Figure 3

Which of the following claims is always researched in "generalization mode"?

Frequency Claims

How many and what type (measured or manipulated) of variables are necessary to support each of the claims below? Then provide an example of each and variables that could be used.

Frequency claim: One measured variable Association claim: At least two measured variables Causal claim: Measured and manipulated variables

In the longitudinal study describes in Q2, which pattern of cross-lag correlations would indicate that social media use leads to lower grades (rather than the reverse)?

Grades at Year 1 shows a weaken correlation with social media use at Year 2, but social media use at Year 1 shows a strong correlation with grades at Year 2

Dr. Ghijk decided that instead of conducting a 2 × 4 between-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 × 4 within-subjects factorial design. Will the number of participants required for the study halve, double, or stay the same?

Halve

Which of these is a causal claim?

Having mom in the car makes teens safer drivers.

Hallon conducts a study for her research methods class to determine if consuming milk causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In her study, she gives half of her participants a glass of water and half of her participants a glass of milk and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. She finds that people who drink milk beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Hallon decides to conduct a conceptual replication. What could be changed to make it this type of replication?

Having participants drink a chocolate milk drink rather than a regular milk drink

Professor Kramer has decided to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes this semester-Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He gives his students a survey. In introduction to neuroscience, 43 of 50 students complete the survey, in psych and law 46 of 48 students complete the survey. Based on this information, which of the following can dr kramer say?

His sample came from his population of interest

Which question would be evaluating the notetaking experiment's construct validity?

How well did the essay test measure people's conceptual knowledge?

When generalizing the results of a sample to a population, what is the most important question to ask?

How were the participants sampled?

What does it mean that "reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity"?

If you used a normal, non-broken set of scales to measure your height it would give you the same score, and so be reliable (assuming your weight doesn't fluctuate), but still wouldn't be valid.

What is a cross-sectional correlation?

In a longitudinal design, a correlation between two variables that are measured at the same time

What is an autocorrelation?

In a longitudinal design, the correlation of one variable with itself, measured at two different times

Cory decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. What is the first thing that Cory will do in conducting her meta-analysis?

In conducting a meta-analysis, Cory's primary step would be to collect all the studies that have been conducted on the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health. A meta-analysis involves systematically reviewing and analyzing existing studies on a particular topic to derive a comprehensive and quantitative understanding of the overall findings.

Explain how interrogating the statistical validity of a small-N design is different from interrogating the statistical validity in a large-N design.

In large N designs, researchers decide whether the result is replicable by doing a test of statistical significance. In small N designs, researchers decide whether a result is replicable by repeating the experiment on a new participant.

What is the critical difference between a pretest/posttest design and a repeated measures design?

In repeated measure design, participants are exposed to all levels of an independent variable. In a pretest/posttest design, participants only see one level of the independent variable.

What kind of variable does a researcher manipulate in an experiment?

Independent variable

What should a researcher who is planning a new study using prison inmates know in order to design an ethical study?

Inmates are entitled to special protection.

What could you suggest to the researcher who obtained the data shown in Figure 1 to increase the design's internal validity (i.e., rule out more threats to internal validity)?

Instead of a stable baseline design the researcher should try a reversal design to increase the designs internal validity.

Teddy wants to evaluate something about the validity of her new measure "Willingness to Provide Dogs with Treats" before using it in her study. She looks at the relationship between each of the individual questions. She sees that participants who agree that "Good Dogs Should Always be Given Treats" also agree with "Even Bad Dogs Should be Given Treats" and disagree with "Piper (the cat) Should Be Given Treats" This is a test of what kind of reliability?

Internal Reliability

Generally, what kind of validity is the main priority for experimental studies?

Internal validity

When researchers conduct an experiment comparing two different treatment conditions, they are likely to be more concerned with ________ validity than ________ validity.

Internal/external validity

In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some ________ validity in exchange for ________ validity.

Internal; external

Dr. Barch is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). In addition to measuring the Body Concern of the participants who joined a fraternity/sorority both immediately before and immediately after they join, Dr. Barch measures them for the three weeks before and the three weeks after. This type of design is known as what kind of a design?

Interrupted time-series design

What is the difference between an interval scale and a ratio scale?

Interval scales are void of absolute or true zero, ratio scales have an absolute zero point.

According to the textbook, what ethical question might be posed specifically in reference to using a reversal design?

Is it ethical to remove an effective treatment?

According to the textbook, which of the following ethical questions might be posed specifically in reference to a reversal design?

Is it ethical to remove an effective treatment?

Provide three examples of language that would hint that a person is making an association claim.

Is linked to, may predict, is associated with

Darrin reads a story reporting that students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges. He wonders if this means going to a private college causes you to have a higher GPA; if so, he'll go to a private college! Applying the three causal criteria, Darrin knows there is covariance here. He also knows there is a temporal precedence, because you choose a college first, and then you get your GPA. Which of the following questions would help Darrin ask about the third criterion, internal validity?

Is there some other reason why these two are related? Maybe better students are more likely to go to private colleges, and they are also going to get better grades?

What can be problematic about a situation in which a journalist reports only on results from a single study (and not on results from 50 other studies that have been conducted on the same topic)?

It can lead people to value one study over decades of previous research.

Explain what the file drawer problem is and how and why it needs to be addressed when conducting a meta-analysis.

It refers to the idea that a meta-analysis might be overestimating the true size of an effect because null effects have not been included. To combat the problem, researchers who are conducting a meta-analysis usually contact their colleagues (via e-mail groups and subscription lists) requesting both published and unpublished data for their project.

Bigger samples

Larger sample sizes that are not always better samples, as a bigger non-representative sample would be worse than a smaller representative sample in terms of generalizability.

Before she administers the independent variable to her two test groups, Dr. Dalton gives all participants an emotional IQ test. She then pairs up each participant with another who had a similar emotional IQ score. Based on the flip of a coin, one member of the pair is assigned to test Group A, and one is assigned to test Group B. What technique is Dr. Dalton using?

Matched-groups

In experiments, you _____________ a dependent variable an _____________ an independent variable.

Measure; manipulate

What is one reason that psychologists especially value meta-analyses?

Meta-analyses allow researchers to examine the strength of a relationship.

Which of the following is a reason that psychologists especially value meta-analyses?

Meta-analyses allow researchers to examine the strength of a relationship.

What kind of research is it called when a researcher finds all of the studies that have examined this topic, combines the results of all these studies, and calculates an effect size?

Meta-analysis

Explain what a meta-analysis is and how it is useful in understanding the importance of a scientific relationship.

Meta-analysis is a mathematical way of averaging results across several research studies. Meta-analysis is important for considering whether a relationship exists between two variables across a variety of studies/literature and how strong a relationship is. This is important bc scientific importance is determined by more than a single study

Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 × 2 × 4 design." Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence?

Methods Section

Provide three examples of language that would hint that a person is making a frequency claim.

Most, percentage, all

Which design is in the middle?

Multiple baselines design

To avoid insensitive measures, it is important to use measures that include ___________________________________.

Multiple increments of the variable

What is the name of the design shown in Figure 3?

Multiple-Baseline Design

3 What kind of design?

Multiple-baseline Design

Do quasi-experiments involve randomly assigning participants to groups?

NO

Do quasi-experiments use random assignment?

NO

r= -0.10

Negative, Small/Weak

r= -0.43

Negative, Unusually Large/Strong

Assuming that there is no (or Zero) relation between variables X and Y, what should happen to X as higher levels of Y are measured?

No correlation

A researcher's attempt to control sounds, smells, and even temperature in a testing environment is meant to reduce what?

Noise Noise: unsystematic variability among the members of a group in an experiment, which might be caused by situation noise, individual differences, or measurement error

Name and define two types of deception that could occur during a study that employs deception.

Omission (an important aspect of the study is withheld from the participant), Commission (the participant is misled about the true purpose of the research).

Scientists often say that more data are needed to draw conclusions about the accuracy of new theories and are reluctant to accept new claims without empirical support. What scientific norm does this illustrate?

Organized Skepticism

Which of the following ethical violations did NOT occur in the Tuskegee Study?

Participants in the study were given/infected with the disease.

Which of the following ethical violations proposed by the Belmont Report was NOT committed in the Tuskegee Study?

Participants were not given monetary payments for their time.

What ethical violation occurred during the Tuskegee study?

Participants were not treated respectfully, the participants were harmed, the participants were a targeted, disadvantaged social group

Testing threats involve _____________, whereas instrumentation threats involve _____________.

Participants; measurement

A statistic called ________ is commonly used to determine correlations outside of evaluating internal reliability (plain-old relations between variables x and y).

Pearson's r

Why is peer review a valuable tool for scientific journals?

Peer review is a valuable tool for scientific journals because it allows studies to be fact-checked so that the results of a study are accurate. It also effectively subjects an author's work to the scrutiny of other experts in the field.

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Which of the following conclusions can Dr. Ozga draw about the number of friends one has and life satisfaction based on her statistical analyses?

People with more friends tend to report greater life satisfaction.

Provide as many reasons as you can think of that research studies are superior to personal experience.

Personal experience incorporates bias while research studies focus on facts

r= 0.25

Positive, Moderate

r= 0.50

Positive, Unusually Large/Strong

r= 0.98

Positive, Unusually Large/Strong

r= 0.05

Positive, Very Small/Weak

In multiple regressions, this is another name for independent variable: ____________________

Predictor variables

Provide three examples of causal claims.

Pretending to be Batman Helps Kids Stay on Task, To Appear More Intimidating, Just Tilt Your Head Down, Study Suggests, Family Meals Curb Teen Eating Disorders

The figure above depicts which type of research design?

Pretest/posttest design

The need to balance the potential costs and benefits to participants taking part in a research study is done to address which principle of the Belmont Report?

Principle of Beneficence

The belief that the participants in a research study should be representative of the type of people who would also benefit from the findings of the research stems from which principle of the Belmont Report?

Principle of Justice

What is the Dependent Variable measured in the figures pictured above?

Punches per Minute

Carmen Yarmar's Educational program was a resounding success. It was so effective, that it became standard procedure for training Michigan's First Responders in 2023. If Carmen wanted to evaluate whether the program had an effect on opioid overdose deaths by comparing opioid overdose deaths in Michigan before and after the implementation of her program, what kind of design would she be using?

Quasi-Experimental

Carmen Yarmar's Educational program was a resounding success. It was so effective, that it became standard procedure for training Michigan's First Responders in 2023. If Carmen wanted to evaluate whether the program had an effect on opioid overdose deaths by comparing opioid overdose deaths in Michigan before and after the implementation of her program, what kind of design would she be using? What if she compared opioid deaths in Michigan to another State (e.g., Wisconsin)?

Quasi-Experimental

Name something that you could do to address issues of individual differences that can creep up in a between-groups design and explain why this can solve the issue.

Random assignment, creates internal validity

There are several forms in which unscrupulous researchers could provide data in a misleading or inaccurate way. One way is if a person does not conduct the study and instead simply invents results that support their hypotheses. What vocabulary term from Unit 2 best describes this unethical practice?

Reactivity

Seeing stability in a stable-baseline design can help rule out what threat to internal validity?

Regression to the mean

Ms. Joegel is trying to reduce the number of aggressive behaviors in Dorrest, one of her first-grade students. She starts by tracking how frequently he bites, pushes, and hits his fellow classmates for a two-week period of time. She then delivers a positive reinforcer to him every time he goes an hour without exhibiting any aggressive behaviors (i.e., a DRO 1-hr schedule). After two weeks Mrs. Joegel notes that Dorrest is much less aggressive than he was before she used positive reinforcement. She is not sure that the positive reinforcement is the reason for the reduction in Dorrest's aggression. To check this, what could Ms. Joegel do? (think reversal design)

Remove the positive reinforcement to see if Dorrest's aggression increases.

Advice that is based on ________ is most likely to be correct.

Research

Teddy is trying to watch less television. Her friend Piper is a cat who agrees to help her. Piper creates a treatment plan that involves giving Teddy 5 cookies for every day that she watches fewer than 90 minutes of television. Piper monitors her television watching for three days, provides her intervention for three days and monitors her, and then just monitors her for three more days.

Researchers likewise need to "check their work." The consequences of an examination are not prone to be all-around acknowledged except if the examination is rehashed--normally ordinarily a similar outcome is constantly acquired. Getting a similar outcome when an investigation is rehashed is called replication. If examination results can be duplicated, it implies they are bound to be right. Rehashed replication of examinations may transform speculation into a hypothesis. Then again, if results can't be imitated they are probably going to be mistaken. Direct Replication: A study is conducted in the exact same way as a previous study. (Different participants, but everything else is the same) Conceptual Replication: A study is conducted on the same topic (exploring the same questions) as a previous study, but aspects of the study procedures vary. Replication-Plus-Extension: A study is conducted in the exact same way as a previous study, then the procedure is varied systematically.

Fence-sitting

Responding to a controversial question on a survey by selecting the response right in the middle like 'neither agree nor disagree'.

2 What kind of design?

Reversal Design

What is the name of the design shown in Figure 2?

Reversal Design

Which of the figures pictured above rules out the most threats to internal validity? (i.e., is the strongest design) ___________________________

Reversal Design

Which design is strongest?

Reversal design

In considering whether research is ethical, what things are balanced against each other?

Risk to participants versus the value of the knowledge gained.

Consider this statement: "People who use social media got worse grades in college, even when the researchers controlled for the level of college preparation (operationalized by SAT scores) of the students." What does it mean?

SAT score can be ruled out as a third variable explanation for the correlation between social media use and college grades

What small-N design might involve measuring behavior before, during, and after treatment is delivered and subsequently removed?

Sable-baseline design

What does it mean that behavioral research is probabilistic?

Science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases. Based on or adapted to a theory of probability; subject to or involving chance variation.

Experiments use random assignment to avoid what?

Selection effects Selection Effects: A threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent-groups design when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level

Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording the answers of a participant using a questionnaire?

Self-report measure

What principle of the Belmont Report is addressed by using informed consent?

Showing respect for all persons.

Which of the following statements is an example of a mediator of the relationship between social media use and college grades?

Social media use and college grades are correlated because social media use leads to less time studying, which leads to lower grades

If a person describes the results of a study to you by saying that there is a zero difference in one condition but a large difference in another condition, the person is most likely describing what kind of finding?

Spreading interaction

The phrase "especially for" would be used to describe what kind of interaction?

Spreading interaction

What is the name of the design shown in Figure 1?

Stable Baseline (A-B Design)

Which of the figures pictured above rules out the fewest threats to internal validity? (i.e., is the weakest design) _______________________

Stable Baseline (A-B Design)

1 What kind of design?

Stable Baseline Design

Name three kinds of small-N designs:

Stable baseline design, the multiple baseline design, and the reversal design.

Which of these associations will probably be plotted as a bar graph rather than a scatterplot?

Students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges

Which of the following will probably be plotted as a bar graph rather than a scatterplot?

Students in private colleges earn higher grade point averages (GPAs) than students in public colleges.

Imagine that you are trying to measure people's "interest". Provide an example of measuring "interest" using a self-report measure, a physiological measure, and a behavioral measure.

Students must provide an actual measure of measuring behavior and not simply provide a conceptual definition. A self-report measure must involve asking a person how interested they are in some way (the person must report on themselves). A physiological measure must involve collecting some biological information (e.g., heart rate, cortisol levels). A behavioral measure must involve collecting data that can be directly observed (e.g., the number of times a person looks interested, how long a student waits to speak to a person of interest).

Imagine that you are trying to measure people's "interest". Provide four quantitative definitions of stress: one that is ordinal, one that is interval, and one that is ratio, and one that is categorical.

Students should create definitions that are quantitative (numerical), not categorical. They should make an ordinal definition that involves ranking people (e.g., the most interested people in the class). Their interval definition should be something that has a nonsignificant 0 (e.g., the rating of interest on a 1-10 scale). Their categorical definition should be something that involves category (e.g. if are interested in specific species of cats).

Provide three examples of association claims.

Study Links Coffee Consumption to Lower Levels of Depression in Women, New Study Links Exercise to Higher Pay, Another Study Points to Connection Between 13 Reasons Why and Increased Youth Suicide

Masked or blinded studies

Study designs that are designed to deal with observer bias by concealing the identity or characteristics of the participants from the observers.

Reverse-worded items

Survey items that are worded in the opposite direction of the construct being measured to address the issue of shortcuts in surveys.

To correctly conclude that the treatment variable had the intended effect on an individual in a REVERSAL DESIGN, the behavior should look like the (pick one: top or bottom) graph.

TOP

True or false: Data from small-N designs are presented as averages.

TRUE

True or false: Each person in a small-N design is treated as a separate experiment.

TRUE

True or false: Experimental Control is typically not important in a small-N designs?

TRUE

True or false: Small-N designs determine whether a finding is replicable by doing a test of statistical significance.

TRUE

True or false: the only thing that changes in a direct replication of a study is the participants/subjects?

TRUE

Dr. Barch is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). What would Dr. Barch need to do to his current study design to make it an interrupted time-series design?

Take measurements of body concern before and after joining a fraternity/sorority

Mackenzie Baranski is comparing the conscientiousness of sorority members and students who are not sorority members. She is trying to decide which measure of conscientiousness she should use in the study. She has four options: Scale A, Scale B, Scale C, and Scale D. Each scale gives a validity coefficient from a criterion validity test predicting a behavior relevant to conscientiousness. Their coefficients follow. Based on this information, which of the four tests should she choose as the most valid?

Test C. r = -.65

Before using a brand new measure of "Cat Fluffyness" Hallie evaluates the measure with Piper on Monday and again on Friday. She then compares the scores between the two time points. What kind of test is this?

Test-Retest Relability

Provide a description of an experimental confound using an everyday example.

Testing whether boys/girls do better on an exam: Sleep the night before, Have they eaten, How much did they study, Stress levels, Age. These could be confounding variables in the study of whether boys/girls do better on exams because these variables could all alter the performance of the students taking the exam.

The journalist reported that the relationship between bilingualism and age at diagnosis did not change, even when the researchers controlled for level of education. What does this suggest?

That the relationship between bilingualism and dementia onset is not attributable to the potential third variable: level of education

Which Small-N Design(s) can rule out History Threats?

The Multiple-Baselines design and the reversal design

Which Small-N Design is the strongest?

The Reversal design

What was the aim of the Tuskegee study?

The Tuskegee study's aim was to study syphilis

Confidence in memory

The confidence people have in their memories, which is not strongly related to the accuracy of their memory.

Q2: Suppose a researcher uses a longitudinal design to study the relationship between social media use and grades over time. She measures both of these variables in year 1 and then measures both variables again in year 2. Which if the following is an example of an autocorrelation in the results?

The correlation between social media use in Year 1 and social media use in Year 2

Imagine you calculated the correlation coefficient for the data presented in the figure above, and the resulting number was r = -.22. Looking at the figure, how would you know the number you calculated is incorrect?

The correlation line is positive

Interrater reliability

The degree of agreement or consistency between two or more observers in their observations or ratings.

External validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, or conditions.

Statistical validity

The extent to which the statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reliable.

Cory decides to conduct a meta-analysis examining the relationship between daily stress and cardiovascular health for her senior psychology research project. Cory's advisor recommends that she contact several researchers in the field for articles that were not published and/or that found null effects. Doing this will address what problem?

The file drawer problem

What does it mean when a study cannot be replicated by an independent researcher?

The importance of the finding should be interpreted cautiously.

Based on the graphs above, Dr. Stuv should conclude what about the presence of interactions?

The interactions are based on the differences of ages

What kind of sample sizes to outliers exert a bigger effect on? (Large or Small)

The larger the sample size, the more accurate the average values will be. Larger sample sizes also help researchers identify outliers in data. Smaller sample sizes are more effected by outliers than larger sample sizes.

Dr. Sanchez conducts a simple random sample of 500 men who became fathers for the first time in the past year. He finds that 23% of them report being unsure of their ability to be good fathers, plus or minus 4%. If Dr.Sanchez increased his sample size to 1,000, which of the following would happen?

The margin of error would become smaller

Sampling technique

The method used to select participants for a study, such as convenience sampling, random sampling, or snowball sampling.

Convenience sampling

The most common sampling technique in behavioral research, where participants are chosen based on their easy accessibility.

Which of the following is most likely to be included in popular media articles describing a study that used multiple regression?

The phrase "controlled for" when describing the findings.

Inmates are entitled to special protection. What is something that a researcher could do to address the Belmont principle of beneficence?

The principle of beneficence should cause us to ask if there is another way that we could obtain the same knowledge but with lower risks to participants

In addition to the three principles derived from the Belmont Report, what two principles were added in the principles put forth by the American Psychological Association?

The principle of integrity and fidelity/responsibility

Margin of error

The range within which the true population value is estimated to fall, usually expressed as a percentage.

Who is responsible for deciding which validity is prioritized in a study?

The researcher

If someone is talking about a "scientific literature" what are they talking about?

The scientific literature may be defined as a collection of all of the scholarly writings on a specific topic and can include original research articles, review articles, meta-analyses, books, conference proceedings, and scientific abstracts.

Provide an example in which a person's Pokémon-starter preference could moderate the normally positive association between time spent playing Pokémon and liking of the game (if you don't know Pokémon, here are some fun facts about starter Pokémon from the first generation: Bulbasaur = lame, Charmander = OK if you're a chump, Squirtle = Super cool dude).

The starter preference (moderator variable) helps explain the nuances in the relationship between time spent playing pokemon and liking the game

A correlation coefficient and a scatterplot both provide what pieces of information?

The strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements

An experiment compared baby behavior following an "effortful" adult model and a "control" adult model. The results showed an effect size d = .14, 95% CI [.08, .20], this would mean that

The study's two groups were about .14 standard deviations apart

Based on the graphs above, should Dr. Stuv conclude that there is a three-way interaction? Why?

There are 3 IVs, age, picture type, and pets.

Which of the following sentences describes a moderator for the relationship between risk taking and liking spicy food?

There is a positive relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking for men, but no relationship for women

What does it mean when we say that a ratio scale has a zero value that actually means "nothing"

There is a total absence of the variable you are measuring

What is a valid reason why a researcher interested in making a causal claim would NOT to do an experiment?

There may be ethical limitations of manipulating a variable.

Can multiple regression really truly establish internal validity (ruling out all alternative explanations/third variables)?

They are internally valid if the estimated regression coefficients are unbiased and consistent, and if their standard errors yield confidence intervals with the desired confidence level.

According to the textbook, what is the problem with WEIRD samples?

They are not very representative of the world's population.

In what are some ways that content and face validity are similar?

They both evaluate how suitable the content of a test is

Which of the following is a reason why multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs?

They can only control for third variables that are measured.

Did the participants in the Tuskegee study receive medical treatment? What were they told? Why could this matter?

They did not receive medical treatment and they were told that they were. This matters because they were being lied to so they thought they were safe but were not so they transferred the disease to their families.

What is the difference between scientific journals and popular magazines?

They have different goals, scientific journals contain original research events while magazines contain current events or interesting topics

In the study depicted in the figure above, what is gained by measuring blood pressure twice?

They know random assignment made groups equal.

How can journalists discuss new findings responsibly (think about replicability)?

They provide readers with a sense of the entire literature as well as recent studies.

Why do quasi-experiments tend to have very good construct validity for the independent variable?

They use real-world manipulations/experiences.

Describe the kind of information that would be included in each of the following sections of a journal article:

Title page: title Abstract: Summary of the article Introduction: Explains the topic of the study and provides the theoretical and empirical background needed to fully appreciate the study. Also states the specific goals of the study Method: How the researchers conducted the study including participants, materials, procedure, and apparatus Results: Describes the main and secondary effects, graphs, tables, and statistical results Discussion: Summarize the study and discuss the contributions to science References: Bibliography of cited sources Tables: Presents numbers for comparison Figures: Visual representation of results

Why is it important to adopt the mindset of a scientific reasoner?

To avoid being swayed by personal opinions or a story that is not supported by data

According to the text, the bridge between basic and applied research is known as _______________ research.

Transitional Research

True or false: an interaction can exist even if the main effects are not significant.

True

How does research overcome problems related to experimental confounds?

Using careful controls to make sure that they are changing only one factor at a time

Changing the number of response options

Using scales with an even number of response options to help address the issue of fence-sitting in surveys.

What is true of variables?

Variables, concepts of interest that vary, form the core of psychological research. A variable has at least two levels. Variables can be measured or manipulated. Variables in a study can be described in two ways: as conceptual variables (elements of a theory) and as operational definitions (specific measures or manipulations in order to study them).

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Which of the following best describes the 95% CI for the relationship between the number of friends and daily stress?

We cannot conclude statistically that the observed association between daily stress and number of friends came from a population other than zero.

Reactivity

When a measure changes participants' behavior, which can be avoided using technology such as video cameras.

Provide an example mediating factor that explains the negative association between going home for lunch and obesity.

When people go home for lunch they have less time to eat

Acquiescence (yea-saying)

When people say 'yes' or 'strongly agree' to every item instead of thinking carefully about each one.

Census

When researchers measure every member of a population.

Excellent external validity

When studies using probability samples have high external validity because all members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.

Imagine in Dr. Pqrstuv's study that only 90 of the original participants completed the measure of homesickness during week 7 (10 participants had left the university and were unavailable). What kind of threat to internal validity does this pose? How does this affect her conclusion that her treatment for homesickness worked?*

With reference to the previously posted Dr. Paddock problem, we understand there is the necessity of internal validity due to the basis of the experiment being cause-and-effect relationships. Since this is a one-group design, history (occurrence of unanticipated events while the experiment was in progress and these events changing the dependent variable) is the defined threat to the problem. Wikipedia also refers to this threat as Confounding. This changes the statistics in her conclusion, but this can be rectified by handling the 90 participants exceptionally and removing the 10 participants from the previous scoreboard.

Assuming that there is a positive relation between variables X and Y, what should happen to X as higher levels of Y are measured?

X will reach higher levels

Assuming that there is a negative relation between variables X and Y, what should happen to X as higher levels of Y are measured?

X will reach lower levels

Do quasi-experiments have comparison groups?

YES

Do quasi-experiments involve manipulated variables?

YES

Provide a 95% Confidence Interval range that would fail to conclude that the observed association between the number of Pokémon a person can name and the number of friends a person had as an elementary schooler came from a population other than zero:

[-0.23,0.17] the number of friends must be statistically different than zero

Provide a 95% Confidence Interval range that would conclude that the observed association between the number of Pokémon a person can name and the number of friends a person had as an elementary schooler came from a population other than zero:

[0.17,0.56] does not include zero

If evaluating an association between a quantitative variable and a categorical variable, how would the data most likely be graphed?

a comparative bar graph

What is a spurious correlation?

a correlation between two variables that does not result from any direct relation between them but instead from their relation to other variables.

What is an "outlier" and how could you identify one on a scatterplot?

a data point that does not fit the rest of the data. It lies outside of a cluster and does not follow the same pattern.

Researchers speculated that the reason bilingualism is associated with later onset of dementia is that bilingual people develop richer connections in the brain through their experiences in managing two languages; these connections help stave off dementia symptoms. this statement describes:

a mediator

Todd is studying the effect of popularity on academic success for his research methods project. He decides to measure popularity by asking each elementary school student to tell him how many friends he or she has. He assumes that more friends means the student is more popular. Which of the following best describes this variable?

a ratio scale of measurement

When might a researcher be interested in evaluating mediators?

a researcher would be curious about the mediators because they are asking why the relationship between two variables exist

If evaluating an association between a quantitative variable and another quantitative variable, how would the data most likely be graphed?

a scatterplot

The scatterplot above shows scores on "optimism" and "life satisfaction" for each participant. What does each dot represent?

a single participant

A headline about social media use makes the following (bivariate) association claim: "Social media use is linked to lower grades in college." The two variables in this headline are:

a social media use and quality of grades

Before using the measure in her study, Dr. Toegel gives the measure to a group of participants on the first day of the semester and again on the last day of the semester. Dr. Toegel is examining the scatterplot of the data she collected on the first day of the semester and the last day of the semester. On the scatterplot, she sees that the dots are very close to forming a diagonal line. This indicates which of the following?

a strong relationship

What is a "moderator"?

a third variable (Z) that changes the relation between a predictor (X) and an outcome (Y), thereby affecting the strength and/or direction of the relation between the two variables.

What is a mediator?

a variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables

Using directions for variables X and Y, provide a description of what you predict would happen to variable Y as variable X increases for the following relations:

a. Positive: one variable decreases as the other variable decreases, or one variable increases while the other increases. b. Negative: A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases, and vice versa c. Zero: suggests that the correlation statistic does not indicate a relationship between the two variables

Piper is a cat testing the discriminant validity of a new measure of numerical learning difficulties. She gives her measure to a group of students along with another measure of verbal learning difficulties, which she predicts should not be strongly related to numerical learning difficulties. What kind of results would help to establish discriminant validity? a. Strong or Weak b.Positive or Negative, or near Zero

a. Weak b. Near zero

Provide an example of a variable for each of the following scales of measurement:

a. a categorical variable: levels of categories (color) b. an ordinal variable: a quantitative variable in which numerals represent a rank order (place in a race) c. an interval variable: A quantitative variable in which subsequent numeral represent equal distances but there is no true zero (clothing size) d. a ratio variable: A quantitive variable in which numerals represent equal distance and zero represents "none" of the variable being measured (height)

Which of the following symbols would indicate that you are reading results from a multiple-regression analysis?

a. b

Provide an example of each of the following types of measurement:

a. self-report measurement: operationalize a variable by recording people's answers to questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview b. observational measurement: operationalize a variable by recording observable behaviors c. physiological measurement: operationalize a variable by recording biological data d. archival measurement: a type of data that are obtained from existing records and storage

If Sally assign participants to two groups. Then participants squeeze a force gauge as hard as they can. Afterwards, participants from one group, the Group A, receive a motivational speech from Hallie Toegel. Participants from the other group, the Group B, receive a boring lecture from Forrest Toegel. Then participants squeeze a force gauge as hard as they can again. a. Is this design a between-groups design or a within-subjects design? b. What is the name of this design?

a. this is a within-subjects design b. pretest/posttest design

According to the figure shown above, as "optimism" increases, "life satisfaction" __________.

also increases

Patsy is studying the effect of popularity on academic success for the research methods project. To do this, she has elementary school students rate how popular each member of their class is. She then uses this information to rank the students on popularity (e.g., John is the most popular, Vanessa is the second-most popular). Which of the following best describes this variable?

an ordinal scale of measurement

If reading a research article evaluating, what feature of the variables should clue you into the fact that you're reading about an association claim?

association claims use verbs such as link, associate, correlate, predict, tie to, and be at risk for. Association claims fulfill the criterion of covariance. Association claims argue that two variables are related to each other. An association can be positive, negative, or zero. Association claims are usually supported by correlational studies, in which all variables are measured.

Dr. Wilson conducted a long-term study on friendship. He noticed that the most introverted people dropped out by the third session. Therefore, his study might be affected by which of the following internal validity threats?

attrition

Steven E. Jonas studies developmental changes in aggression in children using a longitudinal design. She assesses aggression annually starting at age 3 and continues until the children are 5 years old. She finds that aggression levels at age 3 are correlated with aggression levels at age 4 and that aggression at age 4 is correlated with aggression at 5. What are these examples of?

autocorrelations

In what ways do sample sizes and effect sizes factor into statistical significance? (e.g., _______er sample sizes are more likely to produce statistically significant results than _______er sample sizes; _______er effect sizes are more likely to produce statistically significant results than _______er effect sizes).

bigger sample sizes are more likely to produce statistically significant results than smaller sample sizes; larger effect sizes are more likely to produce statistically significant results than smaller effect sizes

When bivariate association claims do not meet the criteria of temporal precedence and internal validity, this means that ________ cannot be ________.

casual inferences, made

Dr. Adebayo is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well- trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a(n)

ceiling effect.

Hallon conducts a study for her research methods class to determine if consuming milk causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In her study, she gives half of her participants a glass of water and half of her participants a glass of milk and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. She finds that people who drink milk beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Hallon decides to conduct a variation of the original study in which she measures participants' ability to solve verbal analogies as the cognitive task instead of measuring their ability to solve math problems. She finds that people who drink milk beforehand solve more verbal analogies than those who drink water beforehand, suggesting milk consumption causes improved cognitive performance. This study is known as a ______

conceptual replication

Melanie decides to conduct a variation of the original study in which she measures participants' ability to solve verbal analogies as the cognitive task instead of measuring their ability to solve math problems. She finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more verbal analogies than those who drink water beforehand, suggesting caffeine consumption causes improved cognitive performance. This study is known as a

conceptual replication.

If an experiment cannot be done for practical or ethical reasons related to manipulating the variable of interest, what kind of design could get us closer to a causal understanding?

correlational study

Some people have a gene that allows them to detect bitter tastes, even in very small doses. A study found that people who had this bitter-tasting ability were jumpier in response to a loud noise, compared to people who did not have the ability to taste bitter substances. This study is a

correlational.

Which of the causal criteria could be met using a bivariate design?

covariance and temporal precedence

For which type of validity do we need to collect empirical evidence?

criterion validity

In longitudinal designs, researchers are often most excited about _____________ correlations because they provide supporting evidence for temporal precedence.

cross-lag correlations

When conducting longitudinal research, researchers typically find ________ to be the most interesting.

cross-lag correlations

What kind of correlation from a longitudinal design is also measured in bi-variate designs?

cross-sectional correlation

Upon receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval, Dr. Gullible trusts that his graduate student will conduct the study. However, his graduate student does not conduct the study and instead provides Dr. Gullible with invented results that support his hypotheses. This is known as which of the following?

data fabrication

Hallon conducts a study for her research methods class to determine if consuming milk causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In her study, she gives half of her participants a glass of water and half of her participants a glass of milk and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. She finds that people who drink milk beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Hallon decides to conduct the exact same study again to ensure that she can find the same difference between the groups a second time. What kind of replication would this be?

direct replication

Melanie conducts a study for her research methods class to determine if consuming caffeine causes people to perform better on cognitive tasks. In her study, she gives half of her participants a glass of water and half of her participants a glass of cola and then has them attempt to solve 15 math problems. She finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more math problems than those who drink water beforehand. Melanie decides to conduct the exact same study again to ensure that she can find the same difference between the groups a second time. This study is known as a

direct replication

One of the figures pictured above programs for one kind of generalization. This figure shows effects of the treatment across... _______________________

each section

The d score is a standardized measure of the degree to which the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable. This is also known as the

effect size.

A researcher evaluating effects of the treatment administered as in Figure 2 would probably conclude that the treatment is _______________ in __________________________________ for this participant

effective; modifying behavior

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Considering Dr. Ozga's study, her results could most safely be generalized to which of the following groups?

elderly people

In one study, certain participants were asked to ingest some of a very bitter herbal drink. Then they were asked to judge how morally wrong several activities were (such as stealing library books or accepting a bribe). Compared to participants who were asked to drink water, those who tasted the bitter substance were more likely to judge the activities as more morally wrong. This study is

experimental.

If you want to be able to make a causal claim, what kind of research do you need to conduct?

experiments and quasi-experiments

A professor gives a class a self-report measure of conscientiousness and finds that people who score high on the measure are more likely to be on time to class. This is evidence for the measure's

face validity.

If a measurement looks like it is a plausible operationalization of a conceptual variable, then it has

face validity.

True or false: Most of the time, bigger effects are usually more important?

false

The Belmont Report includes all the following except the principle of

friendship.

According to people who find the Milgram obedience studies unethical, the researchers did harm to the participants

from mental stress, which outweighed the benefits of the research.

Carson and Lexi are interested in exploring whether the relationship between "group cohesion" and "productivity" in the workplace is influenced by gender. What is the moderator variable in this example?

gender

Dr. Barch is interested in whether joining a fraternity/sorority causes people to become more concerned about their attractiveness. He recruits a group of 55 freshmen (25 men, 30 women) who are planning to go through fraternity/sorority recruitment on his campus. After they join, she gives them a measure of attractiveness concern (the Body Concern Scale). If Dr. Barch is interested in a causal relationship between joining a fraternity/sorority and attractiveness concern, why doesn't he conduct a true experiment?

he would be unable to randomly assign participants to join a fraternity/sorority

If some outside event (such as a change in weather) influences most of the people in a study between the time of the pretest and the posttest, this would be a(n)

history threat

When evaluating the external validity of an association claim, which of the following is the most important issue to consider?

how was it sampled/the way the sample was selected from the population (random sampling is best)

A study found that people who like spicy food are generally risk takers. Which of the following questions interrogates the construct validity of this correlation.

how well did they measure each variable: risk taking and liking spicy foods

Natasha complains that I needed a bigger sample in my study. When should I think about listening to her?

if my study shows a null effect

A restaurant owner uses a response card with four items in order to evaluate how satisfied customers are with the food, service, ambience, and overall experience. Which result would show the card's criterion validity?

if people who give favorable answers on the card also come back to the restaurant

We do not always need a large sample in a study. When might a study need to use a large number of participants?

if we want to be sure to find an effect (assuming there is one)

What is a cross-lag correlation?

in a longitudinal design, a correlation between an earlier measure of one variable and a later measure of another variable

In a factorial design, a participant variable is sometimes treated like a(n)

independent variable

Which of the following IS NOT typically important in small-N experiment?

inferential statistics

Before using the measure in her study, Dr. Toegel analyzes the data she gets from her students. She looks at the relationship between each of the individual questions. She sees that participants who agree with Question 1 also agree with Question 3 and disagree with Question 2. This is a test of which of the following?

internal reliability

A researcher finds that when 40 people take a five-item measure of extroversion, their answers to each of the five items are correlated. This is

internal reliability.

Generally, what is the main priority for experimental studies?

internal validity

In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some ________ in exchange for ________.

internal validity; external validity

A person compares scores of the same measurement system between two independent observers. This is a test of which of the following?

interrater reliability

If evaluating a bar graph, how can you tell if there is a strong or weak association between the measured variables?

large height differences between bars in the same section

Genevieve is a developmental psychologist who studies changes over time in the number of marshmallows a person can stick in their mouth at one time by studying the same people at ages 16, 22, and 30. What type of research design is she using?

longitudinal

Provide an example of a way you might study a variable you think is interesting or funny using a longitudinal design.

look at the how much kids pick their noses at age 2, 4, and 6

Before Dr. Clark administers the independent variable to her two test groups, she gives all participants an IQ test. She then pairs up each participant with another who had a similar IQ score. Based on the flip of a coin, one member of the pair is assigned to the Intervention group and one is assigned to the Control group. What technique is Dr. Clark using?

matched groups

Which is a method for preventing selection effects?

matched-groups design

If a scale or measure has good interrater reliability, it

means that you'll get similar results every time you use the test, no matter who is recording.

Which of the following is an example of physiological measurement?

measurements of hormones in the bloodstream

Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design?

measuring the same variables at two points in time

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, what type of effect size has Dr. Ozga found for the association between number of friends and life satisfaction?

moderate

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Ozga finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. In this study, gender (male or female) is considered a(n)

moderator

This graph presents results from Oishi et al. (2015). It found a correlation between a state's average level of extroversion and the degree of mountainousness in that state. r = -.40; 95% CI [-.14, -.61] The results suggest that

more mountainous states have fewer extroverts.

Deception in psychology studies

must be followed with a debriefing.

Federally funded animal experimentation,

must comply with IACUC guidelines.

r= -0.01

negative, very small/weak

I see restriction of range here.

no

Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording a person's behavior?

observational measure

Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording the product of a person's behavior? (e.g., measuring drinking by counting beer cans)

observational measure

For his research methods class, Felipe plans to watch how students treat other children in their classrooms who have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). He will evaluate how positively or negatively the children are treated by their classmates. This is an example of what type of measurement?

observational measurement

A study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) involved telling teachers that some of their students were "bloomers" and would achieve rapid academic success within the next year. In fact, these students were no different than any of the other students in the class. At the end of the year, the "bloomers" showed more gains in IQ than the other students. It appeared that the teacher had unintentionally treated the "bloomers" in special ways. This is an example of which of the following?

observer effects

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Ozga creates a scatterplot of the relationship between the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. In doing so, she realizes there are three scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life sa

outliers

The degree to which a good scientific theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon is known as ____________________.

parsimony

Provide an example of how could a spurious correlation play a role in the significant Pokémon/Friends association described above.

people who can name more pokemon tend to claim to have more friends in their elementary school years

According to the Belmont Report, which of the following groups of people is entitled to special protection?

people with developmental disabilities

Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording a measure of a person's biology? (e.g., blood pressure, cortisol levels, or changes in electrical activity in brain using an EEG)

physiological measure

A(an) __________ measure operationalizes a variable by recording a participant's __________.

physiological; biological data

Which relation is stronger a. Relation A: r = .25 or Relation B: r = -.75 b. Relation A: r = .99 or Relation B: r = .59 c.Relation A: r = .01 or Relation B: r =-.02

r = -.75 r = .99 r =-.02

An educational psychologist is testing the discriminant validity of a new measure of numerical learning difficulties. He gives his measure to a group of students along with another measure of verbal learning difficulties, which he predicts should not be strongly related to numerical learning difficulties. Which of the following correlations would the psychologist hope to find in order to establish discriminant validity?

r = -0.18

Weak Correlation Relationship

r= +/- 0.1

Moderate Correlation Relationship

r= +/- 0.3

Strong Correlation Relationship

r= +/- 0.5

Provide a correlation coefficient (r) that would indicate a moderate positive correlation between the number of Pokémon a person can name and the number of friends a person had as an elementary schooler:

r= .32

Provide a description of the strength and direction of these correlations (e.g., weak, positive): -.02, .90, -.45, -.004, .25, .60, .10, -.15, -.50

r=-.02 (negative, weak) r=.90 (positive, very strong) r=-.45 (negative, strong) r=-.004 (negative, very weak) r=.25 (positive, moderate) r=.60 (positive, strong) r=.10 (positive, weak) r=-.15 (negative, weak) r=-50 (negative, strong)

Suppose you hear that conscientious people are more likely to get regular health checkups. Which of the following correlations between conscientiousness and getting checkups would probably support this claim?

r=-1.0

Which of the following designs is Dr. Spot using?

repeated-measures design

In what type of study do researchers replicate their original experiment and add variables to test additional questions?

replication-plus-extension

In what type of study do researchers replicate their original experiment and manipulate variables to test additional questions?

replication-plus-extension study

Another word for replicable is __________________

reproducible

What is the defining feature of a longitudinal design?

researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time.

In considering whether research is ethical, which of the following are balanced against each other?

risk to participants versus value of the knowledge gained

What kind of a graph is this?

scatterplot

For her research methods class, Serena plans to interview several teachers about their attitude toward teaching children who have attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This is an example of what type of measurement?

self-report measurement

Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Spot's study?

six

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Ozga realizes that the women in her study have more friends than the men in her study. This might result in which of the following?

spurious associations due to subgroups

Describe the three different small-N designs.

stable baseline design (small n design): collect repeated measures of baseline data before the intervention, implement the intervention, continue measuring DV after the intervention, stability of DV before tx adds to internal validity multiple baseline design: stagger start of intervention across a variety of contexts, times, or situations ex: for functionality-distinct outcomes that could be responsive to the same type of intervention reversal design: observation of change in behavior with treatment, observe what happens when you take it away in the reversal phase, works if treatment is not expected to create lasting change without keeping up

Which of the four validities does the number of participants address?

statistical

Which of the following is an unbiased sample?

systematic sample

A ratio scale of measurement has a zero value that actually means "nothing" or "the absence of something," but an interval scale does not.

test-retest reliability

A regression table in an empirical journal article includes columns for betas and p values. What can you determine from the p values that are less than .05?

the 95% Cl for that beta does not contain zero

What makes this pattern a moderator?

the fact that the relationship between winning and attendance changes depending on where a person lives

Which side shows a true internal validity problem?

the left graph

What is the primary difference between pretest/posttest designs and within-subjects designs?

the number of levels of the independent variable participants are exposed to

The main effect is

the overall effect of one independent variable at a time.

Which of the following can direct replication studies change?

the participants

In addition to the three principles derived from the Belmont Report, which of the following two principles were added in the principles put forth by the American Psychological Association?

the principle of integrity and fidelity/responsibility

Dr. Toegel always asks his participants to provide informed consent. Doing this is adhering to which principle of the Belmont Report?

the principle of respect for persons

Dr. Ozga conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Ozga submits her study for publication in a scientific journal. If one of the peer reviewers is concerned about the external validity of her study, which of the following is the most important aspect of Dr. Ozga's study to consider?

the random sampling technique used to recruit the participants

The relationship here was described as r = -.40; 95% CI [-.14, -.61]. Therefore,

the relationship is negative.

Parsimony is the

the simplest explanation of a pattern of data

A correlation coefficient and a scatterplot both provide which of the following pieces of information?

the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements

If evaluating a scatterplot, how can you tell if there is a strong or weak association between the measured variables?

the strength of the linear correlation

You can tell when a study is correlational because

the variables are all measured.

What is the main reason why researchers do experiments?

to support causal claims

An interaction can occur in an experiment with

two independent variables.

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52. According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, the magnitude of this effect is

unusually large in psychology.

According to the textbook, what does each letter in the acronym WEIRD stand for?

western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic.

In what kind of situation might small effects be viewed as important?

when applied to large populations.

There appears to be a main effect for training condition in this graph. (if you look at both points on the blue line and both points on the orange line, does one set [blue or orange] seem higher than the other on average?)

yes

There appears to be an interaction between training condition and type of test in this graph. (if you look at the slope of the orange line and the slope of the blue line, do the slopes seem different from one another?)

yes