PSY 215 Exam 1

Which of the following practices are common/NOT common ways in which journalists misrepresent research studies in their media articles? - Selecting only certain parts of the results to write about - Using terms that can only be understood by those with specialized knowledge - Recalculating the published statistics - Exaggerating the importance of the findings

Common: - Selecting only certain parts of the results to write about - Exaggerating the importance of the findings NOT common: - Using terms that can only be understood by those with specialized knowledge - Recalculating the published statistics

The researcher's definition of the variable in question

Conceptual definition

What does it mean to say that research is probabilistic?

Conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of, but not all, possible cases

What is the tendency to seek out info that supports your beliefs?

Confirmation bias

Which of the following is this situation an example of: Someone may believe that Honda is the best car make and decide to go to Google for evidence. In their results, they find some articles that confirm this but also find articles that argue that Honda is not the best car make. They ignore the articles that argue against Honda and only read the pro-Honda articles - being swayed by a good story - availability heuristic - present/present bias - confirmation bias - bias blind spot

Confirmation bias

A _________ in research is an alternative explanation for an outcome

Confound

What type of validity is about how well a variable is operationalized/measured? - construct - external - statistical - internal

Construct

Does the measure include all aspects of the conceptual variable? - convergent validity - criterion validity - face validity - discriminant validity - content validity

Content validity

Anjali has created a new measure of social anxiety. She gives a test group of college students her measure, along with several other measures of social anxiety. In her results she sees that her measure does not correlate with the other established measures of social anxiety With what type of validity may Anjali's measure have a problem?

Convergent validity

Is the measure strongly correlated with theoretically similar constructs? - convergent validity - criterion validity - face validity - discriminant validity - content validity

Convergent validity

Describe the three criteria for causation: - covariance - temporal precedence - internal validity

Covariance: as variable A changes, so does variable B Temporal precedence: it is established that variable A came before variable B Internal validity: There are no alternative explanations for the change in variable B

Che is tracking young participants over a 1-year period in a study on extroversion. In her baseline survey, 35% of the sample report being extremely extroverted. However, when Che observes the participants at school, fewer than 10% demonstrate behaviors such as engaging in conversation with strangers, attempting to make new friends, or expressing themselves freely With what type of validity may Che's measure have a problem?

Criterion validity

Does the measure correlate with relevant behaviors? - convergent validity - criterion validity - face validity - discriminant validity - content validity

Criterion validity

Describe the cupboard theory vs. the contact/comfort theory

Harlow's Monkeys Do mammals love their mothers for food (cupboard) or for comfort and affection (contact/comfortt)? In the results of Harlow's experiment it became clear that the baby monkeys preferred the soft comforting mother

What type of validity asks if there are any alternative explanations for the results and explains a causal relationship between two variables is genuine? - construct - external - statistical - internal

Internal

What type of validity is not prioritized when testing association or frequency claims, but is when testing casual claims? - construct - internal - statistical - external

Internal

A study participant gives a consistent pattern of answers, no matter how the researcher has phrased the question

Internal reliability

Clarence created a checklist for hospitals to observe and assess obsessive-compulsive disorder in people admitted to inpatient wards. He sent the checklist to three other psychiatric hospitals to see how it would fare in other locations. In Clarence's hospital, his checklist revealed that 10% of the patients showed symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, a figure similar to the national average. The other three hospitals reported rates of 1%, 25%, and 35% With what type of reliability may Clarence's measure have a problem?

Interrater reliability

Two coders ratings of a set of targets are consistent with each other

Interrater reliability

IQ scores, shoe size, degree of agreement on a 1-7 scale, SAT scores, and calendar years... are all examples of what type of scale: ordinal, interval, ratio?

Interval

A measurement applies to the numerals of a quantitative variable that meet two conditions: 1) the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels 2) there is no "true zero" (a person can get a score of 0, but the 0 does not literally mean "nothing")

Interval scale

Identify as either: respect for persons, beneficence, or justice Treat all groups of people fairly, sample participants from the same population who will benefit from the research

Justice

Identify the scale of measurement as either: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio Categorizes, labels, classifies, names, or identifies types or kinds of things that can't be quantified

Nominal

Identify as one of the three types of measurement (self-report, observational, physiological) Recording observable behavior (e.g., measuring how quickly a child complete a puzzle as a measure of IQ)

Observational

AKA: behavioral measure; a method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors

Observational measure

Identify each statement as either a reason to know how to be a research producer, or a reason to know how to be a research consumer - You may need to write a paper following the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) - You may encounter a mix of high-quality information and false information on social media - You may pursue a career where it is important to have a critical eye - You may work as an assistant in a psychological lab

Reasons for research producer: - You may need to write a paper following the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) - You may work as an assistant in a psychological lab Reasons for research consumer: - You may encounter a mix of high-quality information and false information on social media - You may pursue a career where it is important to have a critical eye

List the steps of the theory-data cycle in the order in which they usually occur

Theory Research questions Research design Hypothesis Preregistered Data

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Using the findings of previous research on circadian rhythms, can adjusting light exposure in a lab study show an improvement in mood?

Transitional

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is this example: In a lab study, can meditation lessons improve college students' exam scores?

Transitional

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Can laboratory studies on empathy's link to racism be used to develop a new program for elementary schools?

Transitional research

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems?

Translational

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Can the previously documented persuasive effects of scarcity be used to increase recycling?

Translational research

Describing all measured variables and statistical analyses in the Method section is the process of ___________

Transparency

True or False Every theory must be falsifiable

True

In some cases, researchers withheld some details of the study from participants - deception through (omission/commission). In other cases, researchers actively lied to participants - deception through (omission/commission)

omission; commission

A statement, or a set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables are related to one another is a(n) ________. A specific outcome that the researcher expects to find is a(n) _________

theory; hypothesis

Teresa is creating a new measure on hyperactivity in children. She has read some research stating that understanding energy level and the ability to focus is key to understanding hyperactivity. However, Teresa's measure of hyperactivity only contains items about diet and exercise. With what type of validity may Teresa's measure have a problem?

Face validity

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

Falsifiability

What is a good theory that should lead to hypotheses that may not support the theory?

Falsifiability

Which claim (frequency, association, casual) describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable?

Frequency claim

A measurement applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable have equal intervals and when the value of 0 truly means "nothing"

Ratio scale

What are some ways that intuition can be biased?

-being swayed by a good story -being persuaded by what easily comes to mind -failing to think about what we cannot see -focusing on the evidence we like best -being biased about being biased

A research project begins with an abstract idea of what researchers want to measure. That idea is referred to as a(n) _____. Researchers then create a tangible way to measure that idea, known as a(n) _____. An example of this would be if researchers wanted to measure _____, they might create a study that records _____.

-conceptual variable -operational variable -disgust -face response

A(n) _____ scale shows values that are ordered in a particular series, but the difference between those individual numbers varies. By contrast, the points on a(n) _____ scale are equally distant from each other. A(n) _____ scale also has points that are equally distant from each other, but it has a true zero, or a value that illustrates no value. Despite their differences, all three are similar in that they are all _____ variables.

-ordinal -interval -ratio -quantitative

A measure's ability to remain consistent is referred to as _____. But this concept can be broken down in nuanced ways. For example, _____ refers to how uniform results will be after repeated use of a measure. In addition, _____ refers to how stable results from a measure will be when the measure is used by multiple administrators. Finally, a question with _____ will generate similar answers regardless of how it is worded.

-reliability -test-retest reliability -interrater reliability -internal reliability

In measurement, _____ refers to a measure's ability to accurately represent the variable the researcher is investigating. But this concept is made up of many different facets. _____ is the extent to which a given measure appears to be measuring the variable in question. _____ evaluates how well a measure taps into all aspects of particular variable. _____ represents how well a measure relates to actual behavior.

-validity -face validity -content validity -criterion validity

Sun Mi finds that her new measure of loneliness is correlated with the number of hours people spend alone per day. An expert in the area has determined that the items on her scale are plausible measures of loneliness, but she might not be including all of the elements of loneliness in her scale. Sun Mi is also concerned that some features of loneliness are similar to depression and low self-esteem. Which of the following validities are established in Sun Mi's measure?

Established -face validity -criterion validity Not Established -discriminant validity -content validity

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: How effective is light therapy at treating depression in college students?

Applied

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem?

Applied

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is this example: Has our schools' new meditation program helped students focus longer on their math lessons?

Applied

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Do tablet computers increase the productivity of nurses in an emergency room?

Applied research

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Do farm safety days decrease accidents among rural children?

Applied research

Which claim (frequency, association, casual) is about two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is associated with a certain level of another variable? There is also NO casual relationship

Association claim

Identify each statement as either an association claim or a casual claim: - depression in the elderly may predict dementia - giving a thoughtful gift makes the gift giver feel closer to the recipient - drinking 8 cups of water a day may boost energy levels - folic acid is tied to more advanced toddler talk - sweetened drinks are linked to a depression risk - ice applied to a twisted ankle prevents swelling

Association claims - depression in the elderly may predict dementia - folic acid is tied to more advanced toddler talk - sweetened drinks are linked to a depression risk Causal claims - giving a thoughtful gift makes the gift giver feel closer to the recipient - drinking 8 cups of water a day may boost energy levels - ice applied to a twisted ankle prevents swelling

Later at the grocery store, the FB post comes to Yana's mind while she is walking by the candy aisle, so she purchases a bag of dark chocolate. This is an example of: - bias blind spot - confirmation bias - availability heuristic - being swayed by a good story - present/present bias

Availability heuristic

Swati's teacher asks her which city is farther north- Des Moines, Iowa or Boulder, Colorado. Swati recently saw a movie set in CO, which was cold and mountainous. She therefore concludes that Boulder must be further north, however, her teacher tells her that Des Moines is actually farther North. What type of faulty thinking is Swati displaying? - bias blind spot - confirmation bias - availability heuristic - present/present bias

Availability heuristic

What is the tendency to think the first thing that pops into your head is correct?

Availability heuristic

Which of the following is this situation an example of: Car crashed occur far more often than plane crashes, but people tend to be more afraid of dying in a plane crash than car crash. Why? Probably because the media covers plane crashes more often than they cover car crashes so it seems that plane crashes occur more often than they actually do - being swayed by a good story - availability heuristic - present/present bias - confirmation bias - bias blind spot

Availability heuristic

What type of validity is about how well the study's findings generalize to its intended population? - construct - external - statistical - internal

External

What type of validity is this an example of: If researchers are trying to study characteristic of pregnant women in their early twenties, they should have a sample of pregnant women in their early twenties - construct - external - statistical - internal

External

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: Is there physiological evidence that circadian rhythm is linked to mood?

Basic

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, rather than to address a specific, practical problem?

Basic

What type of research (applied, basic, translational) is this example: What parts of the brain are active when experienced meditators are meditating?

Basic

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: How quickly can the human eye switch between targets?

Basic research

Identify as transitional, applied, or basic research: What are the effects of cocaine on the sociability of rats?

Basic research

What is the tendency to accept ideas that feel natural?

Being swayed by a good story

Yana reads a post on FB about the health benefits of dark chocolate. The report mentions that dark chocolate has more antioxidants than fruit and claims that it would be perfectly healthy to consume every day. Yana concludes that it makes sense that dark chocolate would be healthy to eat frequently if it has antioxidants; this conclusion is an example of: - bias blind spot - confirmation bias - availability heuristic - being swayed by a good story - present/present bias

Being swayed by a good story

Identify as either: respect for persons, beneficence, or justice Do not cause suffering to participants, act in a respectable and truthful manner, and be aware of any potential biases

Beneficence

What is the tendency to ignore the fact that you are vulnerable to biases?

Bias blind spot

Psychologists engage in what aspect(s) of research?

Both production and consumption of research

Which claim (frequency, association, casual) argues that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable? There IS a casual relationship

Casual claim

Identify as either: data fabrication or falsification Occurs when, instead of recording what really happened in a study, researchers invent data that fit their hypotheses

Data fabrication

Identify as either: data fabrication or falsification Occurs when researchers influence a study's results, perhaps by selectively deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in the hypothesized way

Data falsification

Is this deception or debriefing: Telling participants the true nature of the study

Debriefing

Is this deception or debriefing: When researchers do not tell participants about all of the details of the study

Deception

Hewlett is attempting to measure spatial intelligence. He creates a special task to measure spatial intelligence and uses it along with other measures of intelligence. His data show that the results from his new task are highly correlated with other measures of intelligence, like memory and language intelligence With what type of validity may Hewlett's measure have a problem? - criterion - face - discriminant - convergent

Discriminant

Is the measure not as strongly correlated with theoretically different constructs? - convergent validity - criterion validity - face validity - discriminant validity - content validity

Discriminant validity

What is an Empirical approach and what are examples of not using it?

Empirical approach: uses evidence from the senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from other instruments that assist the senses (thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions / make work independently verifiable by other researchers DO NOT: base conclusions on intuition, on casual observations of their own experience, or on what other people say (even those with Ph.Ds)

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on evidence. They collect and use data to develop, support, or challenge a theory. What is this approach called?

Empiricism

Is the measure a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable? - convergent validity - criterion validity - face validity - discriminant validity - content validity

Face validity

Describe each as either the goal of openness or the goal of transparency - stating variables involved in the study - reporting the results of all the hypotheses tested in the study - sharing raw data - allowing other researchers to replicate your study

Openness - sharing raw data - allowing other researchers to replicate your study Transparency - stating variables involved in the study - reporting the results of all the hypotheses tested in the study

This type of data upholds Merton's norm of communality, which states that science belongs to everyone. It supports scientific progress because other scientists can replicate published work and test their own novel hypotheses

Openness (open) data

A researcher's specific decision about how to measure or manipulate the variable

Operational definition

Order of finishers in a swimming race, sports team rankings, college major preferences, and ranking of 10 shows from most to least favorite... are all examples of what type of scale: ordinal, interval, ratio?

Ordinal

A measurement applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable represent a ranked order

Ordinal scale

Identify as one of the three types of measurement (self-report, observational, physiological) Recording biological data (e.g., heart rate, brain activity, cortisol levels, etc.)

Physiological

Operationalizes a variable by recording biological data such as brain activity, hormone levels, or heart rate

Physiological measure

What is the tendency to ignore what is absent and failures to consider comparison groups?

Present/present bias

Which of the following is this situation an example of: Parent not noticing when child does chores without being told but always notices when child does not do chores after being asked - being swayed by a good story - availability heuristic - present/present bias - confirmation bias - bias blind spot

Present/present bias

Number of exam questions answered correctly, the amount of fuel in gas tank, how many episodes of a show watched, and height... are all examples of what type of scale: ordinal, interval, ratio?

Ratio

Someone who takes research and applies it to their career or daily life

Research Consumer

Someone who facilitates the research process in order to increase knowledge

Research Producers

Identify as either: respect for persons, beneficence, or justice Participants must be treated as autonomous people, informed consent must be obtained, participants should be aware of the potential risks and benefits before agreeing to participate, and participant's confidentiality should be respected

Respect for persons

Identify as either: respect for persons, beneficence, or justice - participants should be treated as autonomous agents - participants should be protected from harm and their well-being should be ensured - participants with less autonomy should receive special protection - there should be a balance between those who participate and those who benefit from the results

Respect for persons - participants should be treated as autonomous agents - participants with less autonomy should receive special protection Beneficence - participants should be protected from harm and their well-being should be ensured Justice - there should be a balance between those who participate and those who benefit from the results

Identify as one of the three types of measurement (self-report, observational, physiological) Recording peoples' answers to questions about themselves (e.g., "How often do you exercise each week?")

Self-report

A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

Self-report measure

Yara tells a few of her friends about a study that, she heard, showed that being less motivated to succeed can improve test performance. Yara, however, did not fully understand the study's finding, which was that being overly motivated can hinder test performance. What is the consequence of Yara's being a poor research consumer?

She and her friends could adopts a practice that hurts their test scores rather than helps

What type of validity is about whether the study's statistical conclusions are precise, reasonable, and replicable? - construct - external - statistical - internal

Statistical

A method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

Test-retest reliability

What are independent and dependent variables?

The dependent variable is measured, not manipulated The independent variable is manipulated