PSY 2403 Unit 3 Combo

Girls, in a same-sex group, are more likely to engage in what kind of play?

"Collaborative discourse," in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner.

social referencing

"Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation

Our brains often form ideas that are clustered around the concepts of masculinity and femininity. Children, for example, will often assume that a firefighter is male. This assumption, which is based on learned ideas about masculinity, is a good example of the term

"associative memory."

two treatments were effective in reducing child maltreatment:

(1) home visitation that emphasized improved parenting, coping with stress, and increased support for the mother; (2) parent-infant psychotherapy that focused on improving maternal-infant attachment

father's socialization strategies

(gender, phyllis bronstein 2006) Fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development

mother's socialization strategies

(gender, phyllis bronstein 2006) In many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy.

Lower-SES parents

(parenting) Are more concerned that their children conform to society's expectations Create a home atmosphere in which it is clear that parents have authority over children" Use physical punishment more in disciplining their children Are more directive and less conversational with their children. more likely to view education as the teacher's job.

Higher-SES parents

(parenting) Are more concerned with developing children's initiative and delay of gratification Create a home atmosphere in which children are more nearly equal participants and in which rules are discussed as opposed to being "laid down" in an authoritarian manner Are less likely to use physical punishment "Are less directive and more conversational" with their children. more often think of education as something that should be mutually encouraged by parents and teachers.

Chlamydia

- Chlamydia trachomatis, a bacterium that spreads by sexual contact and infects the genital organs of both sexes - highly contagious

Instrumental / expressive behaviors

- boys are thought to be more instrumental: being independent, aggressive - girls are thought to be Expressive: being warm and sensitive

Syphilis

- caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, - needs a warm, moist environment to survive, -transmitted by penile-vaginal, oral-genital, or anal contact

HPV

- causes genital warts on ppl

Pituitary gland

- monitors hormone levels, but itself is regulated by the hypothalamus; - gland sends out a signal to the testes/ovaries to manufacture a hormone; then detects when the optimal level of the hormone is reached and maintains this level.

HIV & AIDS

- no single STI has caused more deaths - caused by a virus that destroys the immune system

Sexual Scripts

- sexual motivation is influenced by sexual scripts - stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how ppl should behave sexually

Gonorrhea

- the "drip" or the "clap" -caused by teh bacterium Neisseria gonorrhea, which thrives i the mucous membranes lining mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra, anal tract

care perspective

-A moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. -According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly underplayed the _____ _____, perhaps because he was a male, because most of his research was with males rather than females, and because he used male responses as a model for his theory. -A meta-analysis (a statistical analysis that combines the results of many different studies) casts doubt on Gilligan's claim of substantial gender differences in moral judgment -In sum, experts now conclude that there is no evidence to support Gilligan's claim that Kohlberg downplayed females' moral thinking

evolutionary psychology view on gender

-Emphasizes that evolutionary adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological differences between males and females --Males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking. --Females evolved dispositions devoted to parenting and choosing mates who can provide their offspring with resources and protection -Critics of evolutionary psychology --Argue that its hypotheses are backed by speculations about prehistory, not evidence. --People are not locked into behavior that was adaptive in the evolutionary past. --The evolutionary view pays little attention to cultural and individual variations in gender differences

Relational aggression

-Harming someone by manipulating a relationship - (making others dislike someone) - higher in girls - increases in mid-late childhood -links between parenting & child relational aggression

Families and Moral Development

-Kohlberg argued that family processes are essentially unimportant in children's moral development. -Kohlberg argued that parent-child relationships usually provide children with little opportunity for give-and-take or perspective taking. Rather, Kohlberg said that such opportunities are more likely to be provided by children's peer relations. -A number of developmentalists stress that parents' moral values influence children's developing moral thoughts -Most developmentalists agree with Kohlberg and Piaget, that peers play an important role in the development of moral reasoning.

cognitive influences on gender

-Observation, imitation, rewards, and punishment—these are the mechanisms by which gender develops according to social cognitive theory. -Interactions between the child and the social environment are the main keys to gender development in this view. -Some critics argue that this explanation pays too little attention to the child's own mind and understanding, and portrays the child as passively acquiring gender roles

social role theory

-States that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men. -In most cultures around the world, women have less power and status than men do and they control fewer resources (UNICEF, 2011). -In Eagly's view, as women adapted to roles with less power and less status in society, they showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men. -The social hierarchy and division of labor are important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurture

psychoanalytic theory of gender

-Stems from Freud's view that the pre-school child develops erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. -At 5 or 6 years of age, the child renounces these feelings and identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics. -Developmentalists do not believe gender development proceeds as Freud proposed

Bandura

-Stresses that moral development is best understood by considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self control. -Self-regulation (not abstract reasoning) is the key to positive moral development.

media influences on gender

-The messages about gender roles carried by the mass media also are important influences on children's and adolescents' gender development -Men are portrayed as more powerful than women on many TV shows. -The media influence adolescents' body images, and some studies reveal gender differences in this area Adolescent boys are exposed to a highly muscular body ideal for males in media outlets, especially in advertisements that include professional athletes and in video games

Genital Herpes

-caused by a large family of viruses w/ many different strains -these strains produce other, nonsexually transmitted infections such as chicken pox and mononucleosis - itching & tingling -no known cure

Father interaction

-increases w/ birth of a boy; less likely to get divorced if have a boy; engage in more activities w/ boy

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

-some girls have this condition; caused by a genetic defect. Adrenal glands enlarge = high levels of Androgens. - less content w/ being a woman, show stronger interest in being male

Gender-intensification hypothesis

-states that psychological & behavioral differences of boys to girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles

Describe two ways that an adolescent's self-understanding differs from that of a child

1) Adolescents are more self-conscious and preoccupied with their self-understanding. This self-consciousness and self-preoccupation reflect adolescent ego-centrism. 2) Self-definition is more abstract and idealistic, involves more contradictions within the self, is more fluctuating, includes concern about the real self versus the ideal self. 3) Increases in social traits, more in-depth perspective taking, and social cognitive monitoring.

List Marcia's four identity statuses and discuss the role of crisis and commitment

1) Identity diffusion: Exploring their identity and not making any concrete commitments (preteens, in highschool) 2) Identity foreclosure: making a career commitment without knowing that is really what you want in life (influence of parents at graduation of highschool) 3) Identity moratorium: Not making any commitments, but has explored their identity and possibility of a different career they could be interested in (In college at age 19) 4) Identity Achievement: Extensively explored their options after a crisis and pursues a degree plan that they want to practice as a career. They make a commitment to a goal in life and achieve it. marcia classifies individuals based on the existence or extent of their crisis or commitment. Crisis is defined as a period of identity development during which the individual explores alternatives. Most researchers use the term exploration rather than crisis. Commitment is a personal inverstment in identity. Crisis is a period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives.

Which of the following are reasons that memory span improves between the ages of 3 and 7? (Q)

1) Older children rehearse information more than younger children. 2) Older children process information at a faster speed than younger children.

Which of the following are strategies for using books effectively with preschool children? (Q)

1) Use books to initiate conservation with younger children. 2) Use what and why questions. 3) Encourage children to ask questions about stories.

Which of the following is/are among the possible biological influences on gender? (Q)

1) chromosomes 2) hormones 3) evolution

Identify/define attachment types based on the Strange Situation experiment

1)Secure Attached children Children who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Such children feel confident that the attachment figure will be available to meet their needs. They use the attachment figure as a safe base to explore the environment and seek the attachment figure in times of distress (Main, & Cassidy, 1988). Securely attached infants are easily soothed by the attachment figure when upset. Infants develop a secure attachment when the caregiver is sensitive to their signals, and responds appropriately to their needs. 2) Insecure Avoidant Children Children who show insecurity by avoiding the mother They are very independent of the attachment figure both physically and emotionally (Behrens, Hesse, & Main, 2007). They do not seek contract with the attachment figure when distressed. Such children are likely to have a caregiver who is insensitive and rejecting of their needs (Ainsworth, 1979). The attachment figure may withdraw from helping during difficult tasks (Stevenson-Hinde, & Verschueren, 2002) and is often unavailable during times of emotional distress. 3)Insecure Resistant Children Children who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. Here children adopt an ambivalent behavioral style towards the attachment figure. The child will commonly exhibit clingy and dependent behavior, but will be rejecting of the attachment figure when they engage in interaction. The child fails to develop any feelings of security from the attachment figure. Accordingly they exhibit difficulty moving away from the attachment figure to explore novel surroundings. When distressed they are difficult to soothe and are not comforted by interaction with the attachment figure. This behavior results from an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the primary caregiver. 4)Insecure disorganized Children Children who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented. Children with a disorganized-insecure attachment style show a lack of clear attachment behavior. Their actions and responses to caregivers are often a mix of behaviors, including avoidance or resistance. These children are described as displaying dazed behavior, sometimes seeming either confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver.

Piaget's theories are criticized by some due to:

1. It was based on an unrepresentative sample of children 2. Not all people reach the formal operational stage consistantly 3. His theory underestimates children's abilities

What are the 4 main types of child maltreatment?

1. Physical abuse 2. Child neglect 3. Sexual abuse 4. Emotional abuse

What are 4 reasons for avoiding spanking or similar corporal punishments?

1. When adults punish a child by yelling, screaming, or spanking, they are presenting children with out of control models for handling stressful situations. Children may imitate this aggressive, out of control behavior. 2. Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance. ex: spanking the child may cause the child to avoid being around the parent and to fear the parent. 3. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do. Children should be given feedback, such as, "why don't you try this?" 4. Punishment can be abusive. Parents might unintentionally become so aroused when they are punishing the child that they become abusive.

Name 4 concerns about child rearing among lower-socioeconomic status parents.

1. are more concerned that their children conform to society's expectations. 2. create a home atmosphere in which it is clear that parents have authority over children. 3. use physical punishment more in disciplining their children 4. are more directive and less conversational with their children.

Name 4 concerns about childbearing among higher-socioeconomic status parents.

1. are more concerned with developing children's initiative and delay of gratification. 2. create a home atmosphere in which children are more equal participants and in which rules are discussed as opposed to being laid down in an authoritarian manner. 3. Are less likely to use physical punishment. 4. are less directive and more conversational with their children.

_____ of food comes from restaurants versus homes

1/3

Read and study section Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior.

1/3 have sex twice a week or more, 1/3 a few times a month, 1/3 a few times a year or not at all. Married (cohabiting) couples have sex more often than noncohabiting couples. Most Americans do not engage in kinky sexual acts. Nearly 75% of men and 85% of women indicated they've never been unfaithful. Men think about sex far more often than women.

The highest incidence of game playing occurs between ages

10 and 12

What percentage of the population are estimated to be intersex or transgender?

10 percent

exposure to either physical or sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence was linked to an increase in ________ year-olds' suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts

13 to 18

By the time they enter first grade, it is estimated that children know about _________ words.

14,000

What are 3 causes of delinquency and discuss its frequency. Is delinquency a predictor of later performance or can one still develop and a moral character?

2 % of all youth are involved in juvenile court cases. Idenity problems: choosing a negative identity due to not measuring up to demands, or development has restricted them from acceptable social roles. Characteristics of lower SES culture lower SES peer groups and gangs are antisocial, or counterproductive, to the goals and norms of society at large. Parents of delinquents are less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior than are other parents. Parental monitoring is very important in determining wether or not an adolescent becomes a delinquent. Hostile sibling relationships and older sibling delinquency are linked with younger sibling delinquency. Lack of school sucess It is possible to later develop a moral character but you will need therapy. Family therapy is the most effective kind of therapy for delinquents. Fast track intervention is also effective, more so the earlier they start it.

During early childhood, the average child grows ______ inches per year.

2 1/2

At what age is gender identity acquired? (Q)

2 1/2 years old

The average child grows _________ inches in height and gains between _______ pounds a year during early childhood.

2 and a half; 5-7

Between ages ________, they begin the transition from saying simple sentences that express a single proposition to saying complex sentences.

2-3

12% of ______ year olds are obese

2-5

During early childhood, the average child grows ______ inches per year.

2½

Around age ___, children enjoy simple movements such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth, just for the sheer delight of performing them

3

The overall size of the brain does not increase dramatically from ages ________; what does change dramatically are local patterns within the brain.

3-15

From _______ years of age the most rapid growth in the brain takes place in the part of the __________ known as the __________

3-6; frontal lobes; prefrontal cortex

Children also must communicate externally and use language for a long time before they can make the transition from external to internal speech. This transition period occurs between ages ________ and involves talking to oneself.

3-7

At age ______, children are still enjoying the same kinds of activities, but they have become more adventurous

4

In the area of fine motor skills, sometimes _____-year-old children have trouble building high towers with blocks because, in their desire to stack perfectly, they may upset those already stacked.

4

In the area of fine motor skills, sometimes _____-year-old children have trouble building high towers with blocks, because in their desire to stack perfectly, they may upset those already stacked.

4

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until _____ years of age. (Q)

4

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until about age____

4

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until

4 years of age

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until:

4 years of age

____% of children's meals exceed recommendations for saturated and trans fat.

45

Brain metabolism reaches a peak around ___ years of age. By this time, many cortical regions have overproduced synapses, which results in a __________.

4; high energy need

Fine motor coordination continues to improve so that by age ____, hand, arm, and body all move together under better command of the eye

5

After age ______, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of the task that are relevant, such as the directions for solving a problem.

6-7

Plasticity is reduced by ages _______, and energy consumption of most cortical regions declines to near-adult levels.

8-10

Approximately _______ of American children have one or more siblings.

80%

2 Which of the following statements regarding brain development in early childhood is TRUE? A) Increases in brain development are due to increases in myelination and in the number and size of nerve endings. B) By the age of 5 years, the brain has reached 75% of its adult size. C) From age 6 through puberty, the most rapid growth takes place in the frontal lobes. D) From age 3 through 6 the most rapid growth takes place in the temporal and parietal lobes.

A

What is one of the most common nutritional problems in early childhood, associated with failure to eat adequate amounts of quality meats and dark green vegetables? A) iron deficiency anemia B) obesity C) high blood sugar D) high cholesterol

A

Which stage of cognitive development occurs between ages 2 and 4 years and involves the child's ability to mentally represent an object that is not present? A) symbolic function substage B) egocentrism substage C) animism substage D) intuitive thought substage 7

A

__________ is the awareness that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties. A) Conservation B) Irreversibility C) Zone of proximal development D) Scaffolding

A

Androgyny

A balancing or blending of both agentic and communal traits.

attachment

A close emotional bond between two people

What factors put parents at risk for maltreating their children? And which is the most important risk factor?

A combination of factors, including culture, family, and developmental characteristics of the child. Violence in the family. 1/3 of parents who were abused as children go on to abuse their children.

Cognitive Moral Education

A concept based on the belief that students should learn to value things as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops. Kohlberg's theory has served as the foundation for a number of cognitive moral education programs. The hope is that students will develop more advanced notions of concepts such as cooperation, trust, responsibility, and community

theory of mind

A concept that refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others.

anger cry

A cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords

Character Education

A direct approach that involves teaching students a basic "moral literacy" to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others The argument is that behaviors such as lying, stealing, and cheating are wrong, and students should be taught this throughout their education More recently, an emphasis on the importance of encouraging students to develop a care perspective has been accepted as a relevant aspect of character education A care perspective advocates educating students in the importance of engaging in prosocial behaviors, such as: Considering others' feelings, Being sensitive to others, and Helping others through a semester-long course covering a number of moral issues. The hope is that students will develop more advanced notions of concepts such as cooperation, trust, responsibility, and community

character education

A direct moral education approach that involves teaching students a basic "moral literacy" to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior or doing harm to themselves or others

power assertion

A discipline technique in which a parent attempts to gain control over the child or the child's resources.

induction

A discipline technique in which a parent uses reasoning and explains how the child's actions are likely to affect others

love withdrawal

A discipline technique in which a parent withholds attention or love from the child in an effort to control the child's behavior.

gratitude

A feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful.

service learning

A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.

Project Head Start

A government-funded program designed to provide low-income children with the opportunities needed for school success.

Read and study section Childhood on pages 391-392

A majority of children engage in some sex play, usually with friends or siblings (Carroll, 2013). Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Much of this child sex play is likely motivated by curiosity. There does not appear to be any link between such sexual play and sexual adjustment in adolescence or adulthood. As the elementary school years progress, sex play with others usually declines, although romantic interest in peers may be present. Curiosity about sex remains high throughout the elementary school years, and children may ask many questions about reproduction and sexuality (Gordon & Gordon, 1989). However, the main surge in sexual interest takes place not in childhood but in early adolescence.

justice perspective

A moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals independently make moral decisions.

authoritative parenting

A parenting style in which parents encourage independence but place limits and controls on child's behavior.

Authoritative (democratice) parenting

A parenting style in which parents encourage their children to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give and take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. Authoritative parenting is associated with children's social competence.

play

A pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake

14-18

A recent study revealed that ______ years of age is an especially important time for developing the ability to stand up for what one believes and resist peer pressure to do otherwise

authoritarian parenting

A restrictive punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange.

Authoritarian parenting

A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their direction and to respect their work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange. Authoritarian parenting is associated with children's social incompetence.

authoritarian parenting

A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to respect their work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the child, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with children's social incompetence, including a lack of initiative and weak communication skills

basic cry

A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a short inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry

gender role

A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel, respectively.

gender role

A set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel

social smile

A smile in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development, typically is a face

reflexive smile

A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.

indulgent parenting

A style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. This is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control and a lack of respect for others.

neglectful parenting

A style in which the parent is very uninvolved in the child's life. It is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control and poor self-esteem.

Indulgent (permissive) parenting

A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place a few demands or controls on them. Indulgent parenting is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self control.

indulgent parenting

A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.

neglectful parenting

A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

Neglectful parenting

A style of parenting in which the parent is very uninvolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

pain cry

A sudden appearance of loud crying without preliminary moaning, and a long initial cry followed by an extended period of breath holding

slow-to-warm-up child

A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood

easy child

A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences

difficult child

A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences

social role theory

A theory stating that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men--social hierarchy and division of labor strongly influence gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurture

social cognitive theory of gender

A theory that emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior and through the rewards and punishment for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.

What is social role theory?

A theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women.

social role theory

A theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women.

psychoanalytic theory of gender

A theory that stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. Eventually these feelings cause anxiety, so that at 5 or 6 years of age, children renounce these feelings and identify with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics

__________ is the awareness that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties. A) Conservation B) Irreversibility C) Zone of proximal development D) Scaffolding

A) Conservation

Regarding brain development in early childhood, which of the following statements is true? A) Increases in brain size are primarily due to myelination and increases in the number dendrites. B) The most rapid period of brain growth throughout the lifespan occurs during early childhood. C) The prefrontal cortex experiences a growth delay during the process of myelination. D) There are very few anatomical changes in the brain from ages 3 to 6.

A) Increases in brain size are primarily due to myelination and increases in the number dendrites.

Preoperational means that a child cannot yet perform: A) reversible mental actions. B) symbolic thinking. C) intuitive reasoning. D) mental representation of an unseen object.

A) reversible mental actions.

Which substage of preoperational thinking occurs between ages 2 and 4 years and involves the child's ability to mentally represent an object that is not present? A) symbolic function substage B) egocentrism substage C) animism substage D) intuitive thought substage

A) symbolic function substage

Preschool children are increasingly capable of learning and applying rules of syntax. Syntax refers to: A) the ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. B) the aspect of language that involves the meaning of words and sentences. C) the appropriate use of language in different contexts. D) the units of meaning involved in word formation.

A) the ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

Brain's ability to systemize

Ability to analyze and explore how things work. Male brains have a tendency to systemize.

Regarding child maltreatment, which of the following statements is TRUE?

About one-third of parents who were abused as children abuse their own children

Regarding child maltreatment, which of the following statements is true? (Q)

About one-third of parents who were abused as children abuse their own children.

Regarding child maltreatment, which of the following statements is TRUE?

About one-third of parents who were abused themselves as children abuse their own children.

What are the typical short-term consequences of divorce for children?

Academic problems, acting out, delinquency, anxiety, depression, less socially responsible, less relationships, drop out of school, sexually active at an early age, take drugs, low self esteem, less securely attached as adults.

psychoanalytic theory of gender

According to Freud, children identify with the same-sex parent and unconsciously adopt that parent's characteristics.

gender schema theory

According to this theory, gender typing emerges as children gradually develop schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

gender typing

Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Piaget assumed that children are___________in constructing understanding in the world.

Active

games

Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often competition with one or more individuals

games

Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often competition with one or more individuals.

Adaptation.

Adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation.

Scaffolding (family)

Adjusting the level of guidance to fit the child's performance.

scaffolding

Adjusting the level of parental guidance to fit the child's efforts, allowing children to be more skillful than they would be if they relied only on their own abilities

Read and study section Adolescence on p 392

Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, of incorporating sexuality into one's identity. Adolescents have an almost insatiable curiosity about sexuality. They think about whether they are sexually attractive, how to do sex, and what the future holds for their sexual lives. The majority of adolescents eventually manage to develop a mature sexual identity, but most experience times of vulnerability and confusion (Tolman & McClelland, 2011). Adolescence is a bridge between the asexual child and the sexual adult. Every society gives some attention to adolescent sexuality. In some societies, adults clamp down and protect adolescent females from males by chaperoning them. Other societies promote very early marriage. Yet others allow some sexual experimentation.

Regarding cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variation in families, which of the following statements is TRUE?

African American and Latino children interact with extended family more than White American children do

Regarding cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variation in families, which of the following statements is TRUE?

African American and Latino children interact with extended family more than White American children do.

Regarding cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic variation in families, which of the following statements is TRUE?

African American and Latino children interact with extended family more than white American children do.

conduct disorder

Age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society's norms, and the personal or property rights of others.

Strange Situation

Ainsworth's observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver, which requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order

Social Role theory

Alice Eagly - says psychological gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men (cultures) (women stay at home/ men more in control)

What types of hormones can be found in male-bodied and female-bodied individuals?

All human hormones circulate in male-bodied and female-bodied individuals. Some hormones do so in different proportions.

Gender

All those features that society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women.

What is one gender strategy that is available to many attractive middle-class white women, based largely on how they look, that is not as easily available to black and Asian women?

All-American Girl

Explain the link between sex hormone levels and certain behaviors.

Although sex hormones alone do not dictate behavior, researchers have found links between sex hormone levels and certain behaviors (Hines, 2013, 2015). The most established effects of testosterone on humans involve aggressive behavior and sexual behavior (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). Levels of testosterone are correlated with sexual behavior in boys during puberty (Udry & others, 1985). And one study revealed that a higher fetal testosterone level measured from amniotic fluid was linked to increased male-typical play, such as increased aggression, in 6- to 10-year-old boys and girls (Auyeung & others, 2009).

Read and study Sexual Attitudes and Behavior on pages 400-401

Although the ability of men and women to function sexually shows little biological decline in middle adulthood, sexual activity usually occurs on a less frequent basis than in early adulthood (Welch, 2011). Career interests, family matters, decreased energy levels, and routine may contribute to this decline (Avis & others, 2009). In the Sex in America survey (described earlier in this chapter), the frequency of having sex was greatest for individuals aged 25 to 29 years old (47 percent had sex twice a week or more) and dropped off for individuals in their fifties (23 percent of 50- to 59-year-old males said they had sex twice a week or more, while only 14 percent of the females in this age group reported this frequency) (Michael & others, 1994). Note, though, that the Sex in America survey may underestimate the frequency of sexual activity of middle-aged adults because the data were collected prior to the widespread use of erectile dysfunction drugs such as Viagra. Living with a spouse or partner makes all the difference in whether people engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40 years of age. In one study conducted as part of the Midlife in the United States Study (MIDUS), 95 percent of women in their forties with partners said that they had been sexually active in the last six months, compared with only 53 percent of those without partners (Brim, 1999). By their fifties, 88 percent of women living with a partner had been sexually active in the last six months, but only 37 percent of those who were neither married nor living with someone reported having had sex in the last six months. A large-scale study of U.S. adults 40 to 80 years of age found that premature ejaculation (26 percent) and erectile difficulties (22 percent) were the most common sexual problems of older men, whereas lack of sexual interest (33 percent) and lubrication difficulties (21 percent) were the most common sexual problems of older women (Laumann & others, 2009). A person's health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity during this period (Field & others, 2013). A recent study of adults 55 years and older revealed that their level of sexual activity was associated with their physical and mental health (Bach & others, 2013).

Gender-Role Transcendence

An alternative to androgyny The view that when an individual's competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny We should think about ourselves as people, not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous.

social constructivist approach

An approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the fact that knowledge is mutually built and constructed (Vygotsky's theory)

forgiveness

An aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when an injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation.

Gender Identity

An awareness that a person knows that they are either a boy or a girl. Occurs around 2 1/2 to 3 years of age. At age 2, infants begin to behave in ways considered gender appropriate in our society.

Montessori Approach

An education philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and specially designed curriculum materials.

Study last paragraph in the Sources of Sexual Orientation section.

An individual's sexual orientation—same-sex, heterosexual, or bisexual—is most likely determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014; King, 2014). Most experts on same-sex relations believe that no one factor alone causes sexual orientation and that the relative weight of each factor can vary from one individual to the next

stranger anxiety

An infant's fear of and wariness toward strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life

religion

An organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols that increases an individual's connection to a sacred or transcendent other (God, higher power, or higher truth).

Communality

An orientation that emphasizes connectedness to others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others.

Agency

An orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness.

executive functioning

An umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex. Executive functioning involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control.

altruism

An unselfish interest in helping another person.

Andre and Anna are both plumbers. Which category do Andre and Anna belong to?

Andre belongs to the unmarked category while Anna belongs to the marked category because plumbers are assumed to be male.

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in thought or behavior that occurs in response as a result of experience

social constructivist approach

Approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.

80

Approximately __ percent of American children have one or more siblings—that is, sisters and brothers

33, 22

Approximately __% of lesbians and __% of gay men are parents.

Peers

Are children who share the same age or maturity level. One of their most important functions is to provide a source of information and comparison about the world outside the family. Children receive feedback about their abilities from their peer group. They evaluate what they do in terms of whether it is better than, as good as, or worse than what other children do.

Moral Exemplars

Are people who have lived exemplary lives. _____ ______ have a moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment A number of traits characterized all three _____ _____, considered by the researchers to reflect a possible core of moral functioning. This core included being honest and dependable.

3

Around _, children prefer same-sex rather than opposite-sex playmates, this preference increases in early childhood.

Gender Stability

Around age 3, children acquire the understanding that gender identity is stable over time.

peers

As children get older, peers become increasingly important. Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior It is generally more accepted for girls to act more like boys than it is for boys to act more like girls; thus, use of the term tomboy to describe masculine girls is often thought of as less derogatory than the term sissy to describe feminine boys Children show a clear preference for being with and liking same-sex peers, and this tendency usually becomes stronger during the middle and late childhood years In adolescence, peer approval or disapproval is a powerful influence on gender attitudes and behavior Peer groups in adolescence are more likely to be a mix of boys and girls than they were in childhood. A recent study of 15- to 17-year-olds indicated that gender segregation characterizes some aspects of adolescents' social life

Ruth Chao

Asian American parents' involvement in their children's lives is best conceptualized as a type of training, rather than efforts at domination

Jane has learned to feed herself with a spoon. When her mother gives her a fork- she picks it up and feeds herself. Jane has __________ the fork into her schema for utensils.

Assimilated

Jane has learned to feed herself with a spoon. when her mother gives her a fork she immediately begins to feed herself. Jane has _______ the fork into her schema for utensils.

Assimilated

4, elementary

At about _ years of age, a combination of empathic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation on the part of the child to share with others. By the start of the _____ school years, children begin to express more complicated notions of what is fair

Read and study section Emerging Adulthood on pages 397-398

At the beginning of emerging adulthood (age 18), surveys indicate that slightly more than 60 percent of individuals have experienced sexual intercourse, but by the end of emerging adulthood (age 25), most individuals have had sexual intercourse (Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006). Also, the average age of marriage in the United States is currently 29 for males and 26.5 for females (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). Thus, emerging adulthood is a time frame during which most individuals are both sexually active and unmarried. Uncertainty characterizes many emerging adults' sexual relationships. Consider a recent study of emerging adult daters and cohabitors that found nearly half reported a reconciliation (a breakup followed by a reunion) (Halpern-Meekin & others, 2013). One study of 18- to 26-year-olds revealed that perceived relationship commitment, though not formal relationship commitment (usually indexed by marriage), was linked to sexual enjoyment (Galinsky & Sonenstein, 2013)Casual sex is more common in emerging adulthood than it is during the late twenties (Fielder & others, 2013). A recent trend has involved "hooking up" to have non-relationship sex (from kissing to intercourse) (Olmstead & others, 2015; Roberson, Olmstead, & Fincham, 2015; Vrangalova, 2015a, b). A recent study indicated that 40 percent of 22-year-olds reported having had a recent casual sexual partner (Lyons & others, 2015). A recent study also revealed that 20 percent of first-year college women on one large university campus had engaged in at least one hookup over the course of the school year (Fielder & others, 2013). In this study, impulsivity, sensation seeking, and alcohol use were among the predictors of a higher likelihood of hooking up. And in another recent study of more than 3,900 18- to 25-year-olds, having casual sex was negatively linked to well-being and positively related to psychological distress (Bersamin & others, 2014). In addition to hooking up, another type of casual sex that has recently increased among emerging adults is "friends with benefits," which involves a relationship formed by the integration of friendship and sexual intimacy without an explicit commitment characteristic of an exclusive romantic relationship (Owen, Fincham, & Manthos, 2013). In a study of almost 8,000 emerging adults, males had more permissive sexual attitudes, especially regarding sexual encounters, than did females (Sprecher, Treger, & Sakaluk, 2013).

__________ parenting involves a restrictive, punitive style in which parents expect children to obey their rules without many questions.

Authoritarian

__ parenting involves encouraging children to be independent, placing limits and controls on their actions while allowing verbal exchange.

Authoritative

_____ parenting involves encouraging children to be independent and allowing verbal exchange. Children with such parents are often self-controlled and achievement-oriented. (Q)

Authoritative

__________ parenting involves encouraging children to be independent and allowing verbal exchange. Children with such parents are often self-controlled and achievement-oriented

Authoritative

________ encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions.

Authoritative parenting

In what way is the theory of mind different with autistic children?

Autistic children have difficulty developing theory of mind. Autistic children have difficulty understanding other's beliefs and emotions. Autistic children generally do poorly reasoning in false-belief tasks.

Proactive Strategies

Avert potential misbehavior by children before it takes place With younger children, being proactive means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or moving them to alternative activities. With older children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important.

In the area of fine motor skills, sometimes _____-year-old children have trouble building high towers with blocks because, in their desire to stack perfectly, they may upset those already stacked. A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6

B

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand-eye coordination is not complete until A) 3 years of age. B) 4 years of age. C) 5 years of age. D) 6 years of age.

B

Which of the following is NOT a component of a child-centered kindergarten? A) emphasis on individual variation B) emphasis on what is learned C) focus on the importance of play D) emphasis on the process, rather than the outcome, of learning

B

__________ is Vygotsky's term suggesting that, over the course of a teaching session, the teacher should change the level of support given to fit the student's performance level. A) Theory of mind B) Zone of proximal development C) Scaffolding D) Social construction

B

__________ is a compensatory education program designed to provide children from low-income families with the opportunity to acquire important school success skills. A) The Montessori approach B) Project Head Start C) Project Follow Through D) NAEYC

B

__________ is a compensatory education program designed to provide children from low-income families with the opportunity to acquire important school success skills. A) The Montessori approach B) Project Head Start C) Project Follow Through D) NAEYC

B) Project Head Start

A young child's ability to add the letter "s" to create plurals demonstrates their growing mastery of: A) phonology. B) morphology. C) syntax. D) pragmatics.

B) morphology.

insecure avoidant babies

Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the mother

insecure disorganized babies

Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented

securely attached babies

Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment

Researchers have found that men who are active parents usually have lower levels of testosterone than men who do not participate in parenting. Which of the following claims does this support?

Behavior affects the body's production of hormones such as testosterone.

Sensorimotor play

Behavior engaged in by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas.

sensorimotor play

Behavior that allows infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes

animism

Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.

Sigmund Freud

Believed that play helps the child master anxiety and conflicts

Generativity types

Biological Parental Work Cultural

Read and study section Childhood on pages 380-381

Boys might have a more difficult time learning the masculine gender role because male models are less accessible to young children and messages from adults about the male role are not always consistent. For example, most mothers and teachers would like boys to behave in masculine ways, but also to be neat, well mannered, and considerate. However, fathers and peers usually want boys to be independent and to engage in rough-and-tumble play. The mixed messages make it difficult for boys to figure out how to act. Although gender roles have become more flexible in recent years, the flexibility applies more for girls than for boys (Beal, 1994). Girls can count on receiving approval if they are ambitious, competitive, and interested in sports, but relatively few adults are equally supportive of boys' being gentle, interested in fashion, and motivated to sign up for ballet classes. Instrumental traits and masculine gender roles may be evolving into a new norm for everyone. Concern about the ways boys are being brought up has been called a "national crisis of boyhood" by William Pollack (1999) in his book Real Boys. Pollack says that little has been done to change what he calls the "boy code." The boy code tells boys they should not show their feelings and should act tough, says Pollack. Boys learn the boy code in many contexts—sandboxes, playgrounds, schoolrooms, camps, hangouts—and are taught the code by parents, peers, coaches, teachers, and other adults. Pollack, as well as many others, argues that boys would benefit from being socialized to express their anxieties and concerns and to better regulate their aggression.

gender stereotypes

Broad categories that reflect impressions and widely held beliefs about what behavior is appropriate for females and males.

Macrosystem

Bronfenbrenner: Culture in which the individual lives

Exosystem

Bronfenbrenner: Influences from another setting

Chronosystem

Bronfenbrenner: Sociohistorical circumstances

Mesosystem

Bronfenbrenner: The links between microsystems

Microsystem

Bronfenbrenner: The setting in which the individual lives

During early childhood, the average child grows ______ inches per year. A) 1½ B) 2 C) 2½ D) 3

C

Jean Berko A) is a physician who crafted a revolutionary approach to early childhood education. B) identified the zone of proximal development. C) conducted a classic experiment demonstrating that children understand morphological rules. D) is a child developmentalist who suggested that parents who are competent, dedicated, and possess the time and energy can provide the basic ingredients of early childhood education at home.

C

During early childhood, the average child grows __________ inches. A) 1½ B) 2 C) 2½ D) 3

C) 2 1/2

__________, a limitation of preoperational thinking, is the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and that of another person. A) Animism B) Conservation C) Egocentrism D) Centration

C) Egocentrism

__________ is Vygotsky's term suggesting that, over the course of a teaching session, the teacher should change the level of support given to fit the student's performance level. A) Theory of mind B) Zone of proximal development C) Scaffolding D) Social construction

C) Scaffolding

Regarding information processing in early childhood, which of the following statements is true? A) The child's attention dramatically improves, including an ability to attend to relevant, nonsalient features in performing a task. B) Children are unable to be led into developing false memories. C) Significant improvements occur in short-term memory. D) Young children use strategies for remembering information.

C) Significant improvements occur in short-term memory.

Jean Berko: A) is a physician who crafted a revolutionary approach to early childhood education. B) identified the zone of proximal development. C) conducted a classic experiment using nonsense words to demonstrate that children understand morphological rules. D) is a child developmentalist who suggested that parents who are competent, dedicated, and possess the time and energy can provide the basic ingredients of early childhood education at home.

C) conducted a classic experiment using nonsense words to demonstrate that children understand morphological rules.

Biosocial Theory

Calls attention to the ways in which biological events influence the development of boys and girls. Also pays attention to how early biological developments influence the ways in which people react to a child and suggests that these social interactions have much to do with children's assuming gender roles.

Prosocial Behavior

Caring about the welfare and rights of others, feeling concern and empathy for them, and acting in a way that benefits others are all components.

A schema is____

Category of knowledge that allows us to interpret and understand the world.

__________ is the focusing of attention on one characteristic of an object or situation to the exclusion of all others.

Centration

moral development

Changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong

Child Neglect

Characterized by failure to provide for the child's basic needs _____ _____ can be physical (abandonment), educational (allowing chronic truancy), or emotional (marked inattention to the child's needs). _____ _____ is, by far, the most common form of child maltreatment

Physical abuse

Characterized by the infliction of physical injury as the result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child. The parent or other person may not have intended to hurt the child; the injury may have resulted from excessive physical punishment

Jean Piaget

Child psychologist

Gender Schema Theory

Children acquire gender schemata, organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that influence the kinds of information that they will attend to and remember.

Read and study the section Other Adults, Media and Peers

Children also learn about gender from observing other adults in the neighborhood and in the media (Brannon, 2012). As children get older, peers become increasingly important. Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior (Leaper, 2013, 2015; Rubin, Bukowski, & Bowker, 2015). For example, when children play in ways that the culture says are sex-appropriate, they tend to be rewarded by their peers. Those who engage in activities that are considered sex-inappropriate tend to be criticized or abandoned by their peers. It is generally more accepted for girls to act like boys than for boys to act like girls; thus, use of the term tomboy to describe masculine girls is often thought of as less derogatory than the term sissy to describe feminine boys (Pasterski, Golombok, & Hines, 2011). From 4 to about 12 years of age, children spend a large majority of their free play time exclusively with others of their own sex (Maccoby, 2002). What kind of socialization takes place in these same-sex play groups? In one study, researchers observed preschoolers over a period of six months (Martin & Fabes, 2001). The more time boys spent interacting with other boys, the more their activity level, rough-and-tumble play, and sex-typed choice of toys and games increased, and the less time boys spent near adults. By contrast, the more time the preschool girls spent interacting with other girls, the more their activity level and aggression decreased, and the more their girl-type play activities and time spent near adults increased. A recent study of preschool children (average age: 4 years) found that children selected playmates of the same sex who engaged in similar levels of gender-typed activities (Martin & others, 2013). In selecting a playmate, comparisons of sex of child and activity revealed that sex of the playmate was more important than activity. After watching elementary school children repeatedly play in same-sex groups, two researchers characterized the playground as "gender school" (Luria & Herzog, 1985). Continuing in adolescence and the adulthood years through late adulthood, friendships also mainly consist of same-sex peers (Mehta & Strough, 2009, 2010).

early childhood (moral development)

Children become aware that every person's perspective is unique and that someone else may have a different reaction to a situation. This awareness allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person's distress.

Early Representational thought.

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world during the _________ substage of the sensorimotor stage;

10 to 12 years of age (moral development)

Children develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live in unfortunate circumstances-- the poor, the handicapped, and the socially outcast. In adolescence, this newfound sensitivity may give a humanitarian flavor to the individual's ideological and political views

Which is the INCORRECT statement concerning siblings?

Children interact more positively and in more varied ways with their parents than with their siblings.

Which statement best describes the explanation given by the social cognitive theory of gender?

Children learn expected gender behaviors through rewards and punishments, as well as through observation and imitation of models

Which statement best describes the explanation given by the social cognitive theory of gender?

Children learn expected gender behaviors through rewards and punishments, as well as through observation and imitation of models.

Which statement best describes the explanation given by the social cognitive theory of gender? (Q)

Children learn expected gender behaviors through rewards and punishments, as well as through observation and imitation of models.

Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and Roberta Golinkoff emphasize six key principles in young children's vocabulary development:

Children learn the words they hear most often. .Children learn words for things and events that interest them. Children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than passive contexts. Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful. Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning. Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered.

Gender Typing

Children not only become aware that they are biologically males or females, but they acquire motives, values, and patterns of behavior that their culture considers appropriate for members of their biological sex.

authoritarian

Children of _____ parents are often unhappy, fearful, and anxious about comparing themselves with others, fail to initiate activity, and have weak communication skills.

popular children

Children who are frequently identified as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers

controversial children

Children who are frequently identified both as someone's best friend and as being disliked

rejected children

Children who are infrequently identified as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers

neglected children

Children who are infrequently identified as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers

average children

Children who receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers

peers

Children who share the same age or maturity level

neglectful

Children whose parents are ______ develop the sense that other aspects of the parents' lives are more important than they are. These children tend to be socially incompetent, have poor self-control, and don't handle independence well.

social cognitive theory of gender

Children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior

Researchers have observed differences in the visual-spatial abilities of men and women, such as in performing the task of mental rotation. What is the most plausible cause of such differences?

Cognitive skills are affected by instruction and practice, and men are more likely than women to engage in activities that develop the skill of mental rotation.

Project Head Start

Compensatory education designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire skills and experiences that are important for school success.

multiple developmental trajectories

Concept that adults follow one trajectory and children and adolescents another one; understanding how these trajectories mesh is important

What is meant by conscience?

Conscience refers to an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves an integration of all three components of moral development we have described so far- moral thought, feeling and behavior.

________ is the awareness that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties.

Conservation

__________ is the awareness that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties.

Conservation

Dr. Sanchez has analyzed standardized test results for two countries and discovered that in Country 1 there are almost identical distributions of physics scores for male and female students, while in Country 2 male students performed better than female students. Which explanation best accounts for these differences in scores?

Country 1 is a more gender-equal society than Country 2.

cognitive benefits of play

Creativity, Abstract thinking, Imagination, Attention, Concentration and persistence, Problem-solving, Social cognition, Empathy, Perspective taking, Language and mastering new concepts.

index offenses

Criminal acts, such as robbery, rape, and homicide, whether they are committed by juveniles or adults

acculturation

Cultural changes that occur when one culture comes in contact with another culture.

Both Vygotsky and Piaget suggested that A) education plays a central role in helping children learn the tools of the culture. B) language plays a minimal role in cognitive development. C) knowledge is socially constructed. D) teachers should be facilitators and guides rather than directors.

D

Children in developmentally appropriate classrooms are likely to A) be more stressed. B) be less socially skilled. C) be less creative. D) be more motivated.

D

In the United States, what is (are) the main cause(s) of death in children 1 through 4 years of age? A) influenza and pneumonia B) diseases of the heart C) congenital malformations D) motor vehicle accidents

D

In what way is the theory of mind different with autistic children? A) Autistic children have difficulty developing theory of mind. B) Autistic children have difficulty understanding other's beliefs and emotions. C) Autistic children generally do poorly reasoning in false-belief tasks. D) All of these

D

__________ is the focusing of attention on one characteristic of an object or situation to the exclusion of all others. A) Egocentrism B) Animism C) Operation D) Centration

D

Which of the following characteristics is central to the Montessori approach to education? A) Children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing their activities. B) The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a director. C) Children are encouraged to actively make their own decisions from an early age. D) All of these

D) All of these

__________ is the focusing of attention on one characteristic of an object or situation to the exclusion of all others. A) Egocentrism B) Animism C) Operation D) Centration

D) Centration

Which of the following is not a principle of a child-centered kindergarten? A) Each child follows a unique developmental pattern. B) Young children learn best through firsthand experiences with people and materials. C) Play is extremely important in the child's total development. D) Children learn best when adults are available to guide learning experiences.

D) Children learn best when adults are available to guide learning experiences.

In the United States, what is the leading cause of death in young children? A) cancer B) cardiovascular disease C) SIDS D) accidents

D) accidents

Developmentally appropriate practices in education are based on typical development at a given age as well as the uniqueness of each child. This type of schooling is considered: A) age-appropriate but not individual-appropriate. B) individual-appropriate but not age-appropriate. C) neither age- nor individual-appropriate. D) both age- and individual-appropriate.

D) both age- and individual-appropriate.

Research on theory of mind has found that children refer to __________ earlier and more frequently than they refer to __________. A) emotions; mental processes B) cognitive states; desires C) mental processes; emotions D) desires; cognitive states

D) desires; cognitive states

What is the second stage of Piaget's cognitive theory of development that emphasizes a child's ability to represent the world with words, images, and drawings? A) concrete operational B) zone of proximal development C) sensorimotor D) preoperational

D) preoperational

Both Vygotsky and Piaget suggested that: A) education plays a central role in helping children learn the tools of the culture. B) language plays a minimal role in cognitive development. C) knowledge is socially constructed. D) teachers should be facilitators and guides rather than directors.

D) teachers should be facilitators and guides rather than directors.

According to Piaget- children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty with:

Deductive logic

strategies

Deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information.

Daniel Berlyne

Described play as satisfying the child's curiosity and desire for information about something new

Erik Erikson

Described the characteristic crisis of early childhood as one of initiative versus guilt

moral development

Development that involves thoughts, feelings, and actions regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.

What is moral development?

Development that involves thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.

Should parents stay together for the sake of the children?

Divorce can be advantageous if the stresses and disruptions in family relationships associated with an unhappy, conflictual marriage that erode the well being of children are reduced by the move to a divorced, single parent family.

How does one "do gender" in society?

Doing gender means that we passively obey, and also break, gender rules.

Mutual synchrony (family)

Each person's behavior depends on the partner's previous behavior (e.g., mutual gazing or eye contact).

social roles theory

Eagly's theory that psychological differences are caused by the contrasting social roles of men and women

Read and study section Developmental Changes in Gender Stereotyping

Earlier we described how young children stereotype occupations as being "masculine" or "feminine." When do children begin to engage in gender stereotyping? In one study, gender stereotyping by children was present even in 2-year-olds, but increased considerably by 4 years of age (Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen, 2004). Gender stereotyping continues to change during middle and late childhood and adolescence (Martin & Ruble, 2010). A study of 3- to 10-year-old U.S. children revealed that girls and older children used a higher percentage of gender stereotypes (Miller & others, 2009). In this study, appearance stereotypes were more prevalent on the part of girls, whereas activity (sports, for example) and trait (aggressive, for example) stereotyping was more commonly engaged in by boys. During middle and late childhood, children expanded the range and extent of their gender stereotyping in areas such as occupations, sports, and school tasks. In early adolescence, gender stereotyping might increase again, a topic we will address shortly. By late adolescence, gender attitudes become more flexible.

David Elkind

Early childhood education should be part of public education on its own terms

cognitive moral education

Education based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops; Kohlberg's theory has been the basis for many of the cognitive moral education approaches.

developmentally appropriate practice

Education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children ( age-appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child( individual-appropriateness)

Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)

Education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age appropriateness) as well as the uniqueness of each child (individually appropriateness). Such practice contrasts with developmentally inappropriate practice, which ignores the concrete, hands-on approach to learning. For example, direct teaching largely through abstract paper-and-pencil activities presented to large groups of young children is believed to be developmentally inappropriate.

child-centered kindergarten

Education that involves the whole child by considering the child's physical, cognitive, and social development.

child-centered kindergarten

Education that involves the whole child that child's physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development and addressing the child's needs, interests, and learning styles.

Montessori approach

Educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom in choosing activities.

Piaget believed that children in the preoperational stage have difficulty taking the perspective of another person. This is known as:

Egocentrism

Compare and contrast emotion-coaching vs. emotion-dismissing parents

Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to deal effectively with emotions. (interact with a less rejecting way, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant. Emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions. (linked to poor children's emotional regulation)

How do emotion-coaching parents help young children regulate their emotions?

Emotion-coaching parents view their childrens emotions, view their childrens negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.

How do emotion-dismissing parents view their role?

Emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.

__________ is almost always present when other forms are identified.

Emotional abuse

Gender in Context

Emotional differences between females and males often show up in contexts that highlight social roles and relationships. The importance of considering gender in context is nowhere more apparent than when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world

primary emotions

Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust

self-conscious emotions

Emotions that require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me"; examples include jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment

Describe empathy and what is required to feel empathy. Describe global empathy. Discuss how prosocial behaviors reflect a moral character?

Empathy: reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar the he other's feelings. Put oneself in another's place emotionally.. -perspective taking abilities (cognitive component) Global empathy: an infant's empathic response in which clear boundaries between the feelings and needs of the self and those of the other have not yet been established. (is observed in some infants, does not characterize infants behavior in general). Service learning encourages positive moral behavior. This behavior is not just moral behavior but behavior that is intended to help other people, and psychologists call is prosocial behavior. Caring about the welfare and rights of others, feeling concern and empathy for them, and acting in a way that benefits others are all components of prosocial behavior. Altruism: unselfish interest and voluntary effort in helping another person.

For Info-processing approach to Cog. Dev.; What type of domain general cognitive abilities exist?

Encoding & combining pieces of info and people may use these abilities dif in dif cognitive domains.

socioemotional benefits of play

Enjoyment, Relaxation, Self-expression, Cooperation, Sharing, Turn-taking, Anxiety reduction, Self-confidence.

11-13; 14-16; 17-19

Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about _____ years of age. Exploring romantic relationships at approximately _____ years of age. Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about _____ years of age.

Who said the characteristic crisis of early childhood is one of initiative verus guilt?

Erik Erikson

What is Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood?

Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is initiative versus guilt. By now, children have become convinced that they are persons of their own; during early childhood, they begin to discover what kind of person they will become

Piaget said

Experience enables children to construct schemes

spirituality

Experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society

Which of the following is NOT a recommended guideline for communicating with children about divorce?

Explain what part of the separation was the child's fault

emotion

Feeling, or affect, that occurs when people are engaged in an interaction that is important to them, especially one that influences their well-being

prosocial behavior gender

Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic than males Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior, with a smaller difference in sharing.

sustained attention

Focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment.

social conventional reasoning

Focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus, as opposed to moral reasoning that stresses ethical issues.

Social conventional reasoning

Focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behavior and maintain the social system. The rules themselves are arbitrary, such as: Raising your hand in class before speaking, Using one staircase at school to go up and the other to go down, Not cutting in front of someone standing in line to buy movie tickets, Stopping at a stop sign when driving.

The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during the:

Formal Operational Stage

The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during the

Formal operational stage

How do Freud and Piaget understand the function of play?

Frued- play helps children master anxieties and conflicts because tensions are relieved in play. play permits children to work off excess physical energy and to release pent up tensions. Piaget- play is a childs work. play advances childrens cognitive development. At the same time, he said that children's cognitive development constrains the way they play. play permits children to practice their competencies and acquired skills in a relaxed, pleasurable way.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Gender constancy develops at around 6 to 7 years of age in concert with conservation

emotion regulation gender

Gender differences occur in some aspects of emotion: Females express emotion more than do males, are better than males at decoding emotion, smile more, cry more, and are happier. Males usually show less self-regulation than females, and this low self-control can translate into behavioral problems. Males report experiencing and expressing more anger than do females. A recent meta-analysis found that overall gender differences in children's emotional expression were small, with girls showing more positive emotion (sympathy, for example) and more internalized emotions (sadness and anxiety, for example) than boys. An important skill is to be able to regulate and control one's emotions and behavior Boys usually show less emotional self-regulation than girls.This low self-control can translate into behavior problems.

________ involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female.

Gender identity

What is meant by gender identity, gender role and gender typing?

Gender identity- the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old. Gender role- a set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should thing, act and feel. Gender typing- Acquisitions of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

What does it mean to say that gender is a social construct?

Gender is understood through shared interpretations and meaning. The terms "masculine" and "feminine" are easily understood and shared by members of a society.

Which of the following best characterizes gender policing?

Gender policing is something we sometimes do to ourselves and our best friends with the best of intentions.

__________ is a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel.

Gender role

__________ are sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel.

Gender roles

What is one reason why individuals break gender rules?

Gender rules can be viewed as personally undesirable or socially wrong.

Define the following Terms: Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Roles, Gender-typing

Gender: refers to the characteristics of people as males and females. Gender identity: involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female. Gender roles: sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act and feel. Gender-Typing: refers to acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Explain gender stereotypes

General impressions and beliefs about females and males. (ex. Men are powerful; women are weak. Men make good physicians; women make good nurses. Men are good at numbers; women are good with words)

to reduce bullying

Get older peers to serve as monitors for bullying and intervene when they see it taking place. Develop school-wide rules and sanctions against bullying and post them throughout the school. Form friendship groups for adolescents who are regularly bullied by peers. Identify bullies and victims early and use social skills training to improve their behavior. Encourage parents to contact the school's psychologist, counselor, or social worker and ask for help with concerns involving bullying or victimization. Incorporate the message of the anti-bullying program into places of worship, schools, and other community activity areas where adolescents are involved. Encourage parents to reinforce their adolescent's positive behaviors and model appropriate interpersonal interactions.

Androgenized Females

Girls prenatally exposed to excess androgens.

Describe the areas where men's roles can cause considerable strain.

Health Male-female relationships. Male-male relationships.

values clarification

Helping people clarify their sense of their purpose in life and what is worth working for. Students are encouraged to define their own values and understand others' values.

Values Clarification

Helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. Encourages students to define their own values and understand the values of others (Williams & others, 2003). Advocates of _____ _____ say it is value-free. Critics argue that its content offends community standards and that the _____ _____ exercises fail to stress right behavior.

__ is Piaget's first stage of moral development in which rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world.

Heteronomous morality

_________ is Piaget's first stage of moral development, in which rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world.

Heteronomous morality

__________ is Piaget's first stage of moral development in which rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world

Heteronomous morality

Describe 2 stages in the development of moral conscience identified by Piaget.

Heteronomous morality- the first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. Autonomous morality- Displayed by older children (10 years of age or older) The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that in judging an action one should consider the actors intentions as well as the consequences/

estrogens

Hormones, the most important of which is estradiol, that influence the development of female physical sex characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle -Primarily influence the development of female physical sex characteristics -Help regulate the menstrual cycle. -Are a general class of hormones. -In females, these are produced mainly by the ovaries.

androgens

Hormones, the most important of which is testosterone, that promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics -Primarily promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics. -Are produced by the adrenal glands in males and females, and by the testes in males. -One important ____ is testosterone.

Why do most of us do gender, at least a little, in our everyday interactions?

If you don't do gender, you become culturally unintelligible and people will not know how to interact with you.

__________ is the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately

Immanent justice

702,000; 81

In 2009, approximately _____ U.S. children were found to be victims of child abuse . _____ percent of these children were abused by a parent or parents.

Moral Character

In James Rest's (1995) view _____ _____ involves having strong convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles. _____ _____ presupposes that the person has set moral goals and that achieving those goals involves the commitment to act in accord with those goals. Lawrence Walker has studied _____ ______ by examining people's conceptions of moral excellence. Among the moral virtues people emphasize are "honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness, as well as those of care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness. Other salient traits revolve around virtues of dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness"

conservation

In Piaget's theory, awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.

operations

In Piaget's theory, internalized sets of actions that allow children to do mentally what they formerly did physically.

operations

In Piaget's theory, reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they formerly did physically.

Scaffolding

In regard to cognitive development, Vygotsky used this term to describe the changing level of support over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.

In the United States, Asian American men became stereotyped as less masculine than white men as a result of what historical fact?

In the 1800s, Chinese men lived together without wives and performed domestic tasks for themselves.

Emotional Abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury)

Includes acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Sexual Abuse

Includes fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials

Regarding brain development in early childhood, which of the following statements is true? (Q)

Increase in brain development involve increases in dendritic connections as well as myelination.

Which of the following statements regarding brain development in early childhood is TRUE?

Increases in brain development are due to increases in myelination and in the number and size of nerve endings.

Regarding brain development in early childhood, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Increases in brain development are due to increases in the number and size of nerve endings and to myelination.

Moral Identity

Individuals have a _____ _____ when moral notions and commitments are central to their life. In this view, behaving in a manner that violates this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk

__________ is a style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.

Indulgent parenting

What are some consequences of adolescent pregnancy?

Infants born to adolescent mothers are more likely to have low birth weights—a prominent factor in infant mortality—as well as neurological problems and childhood illness (Malamitsi-Puchner & Boutsikou, 2006). A recent study assessed the reading and math achievement trajectories of children born to adolescent and non-adolescent mothers with different levels of education (Tang & others, 2015). In this study, higher levels of maternal education were linked to growth in achievement through the eighth grade. Nonetheless, the achievement of children born to adolescent mothers never reached the levels of children born to adult mothers. Adolescent mothers also are more likely to be depressed and drop out of school than their peers (Siegel & Brandon, 2014). Although many adolescent mothers resume their education later in life, they generally do not catch up economically with women who bear children in their twenties. A longitudinal study revealed that these characteristics of adolescent mothers were related to their likelihood of having problems as emerging adults: a history of school problems, delinquency, hard substance use, and mental health problems (Oxford & others, 2006). Also, a recent study of African American urban youth found that at 32 years of age women who had been teenage mothers were more likely to be unemployed, live in poverty, depend on welfare, and not have completed college than women who became mothers during adulthood (Assini-Meytin & Green, 2015). In this study, at 32 years of age, men who had been teenage fathers were less likely to be employed than were men who had fathered children during adulthood. Researchers have found that adolescent mothers interact less effectively with their infants than do adult mothers. A recent study revealed that adolescent mothers spent more time in negative interactions and less time in play and positive interactions with their infants than did adult mothers (Riva Crugnola & others, 2014). A recent intervention, "My Baby and Me," that involved frequent (55), intensive home visitation coaching sessions with adolescent mothers across three years resulted in improved maternal behavior and child outcomes

Lev Vygotsky

Interested in the symbolic and make-believe aspects of play

_____________ reminds us that gender is not an isolated social fact, but in fact affects, and is affected by, other facets of our identity.

Intersectionality

developmental cascade model

Involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes

Gratitude

Is a feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful

Forgiveness

Is an aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when the injured releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation.

Moral performance or behavior

Is determined by motivation and the rewards and incentives to act in a moral way.

If the gender binary doesn't describe a large number of the people we know, where does the idea come from?

It comes from the idea that most people have that there needs to be a system that states there are two types of people- male-bodied who are masculine and female-bodied who are feminine. it is a way for people to categorize and have a better understanding of the world. People also use the gender binary to put people into boxes and label.

Self-regulation included what kinds of behavior?

It includes the abilities to inhibit first responses, to resist interference from irrelevant stimulation, and to persist on relevant tasks even when we don't enjoy them

40

It is estimated that __% of children born to married parents in the United States will experience their parents' divorce

What is one reason why some lesbians and gay men choose not to conform to gender rules?

It makes same-sex sexual orientation invisible

Conservation (of number)

Janes mother has two crackers- both of equal size. She breaks one into four pieces. Jane says she wants the one with the most and chooses the four pieces- even though the two amounts are equal. Jane's choice illustrates Piaget's concept of.

In ____________ study, young children were presented with cards such as this one with a "wug" on it. Then the children were asked to supply the missing word; in supplying the missing word, they also had to say it correctly. "Wugs" is the correct response here. This is a knowledge of ___________________ test.

Jean Berko's; morphological rules

Who felt that play is important to a child's development?

Jean Piaget

Social Cognitive Domain Theory

Judith Smetana has proposed this theory: -States that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including: Moral, social conventional, and personal domains. In _____ _____ _____, children's and adolescents' moral, social conventional, and personal knowledge and reasoning emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience.

status offenses

Juvenile offenses, performed by youth under a specified age, that are not as serious as index offenses. These offenses may include acts such as underage drinking, truancy, and sexual promiscuity.

List and briefly describe Kohlberg's six stages of moral development. Discuss three criticisms of Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

Kohlbergs: Three levels with two substages each. Preconventional: external rewards and punishments 1 Heteronomous Morality: Moral thinking is tied to punishment 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange: individuals reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same. Conventional: Individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government. 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity: individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgements. 4. Social Systems Morality: moral judgements are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty. Postconventional: the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. 5. Contract or utility and individual rights: individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergrid or transcend the law. 6. Universal Ethical principles: the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. Moral thought and moral behavior: K puts too much emphasis on moral thought and not behavior. Moral reasons can be a shelter for immoral behavior. Culture and moral reasoning: Kholberg says his stages of moral reasoning are universal, some say they are culturally biased. kholbergs scoring system does not recognize higher-level moral reasoning of certain cultures, and thus that moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Knholberg envisioned. Gender and Care Perspective Gillian argued that Kohlberg's theory reflects a gender bias. Justice Perspective Theory is based on the male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others and sees the individual as standing alone and independently making moral decisions. Justice is placed at the heart of morality (male responses used for theory development) Gillian- Care Perspective a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.

Lev Vygotsky

Language and thought, initially independent, eventually merge

Who felt that parents should encourage imaginary play because it advances the child's cognitive development?

Lev Vygotsky

Jean Piaget

Maintained that play is important to a child's cognitive development

Decrease Cheating

Making sure students are aware of what constitutes cheating What the consequences will be if they cheat Closely monitoring student's behavior while they are taking tests Emphasize the importance of being a moral, responsible individual who engages in academic integrity

Gender Similarities Hypothesis

Males and Females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Men and Women are more alike than they are different.

Read and study section Sexual Risk Factors in Aolescence.

Many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence. Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors such as drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems (Chan & others, 2015; Coley & others, 2013; Skinner & others, 2015). A recent study confirmed that early engagement in sexual intercourse (prior to 14 years of age) is associated with high-risk sexual factors (forced sex, using drugs/alcohol at last sex, not using a condom at last sex, having multiple partners in last month, and becoming pregnant or causing a pregnancy), as well as experiencing dating violence (Kaplan & others, 2013). Also, a recent study of more than 3,000 Swedish adolescents revealed that sexual intercourse before age 14 was linked to risky behaviors such as an increased number of sexual partners, experience of oral and anal sex, negative health behaviors (smoking, drug and alcohol use), and antisocial behavior (being violent, stealing, running away from home) at 18 years of age (Kastbom & others, 2015). In a longitudinal study of 10- to 25-year-olds, early sexual intercourse and affiliation with deviant peers were linked to substance-use disorders in emerging adulthood (Cornelius & others, 2007). A recent study of adolescents in five countries, including the United States, found that substance use was related to early sexual intercourse (Madkour & others, 2010). Another recent study revealed that alcohol use, early menarche, and poor parent-child communication were linked to early sexually intimate behavior in girls (Hipwell & others, 2011). In addition to having sex in early adolescence, other risk factors for sexual problems in adolescence include contextual factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and poverty, family/parenting and peer factors, and school-related influences (Van Ryzin & others, 2011). The percentage of sexually active young adolescents is higher in low-income areas of inner cities (Silver & Bauman, 2006).

Read and study section Attitudes and Behavior of Lesbians and Gays.

Many gender differences that appear in heterosexual relationships occur in same-sex relationships (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2015; Savin-Williams & Cohen, 2015). For example, lesbians have fewer sexual partners than gays, and lesbians have less permissive attitudes about casual sex outside a primary relationship than gays (Fingerhut & Peplau, 2013). According to psychologist Laura Brown (1989), lesbians and gays experience life as a minority in a dominant, majority culture. For lesbians and gays, developing a bicultural identity creates new ways of defining themselves. Brown believes that lesbians and gays adapt best when they don't define themselves in polarities, such as trying to live in an encapsulated lesbian or gay world completely divorced from the majority culture or completely accepting the dictates and biases of the majority culture. A special concern is discrimination and prejudice toward sexual minority individuals (Saewyc, 2011). A recent study of 15-year-olds found that sexual minority status was linked to depression mainly via peer harassment (Martin-Storey & Crosnoe, 2012).

Read and study section Developing a Sexual Identity on pages 392-393

Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense of sexual identity is a multifaceted and lengthy process (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2015; Savin-Williams, 2015). It involves learning to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual arousal and attraction), developing new forms of intimacy, and learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior to avoid undesirable consequences. An adolescent's sexual identity is influenced by social norms related to sex—the extent to which adolescents perceive that their peers are having sex, using protection, and so on. These social norms have important influences on adolescents' sexual behavior. For example, one study revealed that when adolescents perceived that their peers were sexually permissive, the adolescents had a higher rate of initiating sexual intercourse and engaging in risky sexual practices (Potard, Courtois, & Rusch, 2008). An individual's sexual identity also can be linked to other developing identities, which are discussed in the chapter on "The Self, Identity, and Personality."It is commonly believed that most gay and lesbian individuals quietly struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood, do not engage in heterosexual dating, and gradually recognize that they are gay or lesbian in mid to late adolescence (Savin-Williams, 2015). Many youth do follow this developmental pathway, but others do not. For example, many youth have no recollection of same-sex attractions and experience a more abrupt sense of their same-sex attraction in late adolescence. Researchers also have found that the majority of adolescents with same-sex attractions also experience some degree of other-sex attractions (Garofalo & others, 1999). Even though some adolescents who are attracted to same-sex individuals fall in love with these individuals, others claim that their same-sex attractions are purely physical (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2015). In sum, gay and lesbian youth have diverse patterns of initial attraction, often have bisexual attractions, and may feel physical or emotional attraction to same-sex individuals but do not always fall in love with them (Savin-Williams, 2015).

Merit

Means giving extra rewards for hard work, skillful performance, or other laudatory behavior

Benevolence

Means giving special consideration to individuals in a disadvantaged condition

Equality

Means that everyone is treated the same

What do we learn from comparing the degree of sexual dimorphism among humans to that of other species?

Men and women are far more similar than they are different.

Why are there a lot more Super Moms than Super Dads and fewer female Breadwinners than male Breadwinners?

Men are less likely to be policed than women if they focus on their work.

What is one example of how gendered rules apply differently to men and women as they age?

Men have two options for looking attractive: young boy or adult man, while women have only one option: young girl.

What is menopause? Perimenopause?

Menopause is the time in middle age, usually in the late forties or early fifties, when woman's menstraul periods have ceased for one year. Perimenopause is the transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all, which often takes up to 10 years.

Pelvic field defect

Missing penis in boys; usually have been castrated after being born and raised as females; most XY children insisted they were boys

Which of the following is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities? (Q)

Montessori

What is the difference between a true moral rule and a social-conventional rule?

Morale rule- is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are "good" (or right) and those that are "bad" (or wrong) Social conventional rule- is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalize or enforce the convention (for example, laws that define on which side of the road vehicles must be driven). In a social context, a convention may retain the character of an "unwritten law" of custom (for example, the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands).

How many adolescents acquire an STI every year?

More than 3 million

Regarding the changing family, which of these statements is TRUE?

Most researchers agree that children from divorced families show adjustment problems to a greater extent than do children from nondivorced families.

What is the difference between Mother's and Father's socialization strategies?

Mothers' socialization strategies- in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy. Fathers' socialization strategies- Fathers show more attention to their sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between nature (human biology), nurture (socialization), and gender differences?

Nature and nurture are inseparable: They work together to produce observed sex differences.

Michelle believes that humans have always held very different and distinct gender roles. Does human history support her view?

No, because for much of humanity's existence, humans lived together in kin groups, in which men and women shared collective responsibilities and substituted for one another.

Andrew is genetically male, and he believes that his Y chromosome is the source of a large number of sex differences between his genetically female sister and himself. Is he correct?

No, because the Y chromosome only has a minimal impact on genetically male individuals. Research suggests it simply gives XY fetuses functioning testes and facilitates male fertility.

Childhood Gender Non-Conformity (CGN)

Not adhering to the typical gender-role norms expected for members of of one's assigned gender group. Homosexual adults and females are more likely to display CGN.

A woman who does not do femininity finds her gender identity constantly questioned by suspicious clerks. Why is that?

Not doing gender in ways that make sense to others is a communicative crisis for these clerks; they don't know what to think or do in response.

A key aspect of the child-centered kindergarten

Nurturing

separation protest

Occurs when infants experience a fear of being separated from a caregiver, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves

REad and study section Socioemotional Similarities and Differences.

One of the most consistent gender differences identified is that boys are more physically aggressive than girls (Coyne, Nelson, & Underwood, 2011). The difference occurs in all cultures and appears very early in children's development. The difference in physical aggression is especially pronounced when children are provoked. Although boys are consistently more physically aggressive than girls, might girls show as much or more verbal aggression, such as yelling, than boys? When verbal aggression is examined, gender differences typically disappear or aggression is even more pronounced in girls

What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) demonstrate?

Our brains often associate feminine and masculine items with one another; it takes longer to identify a name as male if it was preceded by a feminized word rather than a masculinized word.

Gender Stereotypes

Overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of males and females. EX: women are bad drivers and men won't ask for directions.

Diana Baumrind

Parenting style is related to children's socioemotional development

parental influences on gender

Parents, by action and example, influence their children's and adolescents' gender development As soon as the label, girl or boy, is assigned, virtually everyone, from parents to siblings to strangers, begins treating the in gender-specific ways. Mothers and fathers often interact differently with sons and daughters, and these gendered interactions that begin in infancy usually continue through childhood and adolescence.

Read and study section Parents on p. 372

Parents, by action and example, influence their children's and adolescents' gender development. Parents often use rewards and punishments to teach their daughters to be feminine ("Karen, you are being a good girl when you play gently with your doll") and their sons to be masculine ("Keith, a boy as big as you is not supposed to cry"). Mothers and fathers often interact differently with their children and adolescents (Leaper, 2015). Mothers are more involved with their children and adolescents than are fathers, although fathers increase the time they spend in parenting when they have sons, and they are less likely to become divorced when they have sons (Galambos, Berenbaum, & McHale, 2009). Mothers' interactions with their children and adolescents often center on caregiving and teaching activities, whereas fathers' interactions often involve leisure activities (Galambos & others, 2009). Parents frequently interact differently with sons and daughters, and these gendered interactions that begin in infancy usually continue through childhood and adolescence (Leaper, 2015). In reviewing research on this topic, Phyllis Bronstein (2006) reached these conclusions: Mothers' socialization strategies. In many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy. Fathers' socialization strategies. Fathers pay more attention to sons than to daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development. Thus, according to Bronstein (2006, pp. 269-270), "Despite an increased awareness in the United States and other Western cultures of the detrimental effects of gender stereotyping, many parents continue to foster behaviors and perceptions that are consonant with traditional gender role norms."

Peers are important in normal social development, for all of the following statements, EXCEPT:

Peers do not provide much feedback about a child's abilities, causing less shame.

Which of the following realization is more likely to be part of a 5-year-old's theory of mind than a 2-year0old's? (Q)

People can believe about the world that are not true.

Which of the following realizations is more likely to be part of a five-year-old's theory of mind than a two-year-olds's?

People can believe things about the world that are not true.

List Roy Baumeister's four main needs for meaning. Discuss the four different ways adults can develop generativity

People seek meaning in life by making sense of the four needs as described by Baumeister: 1) Need for purpose (goals and fulfillments), 2) need for values (right or wrong, justify certain courses of action0, 3) need for a sense of efficacy (belief that one can make a difference), and 4) need for self-worth (want to be good, worthy people, gain self-esteem from group, or find one is good at something).

moral examplars

People who have lived extraordinary lives, having developed their personality, identity, character, and virtue to a level that reflects moral excellence and commitment.

Child neglect can be:

Physical (abandonment)EducationalEmotional

operations

Piage'ts theory, internalized reversible sets of actions that allow children to do mentally what they formerly did physically

Humans construct their own knowledge through experimentation.

Piaget

Schemes can be altered thru assimilation- accomodation- and equilibrium.

Piaget

Some developmental psychologists do not believe that _______ was entirely correct in his estimate of when children's conservation skills emerge.

Piaget

Teachers should base instructional delivery and assessments on schemes the students already know.

Piaget

disequilibrium

Piaget uses this in his cognitive developmental theory; "to be thrown off"; be curious enough to figure it out// learning.

Sensorimoter

Piaget's 1st stage of cognitive development; age birth-2; development of sensory and motor.

pre-operational stage

Piaget's 2nd stage of cognitive development; 2-7; child begins to develop mental representations; egocentric

concrete operational

Piaget's 3rd stage of cognitive development; 7-12; logical thought-->concrete objects(ex. area of triangle); visual learners; reversibility

Formal operations

Piaget's 4th stage of cognitive development; 12-adulthood; abstract thinking

immanent justice

Piaget's concept of the childhood expectation that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.

egocentrism

Piaget's concept that describes the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective.

The beaker test is a well-known Piagetian test to determine whether a child can think operationally—that is, can mentally reverse actions and show conservation of the substance.

Piaget's conservation task

symbolic function substage

Piaget's first substage of preoperational thought, in which a child can mentally represent an object that is not present

symbolic function substage

Piaget's first substage of preoperational thought, in which a child can mentally represent an object that is not present.

symbolic function substage

Piaget's first substage of preoperational thought, in which the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present (occurs roughly between 2 and 4 years of age).

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage, lasting from 2 to 7 years of age, during which time children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. In this stage, they also form stable concepts and begin to reason. At the same time, their cognitive world is dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs.

intuitive thought substage

Piaget's second substage of preoperational thought, in which children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions (occurs between about 4 and 7 years of age).

intuitive thought substage

Piaget's second substage of preoperational thought; a child begins to reason primitively

intuitive thought substage

Piaget's second substage of preoperational thought—a child begins to reason primitively.

horizontal decalage

Piaget's term for the temporary difference in performance that a child shows between various cognitive domains or activities, w/in a given stage.

conservation

Piaget's theory, awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties

Our coverage of cognitive devel- opment in early childhood focuses on three theories:

Piaget's, Vygotsky's, and information processing

________ theory for teaching is that children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge. The main implication of __________ theory is that students need many opportunities to learn with a teacher and more-skilled peers. In both theories, teachers serve as facilitators and guides rather than as directors and molders

Piaget's; Vygotsky's

preoperational stage

Piagetian stage in which 2 to 7 year old children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings, form stable concepts, and are dominated by egocentrism, and magical beliefs.

constructive play

Plat that combines sensorimotor and repetitive activities with symbolic representation of ideas.

Pretense/ symbolic play

Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol.

pretense/symbolic play

Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol.

Which of the following statements regarding play is FALSE?

Play is a pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake

Regarding play, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Play is an important context for cognitive development

Regarding play, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Play is an important context for cognitive development.

Daniel Berlyne

Play satisfies an exploratory drive in each of us

constructive play

Play that combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation of ideas. _____ _____ occurs when children engage in self-regulated creation or construction of a product or a solution.

social play

Play that involves interactions with peers

practice play

Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

practice play

Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports. _____ play can be engaged in throughout life.

social play

Play that involves social interaction with peers.

pretense/symbolic play

Play that occurs when a child transforms the physical environment into a symbol

_________ play involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned.

Practice

__________ involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

Practice play

Sexual Orientation

Preference for sexual partners of the same sex or of the opposite sex, or both. 5 classifications of sexual identity: heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, homosexual, mostly homosexual, bisexual.

Jean Piaget

Preoperational thought moves from primitive to sophisticated use of symbols

why students cheat

Pressure for getting high grades Compressed schedules Poor teaching In terms of poor teaching, "students are more likely to cheat when they perceive their teacher to be incompetent, unfair, and uncaring" (Stephens, 2008, p.140). Lack of interest

myelination

Process by which the nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells, which increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

Stagelike development

Process's are prerequisites of the next development for each age. "stairs-like"

Which of the following is a compensatory education program designed to provide children from low-income families with the opportunity to acquire important school success skills? (Q)

Project Head Start

__________ is a compensatory education program designed to provide children from low-income families with the opportunity to acquire important school success skills.

Project Head Start

Vygotsky's approach to Cognitive Development

Proposed Cog.Dev. happens as children internalize information from their environment; believes development can occur @ dif. rates in dif cognitive domains depending on the info avail and encouragement for the child.

The difference between psychoanalytic and social cognitive theories of gender.

Psychoanalytical theory of gender: Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite sex parent, by approximately 5 or 6 years of age renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same sex parent's characteristics. Social cognitive theory of gender: Emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through the observation and imitation of gender behavior and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-innaporopriate behavior.

Which of the following is NOT a reason why corporal punishment should be avoided?

Punishment demonstrates controlled behavior.

Which of the following is NOT a reason why corporal punishment should be avoided?

Punishment shows controlled behavior

Which of the following is NOT among the reasons corporal punishment should be avoided? (Q)

Punishment shows controlled behavior.

Read and study sections Rape and Sexual Harassment.

Rape is forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent. Legal definitions of rape differ from state to state. For example, in some states, husbands are not prohibited from forcing their wives to have intercourse, although this has been challenged in several of those states. Because victims may be reluctant to suffer the consequences of reporting rape, the actual number of incidents is not easily determined (Krebs, 2014; Walfield, 2015). A recent meta-analysis found that 60 percent of rape victims do not acknowledge that they have been raped, with the percentage of unacknowledged rape especially high in college students (Wilson & Miller, 2015). Rape occurs most often in large cities, where it has been reported that 8 of every 10,000 women 12 years and older are raped each year. Nearly 200,000 rapes are reported each year in the United States. Although most victims of rape are women, rape of men does occur (McLean, Balding, & White, 2005). A recent study of college women who had been raped revealed that only 11.5 percent of them reported the rape to authorities and of those in which the rape involved drugs and/or alcohol, only 2.7 percent of the rapes were reported (Wolitzky-Taylor & others, 2011). Men in prisons are especially vulnerable to rape, usually by heterosexual males who use rape as a means of establishing their dominance and power (Barth, 2012) Sexual harassment is a manifestation of power by one person over another. It takes many forms—from inappropriate sexual remarks and physical contact (patting, brushing against one's body) to blatant propositions and sexual assaults. Millions of women experience sexual harassment each year in work and educational settings (Cantalupo, 2014). Sexual harassment of men by women also occurs but to a far lesser extent than sexual harassment of women by men. In a survey of 2,000 college women, 62 percent reported having experienced sexual harassment while attending college (American Association of University Women, 2006). Most of the college women said that the sexual harassment involved noncontact forms such as crude jokes, remarks, and gestures. However, almost one-third said that the sexual harassment was physical in nature.

Explain rapport talk and report talk.

Rapport talk is the language of conversation. Report talk is talk that is designed to give information (public speaking)

empathy

Reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other's feelings

juvenile delinquency

Refers to a great variety of behaviors by an adolescent, ranging from unacceptable behavior to breaking the law

theory of mind

Refers to the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others.

Intrapersonal dimension of moral development

Regulates a person's activities when she or he is not engaged in social interaction.

Interpersonal dimension of moral development

Regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict

Which of the following statements about birth order is FALSE

Research shows that birth order is a strong predictor of behavior

Which of the following statements about birth order is TRUE?

Research shows that birth order shows limited ability to predict behavior.

Maria Montessori

Revolutionized teaching by allowing children freedom and spontaneity

_______showed that when children's attention to relevant aspects of the conservation task is improved, they are more likely to conserve.

Rochel Gelman

Describe two types of love, and their relationship to each other. Describe Sternberg's triarchic theory of love. Discuss why is it possible for a couple to remain happy together after their romantic type of love fades?

Romantic Love: Also called passionate love, or eros, this type of love has strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it predominates in the early part of a love relationship. Affectionate Love: Also called companionate love, this type of love occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person. Sternbergs's Triangular theory of love: Sternberg's theory that love includes three components or dimensions- passion, intimacy, and commitment. Passion: Physical and sexual attraction to each other Intimacy: the emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship. Commitment: our cognitive appraisal of the relationship and our talent to maintain the relationship even in the face of problems. It is possible for a couple to remain happy together after their romantic type of love fades because their love transcended to a higher love that is more intimate and Committed. It was a very passionate and emotional love that became more affectionate, deep and caring.

Boys, in a same sex group, are more likely to engage in what kind of play?

Rough and tumble play, competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and seeking dominance.

Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of a more experienced individual who serves as a guide to provide_______ for the learner.

Scaffolding

__________ is Vygotsky's term suggesting that, over the course of a teaching session, the teacher should change the level of support given to fit the student's performance level.

Scaffolding

__________ is Vygotsky's term suggesting that, over the course of a teaching session, the teacher should change the level of support given, to fit the student's performance level.

Scaffolding

Info-processing approach to Cognitive Development

See cog. Dev. as a combination of learning and the child's level of maturation

intimacy in friendship

Self-disclosure or the sharing of private thoughts

Vygotsky's implications of teaching

Serve as a role model for students, build rather than hinder language; make sure you neither expect too much or too little.

How have ideas about the categories of male and female changed over time?

Seventeenth-century European anatomists believed that females had the same bodies as males, only inverted; however, today we know that female and male bodies are neither the same nor absolute opposites.

Double Standard

Sexual behavior that is viewed as inappropriate for females is viewed as appropriate for males. There is one standard for males and another for females.

Describe adolescents' use of contraceptives

Sexual intercourse is a normal activity necessary for procreation, but if appropriate safeguards are not taken it brings the risk of unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (Carroll, 2013). Both of these risks can be reduced significantly by using certain forms of contraception, particularly condoms (Breheny & Stephens, 2004). Many sexually active adolescents still do not use contraceptives, or they use them inconsistently (Amialchuk & Gerhardinger, 2015; Finer & Philbin, 2013; Vasilenko, Kreager, & Lefkowitz, 2015). In 2013, 34 percent of sexually active adolescents had not used a condom the last time they had sexual intercourse (Kann & others, 2014). In the recent national U.S. survey (2014), among sexually active adolescents, ninth-graders (63 percent), tenth-graders (62 percent), and eleventh graders (62 percent) reported that they had used a condom during their last sexual intercourse more than did twelfth-graders (53 percent) (Kann & others, 2014). Researchers have found that U.S. adolescents are less likely to use condoms than their European counterparts (Jorgensen & others, 2015). Younger adolescents are less likely than older adolescents to take contraceptive precautions. A recent study also found that 50 percent of U.S. 15- to 19-year-old girls with unintended pregnancies ending in live births were not using any birth control method when they got pregnant, and 34 percent believed they could not get pregnant at the time (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Also, a recent study found that a greater age difference between sexual partners in adolescence is associated with less consistent condom use

Explain sexual scripts, traditional religious script, and romantic script. Also describe the sex differences in these.

Sexual scripts are stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually. Traditional religious script is the view that sex is acceptable only within marriage; extramarital sex is taboo, especially for women; and sex means reproduction and sometimes, affection. Romantic scrip is a perspective in which sex is synonymous with love; belief that if we develop a relationship with someone and fall in love, it is acceptable to have sex with the person whether we are married or not.

2-4; 10; 5-7

Siblings in the presence of each other when they are _____ years of age, on average, have a conflict once every __ minutes and then the conflicts go down somewhat from _____ years of age

Regarding information processing in early childhood, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Significant improvements occur in short-term memory.

Consider the skills for becoming emotionally competent and the ways to improve self esteem? Compare and Contrast these lists and discuss the top 3-4 skills you think are necessary for obtaining optimum emotional health.

Skills for becoming emotionally competent 1) Having awareness of one's emotional states 2) Detecting other's emotions 3) Using the vocabulary of emotion terms in socially and cultureally appropriate ways 4) Having empathetic and sympathetic sensitivity to others' emotional experiences 5) Recognizing that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions 6) Adaptively coping with negative emotions by using self-regulatory strategies that reduce the intensity or duration of such emotional states 7) Having awareness that the expression of emotions plays an inner role in relationships 8) Viewing oneself overall as feeling the way one wants to feel. Strategies for improving self-esteem 1) ID causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self 2) Provide emotional support and opportunities for social approval 3) take responsibility for one's own self-esteem 4) Achieve goals 5) Develop effective coping strategies

cliques

Small groups that range from 2 to about 12 individuals and average about 5 or 6 individuals. ______ can form because of friendship or because individuals engage in similar activities, and members usually are of the same sex and about the same age

social conventional reasoning

Social Conventional reasoning focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention. It is created to control behavioral irregularities and maintain a type of social system.

Social norms/rules

Social Norms are the rules for how people should act in a given group or society. Any behavior that is outside these norms is considered abnormal. For example, if you live in a society where it is common for people to wear plates in their lips, not wearing plates in your lips would be considered outside the social norm. Personality disorders as well as mental and psychological disorders are considered abnormal due to their variance from that which is socially acceptable from the social norms.

Which one of the following statements best describes the claims of the learning model of socialization?

Socialization is a lifelong process of learning and relearning gendered expectations and how to negotiate them.

According to the textbook, how do gender ideologies operate around the world?

Some societies view gender through a gender binary while others acknowledge three, four, or five genders.

Piaget's development: stage or continuous?

Stage

Lois Hoffmanc

Stated that maternal employment is part of modern life

Gender Schema Theory

States that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. Bit by bit, children pick up what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture, and develop gender schemas that shape how they perceive the world and what they remember. Children are motivated to act in ways that conform with these gender schemas. Thus, gender schemas fuel gender typing. In sum, cognitive factors contribute to the way children think and act as males and females, Through biological, social, and cognitive processes, children develop their gender attitudes and behaviors

Explain the gender schema theory

States that gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

Explain the gender-intesification hypothesis.

States that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles.

Social-Role Theory

Suggests that differences in the roles that women and men play in society do a lot to create and maintain gender stereotypes. EX: Men traditionally have more powerful job positions that require them to be dominant and forceful.

coparenting

Support parents provide for each other in jointly raising children

T or F: The ZPD captures the child's cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person

T

The extensive violence that takes place in American culture, including ________, is reflected in the occurrence of violence in the family

TV violence

report talk

Talk that conveys information; more characteristic of males than females

In which of the following countries do children watch the most television?

Television violence can induce aggression in children.

Regarding children and television, the following statement is TRUE:

Television violence can induce aggression in children.

Regarding children and television, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Television violence can induce aggression in children.

5

The National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health surveyed more than 12,000 adolescents and found that those who did not eat dinner with a parent _____ or more days a week had dramatically higher rates of smoking, drinking, marijuana use, getting into fights, and initiation of sexual activity

Crowds

The _____ is a larger group structure than a clique. Adolescents are usually members of a ______ based on reputation and may or may not spend much time together. Many _____ are defined by the activities adolescents engage in (such as "jocks," who are good at sports, "druggies," who take drugs)

crowds

The _____ is a larger group structure than a clique. Adolescents usually are members of a _____ based on reputation and may or may not spend much time together. Many _____ are defined by the activities in which adolescents engage

Gender Segregation

The act of children separating themselves into boys and girls peer groups and interacting far more often with their own sex. By age 6 1/2, they spend 11 times more time with members of their own sex. Particularly due to differences in play styles.

Reciprocal interactions (family)

The actions of the partners can be matched (e.g., one partner imitates the other).

moral identity

The aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their lives

Men's and women's marathon records have become both faster and closer together over time. This provides evidence for which of the following statements?

The athletic ability of female bodies has been shaped to a large extent by social context.

14-18; 13-15

The average age of the initial same-sex activity for females ranges from _____ years of age and for males from _____

animism

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.

reciprocal socialization

The bidirectional process by which children socialize parents just as parents socialize them

gender

The characteristics of people as males and females

What factors influence an individual child's vulnerability to suffering negative consequences as a result of living in a divorced family?

The child's adjustment prior to the divorce, as well as the child's personality and temperament, gender, and custody situation.

self-understanding

The child's cognitive representation of self, and the substance and content of the child's self-conceptions.

indulgent

The children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way. Children whose parents are_____ rarely learn respect for others and have difficulty controlling their behavior. These children might be: Domineering / Egocentric / nonncompliant / have difficulties in peer relations

What is meant by self-understanding in early childhood?

The childs cognitive represesntation of self, the substance and content of the child's self conceptions.

conservation

The concept that an object's or substance's basic properties stay the same even though its appearance has been altered.

A young child typically believes in immanent justice. What is it?

The concept that if a rule is broken punishment will be meted out immediately.

imminent justice

The concept that, if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.

religiousness

The degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers

Accommodation

The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together. You can't have one without the other

heteronomous morality

The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory occurring from 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, beyond the control of people.

Heteronomous morality

The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory that occurs from 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. There is a transitional period from 7 to 10 years of age Children show features of both the first and second stages of moral development.

heteronomous morality

The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.

centration

The focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.

Gender Consistency

The gender concept is complete around age 5-7 when children realize that their sex is also stable across situations. Children know that their sex does not change by dressing up as the opposite sex.

Sumi is raising twins. One twin is genetically male and the other twin is genetically female. How different are their brains expected to be?

The genetically male twin's brain is most likely larger than the genetically female twin's brain.

Explain goodness of fit parenting and identify three guidelines for adapting parenting techniques to different child temperaments.

The goodness of fit is the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with. Some positive strategies when parenting are: 1. Being sensitive to their needs; attention to and respect for individuality 2. Giving structure to the child's environment such as having routines and being consistent with disciplining. 3. Avoid applying negative labels to the child such as "the difficult child."

What hormone changes occur in middle-aged men?

The gradual decline in men's testosterone levels in middle age can reduce their sexual drive (Goel & others, 2009). Their erections are less full and less frequent, and men require more stimulation to achieve them. Researchers once attributed these changes to psychological factors, but increasingly they find that as many as 75 percent of the erectile dysfunctions in middle-aged men stem from physiological problems. Smoking, diabetes, hypertension, elevated cholesterol levels, and lack of exercise are responsible for many erectile problems in middle-aged men

Why are guys who dress up like women at Halloween unlikely to be victims of hate crimes?

The guys can use Halloween to account for their behavior.

egocentrism

The inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's (salient feature of the first substage of preoperational thought).

rapport talk

The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; more characteristic of females than of males

preconventional reasoning

The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory. At this level, morality is often focused on reward and punishment. The two stages in _____ _____ are punishment and obedience orientation (stage 1) and individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (stage 2).

goodness of fit

The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with

short-term memory

The memory component in which individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal.

Shakira understands the difference between believing and fantasizing and between intention and purpose. Which feature of the theory of mind does her understanding reflect?

The mind exists.

care perspective

The moral perspective of Carol Gilligan, in which people are assessed in terms of their connectedness with others and the quality of their interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.

Reciprocal socialization

The mutual influence that parents and children exert on each other goes beyond specific interactions in games such as peek-a-boo; it extends to the whole process of socialization Socialization between parents and children is not a one-way process. Parents do socialize children, but socialization in families is reciprocal Socialization that is bidirectional with children socializing parents as parents socialize children

Gender Roles

The patterns of behavior that females and males should adopt in a particular society. EX: Women take on roles of wife and mother.

hidden curriculum

The pervasive moral atmosphere that characterizes each school

Androgyny

The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person Gender experts argue that _____ individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts.

androgyny

The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person

Assilmulation

The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment- which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.

According to behaviorism, what explains the development of moral behavior?

The process of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior.

Operation

The process of working something out in your head. Young children in the sensorimotor and preoperational stages have to act- and try things out in the real world (like count on fingers instead of in their head);

Explain the psychoanalytic theory of gender and the social cognitive theory of gender

The psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Sigmund Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent. At 5 or 6 years of age, the child renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings. Subsequently, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics. However, developmentalists do not hold that gender development proceeds as Freud proposed. Children become gender-typed much earlier than 5 or 6 years of age, and they become masculine or feminine even when the same-sex parent is not present in the family. The social cognitive approach provides an alternative explanation of how children develop gender-typed behavior (see Figure 1). According to the social cognitive theory of gender, children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior

Conservation

The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different.

Schema

The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions- ideas- and/or actions- which go together. (folder)

Parental Imperative

The requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children successfully.

What are Erikson's views regarding psychosocial moratorium and how do they compare with contemporary thoughts on identity?

The search for identity during adolescence is aided by a psychosocial moratorium, which is Erickson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. During this period, society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities, which allows them to try out different identities. Adolescents in effect search their culture's identity files, experimenting with different roles and personalities.

Autonomous Morality

The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory Displayed by children about 10 years of age and older. They become aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.

autonomous morality

The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age and older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.

autonomous morality

The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age or older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.

conventional reasoning

The second, or immediate, level in kholbergs theory of moral development. At this stage, individuals abide by the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society.

conventional reasoning

The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society (external). The _____ level consists of two stages: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (stage 3) and social systems morality (stage 4).

gender identity

The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by age 3 years.

gender identity

The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old

gender schema theory

The theory that an individual's attention and behavior are guided by an internal motivation to conform to gender-based sociocultural standards and stereotypes.

social cognitive theory of morality

The theory that distinguishes between moral competence--the ability to produce moral behaviors-- and moral performance--use of those behaviors in specific situations

What is gender schema theory, and how does it relate to gender typing?

The theory that gender- typing emerges as children develop gender schemas of their culture's gender appropriate and gender inappropriate behavior.

postconventional reasoning

The third and highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, morality is more internal. The _____ level consists of two stages: social contract or utility and individual rights (stage 5) and universal ethical principles (stage 6).

Read and study section The Timing and Frequency of Adolescent Sexual Behaviors.

The timing of sexual initiation varies by country as well as by gender and other socioeconomic characteristics. In one cross-cultural study, among females, the proportion having first intercourse by age 17 ranged from 72 percent in Mali to 47 percent in the United States and 45 percent in Tanzania (Singh & others, 2000). The percentage of males who had their first intercourse by age 17 ranged from 76 percent in Jamaica to 64 percent in the United States and 63 percent in Brazil. Within the United States, male, African American, and inner-city adolescents report being the most sexually active, whereas Asian American adolescents have the most restrictive sexual timetable (Feldman, Turner, & Araujo, 1999).

physical punishment

The use of _____ _____ has been linked with increased externalized child problems (such as acting out and high levels of aggression) in non-Latino White families but not in African American families. One explanation of this finding points to the need for African American parents to enforce rules in the dangerous environments in which they are more likely to live

Identical twins become genotypically different over time. How can this be explained?

Their environment and experiences affect how their genes are expressed.

How do transgender people provide evidence that the gender binary fails to describe reality?

Their gender identities don't match their perceived sex.

Zhe Chen & Robert Siegler

Their research showed that children as young as 2 years of age can learn a strategy.

social-cognitive domain theory

Theory stating that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. These domains arise from children's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience.

play therapy

Therapy that allows the child to work off frustrations and is a medium through which the therapist can analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them. Children may feel less threatened and be more likely to express their true feelings in the context of play

What factors influence the development of self-regulation in early childhood?

There is evidence that self-regulation has roots in our biological makeup. Maturation of certain areas of the brain, especially the frontal lobes, enables children to resist interference and inhibit responses. he frontal lobes undergo two periods of rapid growth, one during infancy and another from about 4 to 7 years—and these periods are consistent with the developmental trends in self-regulation we've described. Along with brain maturation, another important factor is temperament. Temperament appears to have a significant genetic component. Researchers have linked aspects of temperament (such as behavioral inhibition, effortful control, and fearfulness) to several self-regulatory behaviors in preschool and early school-age children (such as emotional regulation, cheating, compliance with adults' requests, and following rules) In fact, most psychologists believe that self-regulation, though influenced by biological factors, begins with external control by others and gradually becomes internalized. For example, children learn specific strategies for regulating behavior and emotions by modeling—the process of imitating, practicing, and internalizing others' behavior (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). And children often use private speech, or speech they direct toward themselves, to guide their problem-solving efforts and to regulate behavior, cognitive strategies, or emotions.

In the Dominican Republic, a rare genetic condition made male children appear to be female until puberty, at which time what had been thought to be a clitoris grew into a penis and their testes suddenly descended from their abdomen. What happened then?

These children would adopt masculine identities and live as men the rest of their lives.

Moral competencies

These include: What individuals are capable of doing What they know Their skills Their awareness of moral rules and regulations Their cognitive ability to construct behaviors.

Emotion-coaching parents

These parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.

emotion-dismissing parents

These parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.

Immigrant couples often abandon Breadwinner/Supportive Spouse strategies in favor of economic interdependence when they arrive in the United States. What is one reason why couples do so?

They are adjusting to a new economic class.

Around age six, children become very concerned with doing gender correctly. What does this rigidity tell us about gender norms?

They are learning that gender rules are important, but haven't yet figured out whether and how to break them.

What is meant by the idea that many biological characteristics are mutable?

They are responsive to external efforts to shift or disrupt them.

How do people with intersex bodies provide evidence that the gender binary fails to describe reality?

They have chromosomes that do not match either XX or XY.

What is one particular cost black women who employ the Girly Girl gender strategy may face?

They may feel that they are performing whiteness

What is one way in which some Asian American men and women resist the stereotypes associating them with femininity?

They try to be socially assertive.

Describe the findings of the longitudinal study that explored the acquisition of gender labels in infancy.

This gender difference became present at 17 months and increased at 21 months. Use of gender labels was linked to gender-typed play, indicating that knowledge of gender categories may affect gender-typing earlier than age 2.

authoritative parenting

This style encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. This style is associated with children's social competence, achievement orientation, and self-reliance.

social cognitive theory of gender

This theory emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-inappropriate behavior.

Social Cognitive Theory of Morality

This theory of morality emphasizes a distinction between moral competence (the ability to perform moral behaviors) and moral performance (performing those behaviors in specific situations)

Social Learning Theory

Through differential reinforcement- children are rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior. Through observational learning- children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of their same-sex role models.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes that the ability to resist temptation is related to what aspects of control and gratification?

To achieve this self control, children must learn to delay gratification.

Emotion regulation plays a key role in childrens ability to do what?

To manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others.

According to Frued what is the moral element of personality and what does it do?

To reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affect, children identity with parents, internalizing their standards of right and wrong, the superego is the moral element of personality.

Read and study section Late Adulthood.

Too often it has been assumed that older adults do not have sexual desires (Inelmen & others, 2012). Aging does induce some changes in human sexual performance, more so in men than in women, but many older adults do have sexual desires (Mroczek & others, 2013). Orgasm becomes less frequent in males, occurring in every second to third act of intercourse rather than every time. More direct stimulation usually is needed to produce an erection. From 65 to 80 years of age, approximately one out of four men has serious problems getting or keeping erections; for those over 80 years of age, the percentage rises to one out of two men (Butler & Lewis, 2002). Even when intercourse is impaired by infirmity, other relationship needs persist, among them closeness, sensuality, and being valued as a man or a woman

Gender Constancy

Understanding that our genders remain the same throughout out lives and despite superficial changes in appearance.

In which country do children watch the most television?

United States

In which of the following countries do children watch the most television? United States, Switzerland, Spain, Canada

United States

What are some strategies for using books effectively with preschool children? Ellen Galinsky emphasized these strategies:

Use books to initiate conversation with young children. Use what and why questions. Encourage children to ask questions about stories. Choose some books that play with language.

Jean Berko

Used fictional words to test children's understanding of language rules

Rochel Gelman

Uses information-processing approach to analyze children's inability to conserve

Ross Thompson

Views young children as moral apprentices, striving to understand what is moral

Students must construct knowledge and unerstand it in their own minds - interaction is critical.

Vygotsky

___________ said that language and thought initially develop independently of each other and then merge.

Vygotsky

constructionist

Vygotsky and Piaget

In _________ view, children's cognitive development depends in the tools provided by society and their minds are shaped by the cultural context in which they live.

Vygotsky's

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is ________ term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children.

Vygotsky's

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with assistance

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with assistance.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for the rage of tasks that are too difficult for children to achieve alone but can be achieved with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children.

Sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's theory that the cognitive development occurs largely from the outside inward.

3 major approaches to cognitive development

Vygotsky, Piaget, and info-processing

___________________ have conducted a number of studies of delay of gratification with young children. One way they assess delay of gratification is to place a young child alone in a room with an alluring marshmallow that is within their reach.

Walter Mischel and his colleagues

Which of the following statements is TRUE of gender policing?

We police ourselves and others, and even recruit others to help us police ourselves.

How do class and ability intersect in the gendered strategies men adopt?

Wealthy, disabled men use their financial resources to gain independence.

Barbel Inhelder

With Piaget, studied young children's egocentrism by devising the three mountains task.

Read and study the paragraph with regard to school achievement

With regard to school achievement, girls earn better grades and complete high school at a higher rate than boys (Halpern, 2012). Males are more likely than females to be assigned to special/remedial education classes. Girls are more likely than boys to be engaged with academic material, be attentive in class, put forth more academic effort, and participate more in class (DeZolt & Hull, 2001).

ages 2-3

a child begins to understand the three following mental states: perectopms, emotions and desires

false beliefs

a child understands this at ages 4-5, people may have ideas that are not true

Which of the following children is MOST likely to experience adjustment problems?

a child with divorced parents

Which of the following children is LEAST likely to experience adjustment problems?

a child with divorced parents who have joint custody

Who is LEAST likely to experience adjustment problems? (Q)

a child with divorced parents who have joint custody

Compulsory heterosexuality can be defined as

a gender rule that men be attracted to women and women be attracted to men.

Once the interviewer puts a skirt on the Ken doll, 4-year-old Bradley identifies the Ken doll as

a girl

Instructional scaffolding

a learning process designed to promote a deeper level of learning

egocentrism

a limitation of preoperational thinking is the inability to distingusih between one's own perspective and that of another person

continuous developmental theory

a person's thinking is not fundamentally different at any one age or level of development than it is at any other age.

Gender Identity

a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding and acceptance of being male or female

Which individual is the LEAST likely to be policed

a short, thin cisgender woman

Brenda/Bruce

a twin that lost his penis, so they raised him a girl, but he still felt like a boy; ended up married w/ adopted children; committed suicide @ age 38

If a lesbian woman who moved to France from the United States conformed to French expectations, she would

accentuate her lesbian identity less

Diana Baumrind's research suggests that parenting which is __________ and __________ leads to the best outcomes for children.

accepting; demanding

In the United States ________ are the leading cause of death in young children, followed by cancer and cardiovascular disease

accidents

In the United States, what is (are) the main cause(s) of death in children 1 through 4 years of age?

accidents

The child's life should center on ________, not ________.

activities; meals

Synaptic pruning is an ___________ process

adaptive

Early-childhood programs that make use of abstract paper-and-pencil activities with large groups of children are __________ and __________.

age inappropriate; individual inappropriate

In this time frame of the theory of mind, children begin to understand the following three mental states: (1) Perceptions—the child realizes that other people see what is in front of their eyes and not necessarily what is in front of the child's eyes. (2) Emotions—the child can distinguish between positive and negative emotions. A child might say, "Vic feels bad." (3) Desires—the child understands that if some- one wants something, he or she will try to get it. A child might say, "I want my mommy."

ages 2-3

In this time frame of the theory of mind, children come to understand that the mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately. The realization that people can have false beliefs—beliefs that are not true—develops in a majority of children by this age.

ages 4-5

Parents can positively influence their children's peer relations through

all of these.

Gender binary glasses

allow us to separate everything we see into masculine and feminine categories.

mental processes

although the same mental processes occur in a variety of domains, the way they are used varies across domains.

Hannah recently married George. Hannah decided to keep her maiden name after marriage, which is a deviation from gender rules. Hannah often tells people that the reason she kept her maiden name is for professional reasons, since she already has published articles under that name. This explanation is a good example of

an account

social constructivist approach

an approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed -- Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach

information processing

an approach to how cognitive development takes place.

Research shows that which of the following is linked to an increase in a child's internalization and self-regulation?

an early, mutually responsive orientation between parents and child

Research shows that which of the following is linked to an increase in a child's self-regulation?

an early, mutually responsive orientation between parents and child

montessori approach

an educational philosophy in which children are given considerable fredom and spontaneity in choosing activies and are allowed to more from one activie to another as they desire

A young child who shows _________ fails to distinguish among appropriate and inappropriate occasions for using human perspectives.

animism

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.

animism

maturation

any relative permanent change, emotional, cognitive, or physical, that occurs as a result of biological aging regardless of experiences.

social constructivist approach

approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed

Edward Zigler

argued that the united states hsould have universal preschool education

Which of the following is an example of gender policing?

asking a guy why he shaves his legs

Emotion-coaching parents

assist children in labeling negative emotions

Emotion-coaching parents (Q)

assist their children in labeling emotions.

Ageism is an institutionalized preference that

associates aging with decreased social value

Someone who reads the words "wrestling," "pickup truck," and "steak" and then automatically thinks "man" is experiencing the effect of

associative memory

The children of emotion-coaching parents are better at what?

at soothing themselves when they get upset, more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems.

A restrictive punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange.

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which parents encourage independence but limits and controls on child's behavior

authoritative parenting

You are engaging in ______________ when you answer questions such as: Who was your first grade teacher and what was s/he like? What is the most traumatic event that hap- pened to you as a child?

autobiographical memory

_______________ involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life.

autobiographical memory

The second stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age or older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as wall as the consequences.

autonomous morality

insecure resistant babies

babies who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away

equilibrium

balancing of cognitive structures w/ the needs of the enviroment

learning: nurture

based off of experiences

What is one cost that white middle-class women and men risk by performing a gender strategy that is stereotyped as "normal"?

being perceived as boring, unexciting, and plain

animism

belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

Factors that researchers have found that can enhance the ZPD's effectiveness include:

better emotion regulation, secure attachment, absence of maternal depression, and child compliance

The highest incidence of game playing occurs

between ages 10 and 12

The highest incidence of game playing occurs

between ages 10 and 12.

The highest incidence of game playing occurs:

between ages 10 and 12.

The word "sex" refers to

biological differences in primary and secondary sexual characteristics.

________ are slightly more muscular

boys

Vygotsky called these the ______ or _______ of development, to distinguish them from the "fruits" of development, which the child can already accomplish independently

buds; flowers

A surprising feature of the brain development is that rapid bursts of synaptic growth are accompanied by high rates of __________, in order to make room for the connective structures of active neurons.

cell death

mother interaction

center on caregiving and teaching techniques; socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible then sons.

egocentric

centered on self w/o understanding how other people perceive a situation.

A centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.

centration

Another limitation of preoperational thought is __________.

centration

The focusing of attention on one characteristic of an object or situation to the exclusion of all others is called (Q)

centration.

moral development

changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.

scaffolding

changing the level of support (in regards to zone of proximal development)

Gender

characteristics of ppl as males and females

early infancy (moral development)

characterized by global empathy, the young infant's empathic response does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others

Whereas the public and many professionals use the term child abuse to refer to both abuse and neglect, developmentalists increasingly use the term _________

child maltreatment

Which of the following types of child maltreatment is characterized by a failure to provide for the child's basic needs?

child neglect

Which of the following types of child maltreatment is characterized by a failure to provide for the child's basic needs? (Q)

child neglect

Education that involves the whole child by considering both the child's physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development and the child's needs, interests, and learning style

child-centered kindergarten

The ________________ honors three principles: (1) each child follows a unique developmental pattern; (2) young children learn best through firsthand experiences with people and materials; and (3) play is extremely important in the child's total development.

child-centered kindergarten

Montessori approach to education

children are given considerable freedom and spontanity in choosing their activies, the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a director, children are encourages to actively make their own decisions from an early age

Sociocultural theory example

children watching interactions between the people in their world, interacting with them, and using these interactions to further their own development.

Social cognitie theory of gender

children's gender development occures through observation, imitation, through rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropiate behavior

Piaget's approach to Cognitive Development

claimed that cognitive development comes w/ maturation; development proceeds at same rate across dif cognitive domains

What areas of development does play promote?

cognitive and socioemotional development.

What makes a language? (5)

communication, arbitrariness,meaningful structure, multiplicity of structure, and productivity

In the United States, what is (are) the main cause(s) of death in children 1 through 4 years of age?

condenital malformations

Jean Berko

conducted a classic experiment demonstrating that children understand morphological rules.

Jean Berko:

conducted a classic experiment demonstrating that children understand morphological rules.

Jean Berko

conducted a classic experiment using nonsense words to demonstrate that children understand morphological rules

An internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves an integration of moral thought, feeling, and behavior

conscience

Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children's lack of __________.

conservation

Lack the awareness that altering an object or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.

conservation

The awareness that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties is called (Q)

conservation.

Play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive activities with symbolic representation of ideas

constructive play

Juliana does a lot of __________ in her daily life. She works as a lawyer, so she wears professional pant and skirt suits to work every day. When she comes home, though, she often likes to go to yoga to unwind, so she changes into yoga pants and tank tops to wear to her yoga classes. Depending on the context, how she does femininity changes.

cultural traveling

Ellen believes that all gender differences are the product of our environments; we learn and are socialized into gender differences. Ellen believes in a __________ explanation of gender differences.

culturalist

Which of the following best conveys the meaning of the term "gender rules"?

culturally specific instructions for how to appear and behave as a man or a woman

strategies

deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information

Children who are aggressive with their peers are at risk for

delinquency.

Education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age appropri- ateness) and the uniqueness of each child (individual appropriateness).

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)

The emphasis in ________ is on the process of learning rather than on its content .

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

difference between a child's level of independent performance and the level of performance a child can reach with expert guidance.

2 1/2

during early childhood, the average child grows _____ inches

Rachel Gelman believes that conservation appears ________ than Piaget thought and that ________ is especially important in explaining conservation.

earlier; attention

Short-term memory increases during ___________.

early childhood

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)

education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age-appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (individual-appropriateness)

developmentally appropriate practice

education that focuses on the typical devleopment patterns of children (age appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (individual appropriateness)

child-centered kindergarten

education that involved the whole child by considering both the child's physical, cognitive and socioemotional devleopme and the child's needs, interests and learning styles

child-centered kindergarten

education that involves the whole child by considering the child's physical, cognitive, and social development

Montessori approach

educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom in choosing activities

The fact that men are more likely than women to get breast reductions and women are more likely than men to get breast implants is an example of

efforts to enhance the illusion of the gender binary.

For Piaget, private speech is ____________ but for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during the early-childhood years

egocentric and immature

Piaget and Barbel Inhelder initially studied young children's ___________ by devising the three mountains task.

egocentrism

The inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective.

egocentrism

During symbolic function substage, their thought still has important limitations, two of which are:

egocentrism and animism.

In the pre-operational stage, young child's cognitive world is dominated by _________ and __________.

egocentrism; magical beliefs.

Which of the following is NOT a component of a child-centered kindergarten?

emphasis on what is learned

Which of the following is NOT a component of a child-centered kindergarten? (Q)

emphasis on what is learned

Myelination in the areas of the brain related to focusing attention is not complete until the __________________

end of middle or late childhood.

To determine if a child's atypical stature is a sign of growth or health problem, the child's ________ must be considered.

ethnic heritage

Young children should engage in physical activity ________

every day

Involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances

executive attention

Young children especially make advances in two aspects of attention:

executive attention and sustained attention

An umbrella- like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the develop- ment of the brain's prefrontal cortex. Involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to use self-control.

executive function

Gender roles

expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act and feel

nurture

experiences: the environment

Which of the following is NOT a recommended guideline for commnicating with children about divorce? explain the separation, provide as much continuity as possible, explain what part of the seaparation was the child's fault, provide support for the children and one's self

explain what part of the separation is the child's fault

__________ itself, however, comes in many forms. One distinction is between relatively permanent or long-term memory and short-term memory.

explicit memory

Girls have more _______ tissue than boys, and boys have more _______ tissue than girl

fatty; muscle

two changes that occur to a childs brain

first. the number and size of dendrives increase, second, myelinatoin continues

Which psychological theories are related to each aspect of moral development?

five psychosexual stages : Oral stage- pleasure centers on mouth anal stage- pleasure on anus phallic stage- pleasure on genitals latency stage- represses sexual interest (social skills) genital stage- sexual reawakening

Jillian is a preschooler with emotion-coaching parents. One may expect Jillian to

focus her attention better.

sustained attention

focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment

justice perspective

focuses on the rights of the individual

During her research in the community of Gerai in West Borneo, anthropologist Christine Helliwell described how her gender was uncertain among the Dayak for the duration of her fieldwork. This was because

for the Dayak, a "woman" is a person who excels at distinguishing types of rice and its preparation, but Helliwell had not mastered these tasks.

Service Learning

form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community. In _____ _____, adolescents engage in activities such as: Tutoring, Helping older adults, Working in a hospital, Assisting at a child-care center, Cleaning up a vacant lot to make a play area.

Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often competition with one or more individuals

games

Henry has categorized fish as feminine and sharks as masculine. On further reflection, he has refined the categorization of fish. He categorizes passive fish, such as goldfish and clownfish, as feminine, while he categorizes aggressive, carnivorous fish, like piranhas and goliath tigerfish, as masculine. Henry has done a good job of demonstrating

gender binary subdivision

) Lillian does not have a fixed gender identity. What term best describes them?

gender fluid

Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports

gender identity

Kris views himself as being male. This is Kris's (Q)

gender identity.

A _____ is a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel. (Q)

gender role

A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel, respectively

gender role

__ is a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel.

gender role

__________ is a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel

gender role

Nathan and Olivia have both joined an online dating site. Nathan posts photos of himself playing soccer, while Olivia posts photos of herself wearing dresses, high heels, and makeup. Nathan and Olivia have both demonstrated the importance of __________ in society.

gender rules

According to _____ gender typing emerges as children gradually develop a cognitive structure of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. (Q)

gender schema theory

According to _________, gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop a cognitive structure of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

gender schema theory

According to _________, gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop a cognitive structure of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

gender schema theory

The theory that an individual's attention and behavior are guided by an internal motivation to conform to gender-based sociocultural standards and sterotypes

gender schema theory

Kiki is an able-bodied, African American sexual minority. Her __________ helps her do gender in a way that accounts for all of her social identities.

gender strategy

What term describes the set of actions we take to manage opportunities and constraints as well as affirm a valued gender identity in a specific way?

gender strategy

Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

gender typing

Gender Schema Theory

gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

Gender Stereotyping

general impressions and beliefs about females and males.. (men are powerful, women are weak) - present @ age 2, dramatically increases by 4 yrs old

Adrogen-insensitive males

genetic disorder; a small # of XY males don't have androgen cells in their bodies, causing them to look female, and usually are attracted to males

_________ retain somewhat more body fat

girls

sex typed behavior

girls playing with jewelry, and boys paying w/ cars - increases during preschool years

maturation: nature

gonna happen no matter what

The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occuring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.

heteronomous morality

A child who thinks of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world that are removed from the control of people is displaying

heteronomous morality.

Michael is a male-bodied person. He says to Alex that he views himself as a male. What is Michael communicating to Alex?

his gender identity

Daniel is attracted to men and has a male partner. He is an avid football fan, and he exudes physical strength and toughness. What strategy is Daniel using?

homonormativity

Some experts have concluded that between 18 months and 6 years, young children learn an average of about one new word every _________.

hour

Many women enjoy dressing up, dancing, and flirting at a club. This is an example of

how following gender rules can be a source of pleasure.

According to the authors of your textbook, American men usually don't deliberate about whether to pee sitting down or standing up. This is an example of

how gender rules become internalized as habits

What conditions make it more likely that Roberto will adopt a Breadwinner gender strategy?

if he is promoted to partner at a law firm and his wife loses her job

What conditions make it more likely that Julia will adopt a Family Focused gender strategy?

if she faces limited job opportunities and is married to a man with a high-paying job

What conditions make it more likely that Danielle will adopt a Super Mom gender strategy?

if she is a single mother and doesn't make enough money to hire outside help

The concept that, if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately

immanent justice

The concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately is

immanent justice.

Vygotsky's emphasis on the importance of inner speech in cognitive development and Piaget's view that such speech is ________.

immature.

operations

in Piaget's theory, internalized sets of actions that allow children to do mentally what they formerly did physically

conservation

in piagets theory, awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties

accidents

in the united states what is the leading cause of death in young children

The failure of Piaget's conservation task demonstrates not only centration but also _________.

inability to mentally reverse actions

Emotional abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury)

includes acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Sexual abuse

includes fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials

Although the Montessori approach fosters _________ and the development of cognitive skills, it deemphasizes verbal interaction between the teacher and child and between peers

independence

A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them

indulgent parenting

Which of the following parenting styles often result in children who have difficulty controlling their behavior and are noncompliant? (Q)

indulgent parenting

Which of the following parenting styles often results in children who have difficulty controlling their behavior and are domineering, egocentric, and noncompliant?

indulgent parenting

Individual differences in body size are even more apparent during early childhood than in ____________.

infancy

Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood involves which of the following?

initiative

Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is (Q)

initiative and guilt

Erikson's stage for children in early childhood is

initiative versus guilt

Erikson's stage for children in early childhood is:

initiative versus guilt.

Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is

initiative vs. guilt

After a while, self-talk becomes second nature to children, and they can act without verbalizing. When this occurs, children have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of ________, which becomes their thoughts.

inner speech

No gender differences occur in overall ___ ability, but in some cognitive areas gender differences do appear.

intellectual

The authors of your textbook argue that we are complicated individuals with unique and multilayered identities. What term describes this perspective?

intersectionality

Danielle was born with XXY chromosomes. She is someone who is

intersex

In this substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.

intuitive thought substage

The _______________ is the second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between ages ________.

intuitive thought substage; 4-7

executive attention

involves action, planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances

temperament

involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding

What is one of the most common nutritional problems in early childhood, associated with failure to eat adequate amounts of quality meats and dark green vegetables?

iron deficiency anemia

What is one of the most common nutritional problems in early childhood, associated with failure to eat adequate amounts of quality meats and dark green vegetables?

iron deficiency anemmia

project head start

is a compensatory eduction program designed to provide children from low-income families with the opportunity to acquire important school success skils

Child neglect

is characterized by failure to provide for the child's basic needs

Physical abuse (def)

is characterized by the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child.

morphology

is demonstrated by a young child's ability to add the letter s to create plurals

Zoe spends many hours watching television everyday. She most likely

is distracted from homework

Zoe spends many hours watching television every day. She most likely

is distracted from homework.

centration

is the focusing of attention on one characteristic of an object or situation to the exclusion of all others

The injection idea of socialization fails to explain how people learn to do gender because

it assumes there is one coherent set of gender rules that children learn and apply throughout their lives.

Gender policing works on women because

just like men, they have to pay attention to what others think of their performance of gender.

Myelination of many aspects of the prefrontal cortex, especially those involving higher-level thinking skills, is not completed until _______________

late adolescence or emerging adulthood

The __________ model of socialization suggests that socialization is a lifelong process of learning and relearning gendered expectations.

learning

According to research, testosterone is correlated with visual-spatial ability. Which individuals typically perform the best on visual-spatial tests?

low-testosterone men and high-testosterone women

The _____ limit of the ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently. The _______ limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor

lower; upper

Role-strain view (Joseph Pleck)

male roles are contradictory and inconsistent; men not only experience stress when violate mens roles, they also are harmed when they do act in accord w/ men's roles (health, male-female relationships / male-male relationships)

forming into boy/girl

male sex organs start to differ from female sex organs when a gene on the Y chromosome directs a small piece of tissue in teh embryo to turn into testes... (start producing testosterone)

What types of people are recognized within society's gender binary?

male-bodied people who are masculine and female-bodied people who are feminine

during the adult years, individuals who were __________ are more likely to experience physical ailments, mental problems, and sexual problems

maltreated as children

As adults, ____________ are also at higher risk for violent behavior toward other adults—especially dating partners and marital partners—as well as substance abuse, anxiety, and depression

maltreated children

Males:

men: fat goes to abdomen - about 10% taller (Androgens promote growth of long bones - higher levels of stress hormones, cause faster clotting and high blood pressure - part of the hypothalamus(involved in sexual behavior) tends to be larger - area of parietal lobe that functions visuospatial skills tends to be larger

In the theory of mind, it is only beyond the preschool years that children have a deepening appreciation of the mind itself rather than just an understanding of mental states. Not until ___________. do children see the mind as an active constructor of knowledge or a processing center.

middle and late childhood

Parents influence their children's peer relations through

modeling harmonious relationships. providing opportunities for healthy social interactions. providing a warm, secure foundation from which to explore friendships. doing all of these things.

Parents can positively influence their children's peer relations through

modeling harmonious relationships. providing opportunities for social interaction. their choice of neighborhoods, schools, churches, and their own friends.

Vygotsky believes you learn through

modeling, demonstrating, language, peers, environment, and encouragment

An educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.

montessori approach

Development that involves thoughts, feelings, and actions regarding rules and conventions about what peopls should do in theri interactions with other people.

moral development

Children in developmentally appropriate classrooms are likely to

more motivated

Children in developmentally appropriate classrooms are likely to be (Q)

more motivated.

The way that children do gender is

more rigid and binary than the way adults do gender because they are still learning the rules in all their complexity.

By the time children move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate a knowledge of __________ rules

morphology

Units of meaning involved in word formation

morphology

Child neglect is by far the _______ form of child maltreatment.

most common

In early childhood, posture and balance improve, resulting in gains in _______________.

motor coordination

The process through which axons (nerve fibers that carry signals away from the cell body) are covered with a layer of fat cells, which increases the speed and efficiency of information traveling through the nervous system

myelination

Jack believes that all gender differences are biological and exist independently of our environments. Jack believes in a __________ explanation of gender differences.

naturalist

A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control

neglectful parenting

Willow believes that gender is the most important social identity. According to the textbook, is Willow correct?

no, because all of our social identities interact with one another to shape our lives in complex ways

Despite the slowing of growth in height and weight that characterizes early childhood, this growth is the most _________ physical change during this period of development.

obvious

Domain specific

occurs at dif rates in dif rates (math)

Domain general

occurs more or less simultaneously in multiple areas (all subjects)

Becoming a boy/girl..

on 23rd pair of chromosomes, 2 X shaped = girl; XY = Boy

All children learn the prepositions _____ and _____ before other prepositions.

on; in

About __________ of parents who were abused when they were young go on to abuse their own children.

one-third

It is estimated that about _______of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children

one-third

Considering biological causes of gender differences more immutable than social ones is a mistake because

our hormones and our genes are designed to respond to culture.

Although _____ are the earliest influence on gender roles, as children get older _____ become increasingly important influences on gender development. (Q)

parents; peers

According to the authors of your textbook, what does a "gaydar" really detect?

people who deviate from gender norms

One high-quality early childhood education program (although not a Head Start program) is the _____________ in Ypsilanti, Michigan, a two- year preschool program that includes weekly home visits from program person- nel.

perry preschool program

Those who had been in the __________________ had fewer teen pregnancies and better high school graduation rates, and at age 40 they were more likely to be in the workforce, to own a home, and to have a savings account, and they also had fewer arrests.

perry preschool program

The sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined.

phonology

In early childhood, children tend to think of themselves in terms of a(n) _____ self. (Q)

physical

In early childhood, children tend to think of themselves in terms of a(n) __________ self.

physical

Which of the following types of child maltreatment occurs most often?

physical abuse

_________ was linked to lower levels of cognitive development and school engagement in children

physical abuse

Which of the following is a type of child maltreatment?

physical abuse child neglect emotional abuse all of these

In early childhood, children tend to think of themselves in terms of a(n) __ self.

physical and active

In early childhood, children tend to think of themselves in terms of a(n) __________ self.

physical and active

Biological Sex

physical characteristics that define males and females

According to Judy Dunn, which of the following does NOT describe a characteristic of sibling relationships?

physical quality of the relationship

symbolic functions substage

piaget's first substage of preoperational thought, in which the child gains the ability to mentally represent and object that is not present (between about 2 and 4 years of age)

intuitive thought substage

piaget's second substage of preoperational thought, in which children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions (between about 4 and 7)

preoperational stage

piagets second stage, lasting from about 2-7 years of age, during which children begin to represent the world with words, images and drawings, and symbolic thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and physical action; stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, egocentrism is present and magical beliefs are constructed

The overabundance of synaptic connections is believed to play a role in the ________ of the young brain.

plasticity

Constructive play

play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive activity with symbolic representation of ideas. Constructive play occurs when children engage in self regulating creation of construction of a product or solution.

Practice play

play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery are coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

Social Play

play that involves social interactions with peers.

What does new research show regarding the effects of child maltreatment?

poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer regulations, difficulty in adapting to school, depression, delinquency.

Among the consequences of child maltreatment in childhood and adolescence are:

poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and other psychological problems such as depression and delinquency

__ play involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned.

practice

__________ play involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned

practice

Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports

practice play

What is one strategy that some gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals adopt to resist homophobia?

practicing gender conformity

Changes in _________, the appropriate use of language in different contexts, also characterize young children's language development

pragmatics

Part of the brain which plays a key role in planning and organizing new actions and maintaining attention to tasks

prefrontal cortex

In Piaget's theory, failing the conservation of liquid task is a sign that children are at the __________ stage of cognitive development.

preoperational

reversibile mental actions

preoperational means that a child cannot yet perform

nature

preprogrammed

Research indicates that although older children and adolescents show increases in vigilance, it is during the __________ that individuals show the greatest increase in vigilance

preschool years

Imagine that you are conducting a test in which you wish to increase the empathy scores of male participants. Which of the following interventions would you choose?

present statistics showing that women are attracted to sensitive men

Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol

pretense/symbolic play

18 months; 4-5 years

pretense/symbolic play play often appears at about __ _____ of age and reaches a peak at ___ _____ of age, then gradually declines.

Which of the following is an example of a self-conscious emotion?

pride shame embarrassment all of these

Estrogens

primarily influence the development of female physical characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle (in females, produced mainly by ovaries)

Dr. Howard asks a group of men to identify themselves by their gender before giving them a test of heroism. What concept is Dr. Howard demonstrating?

priming

Children use _________ more often when tasks are difficult, when they have made errors, and when they are not sure how to proceed.

private speech

Researchers have also found that children who use ________ are more attentive and improve their performance more than do children who do not use private speech

private speech

Vygotsky further believed that young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior. This use of language for self-regulation is called ____________.

private speech

myelination

process by which the nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells, which increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system

internalization

process of which taking in knowledge or skills from social observations.

Androgens

promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics (testosterone) (Androgens are produced by the adrenal glands in males and females, and by testes in males)

Maria Montessori

promoted a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontanteity in choosing activites

Jean Piaget

proposed a cognitve theory of devleopment that emphasized the intellectual shift in early childhood from sensorimotor function to symbolic thought

According to Freud, children identify with the same sex parent and unconsciously adopt that parent's characterisitics

psychoanalytic theory of gender

Which of the following is NOT a reason why corporal punishment should be avoided? punishment shows controlled behavior, punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance, punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do, punishment can be abusive

punishment shows controlled behavior

ZPD

range between mastery and fustration

Gender typing

refers to acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role (fighting is more of a traditional masculine role; crying a feminin role) (likely emerges before 2yrs of age)

theory of mind

refers to the awareness of ones own mental processes and the mental process of others

significant improvements occur in short-term memory

regarding information processing in early childhood

What 4 aspects are most important with regard to the relationship between parents and children which contribute to childrens moral development?

relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue.

desires; cognitive states

research on theory of mind has found that children refer to ____ earlier and more frequently than they refer to _____

Which of the following descriptions best conveys the meaning of the term "gender policing"?

responses to violations of gender rules aimed at promoting conformity

A preschooler who told a classmate that "everybody has a penis but only girls wear barrettes" was

revealing how meaningful gender performance is, no matter what body someone has.

Preschool children are likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, or are ________, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task.

salient

In at least two ways, the preschool child's control of attention is still deficient in

salient versus relevant dimensions and planfulness

Changing the level of support

scaffolding

Closely linked to the idea of the ZPD is the concept of __________.

scaffolding

When the student is learning a new task, the skilled person may use direct instruction. As the student's competence increases, less guidance is given. What is this an example of?

scaffolding

Behavior engaged in by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas

sensorimotor play

At what ages are associated with the emergence of these different kinds of play?

sensorimotor- infants practice play- preschool years pretense/symbolic- 9-30 months social-preschool constructive play- preschool elementary

Traditional Religious Script

sex is accepted only w/in marriage

Romantic Script

sex is synonymous w/ love, if we develop a relationship w/ someone and fall in love, it is acceptable to have sex

On which of the following traits do men and women exhibit the strongest sexual dimorphism?

sexual identity and sexual object choice

The memory component in which individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of the information.

short term memory

In Ethan Zell's analysis of over 21,000 measures of possible differences between men and women, he found that observed gender differences were most often

small.

Girls are only slightly ____________ than boys during these years, a difference that continues until puberty.

smaller and lighter

A theory that emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior and through the rewards and punishment for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior

social cognitive theory of gender

Like Piaget, Vygotsky was a constructivist, but Vygotsky's theory is a ________ approach, and it emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction.

social constructivist

Lev Vygotsky

social constructivist approach to cognitive development emphasizing the socail contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interation

According to Vygotsky, cognitive development depends on:

social interactions

According to Vygotsky, children's cognitive development depends on (Q)

social interactions and the cultural context in which they live.

Play that involves social interaction with peers

social play

A theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women

social role theory

According to Vygotsky, children use speech not only for social communication but also to help them _________

solve tasks

For most young children, a friend is

someone to play with.

psychoanalytic theory of gender

stems from Freuds view - preshcool child develops a sexual attraction to the opp-sex parent (because of anxious feelings)

Research suggests that __________ are more likely to be remembered, and remembered correctly, than __________.

stereotype-consistent experiences; stereotype-inconsistent experiences

scaffolding

support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student w/ the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals.

Also referred to as vigilance; involves focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment.

sustained attention

In this substage, the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.

symbolic function substage

Which stage of cognitive development occurs between ages 2 and 4 years and involves the child's ability to mentally represent an object that is not present?

symbolic function substage

The _______________ is the first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of ______.

symbolic function substage; 2-4

________________ occurs as neurons that are infrequently stimulated lose their connective fibers and the number of synapses is reduced.

synaptic pruning

Preschool children also learn and apply rules of __________.

syntax

The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

syntax

T or F: The amount of brain material in some areas can nearly double in as little as a year, followed by a dramatic loss of tissue as unneeded cells are pruned and the brain continues to reorganize itself.

t

Report talk

talk that is designed to give information, which includes public speaking (men like this talk)

Both Vygotsky and Piaget suggested that

teachers should be facilitators and guides rather than directors.

Both Vygotsky and Piaget suggested that:

teachers should be facilitators and guides rather than directors.

In which of the following countries do children watch the most television?

the United States

pragmatics

the appropriate use of language in different contexts

theory of mind

the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others

animism

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

What is brain plasticity?

the brain's lifelong ability to respond to its environment

Between 2 and 4 years of age, children are leanring

the cause and consequences of feelings

Between 2 and 4 years of age, children are learning:

the cause and consequences of feelings

Between 2 and 4 years of age, children are learning (Q)

the causes and consequences of feelings.

Between two and four years of age, children are learning

the causes and consequences of feelings.

emotions

the child can distingues between positive and negative emotions

perceptions

the child realizes that other peopel see what is in front of their eyes and not necssarily what is in front o the childs eyes

desires

the child understands that if someone wants something he or she will try to get it

A style of parenting in which the parent is univolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especialy a lack of self-control.

the child's cognitive representation of self, and the substance and content of the child's self conceptions

centration

the focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others

The gender gap in math performance varies within and across countries. The countries with the smallest difference between their male and female students are those with

the greatest degree of overall gender equality.

egocentrism

the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's (salient feature of the first substage of preoperation thought)

egocentrism

the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's; a salient feature of the first substage of preoperational thought

Leo carries a gene for aggression, but he has never been violent. He was raised in a happy and peaceful household. Lydia, on the other hand, carries the same gene, but she has had several violent episodes in adolescence. She was raised in a physically abusive household. Which explanation best explains why Lydia has been violent but Leo has not?

the influence of environmental factors on our gene expression

Rapport talk

the language of conversation; it is a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships (women like this talk)

semantics

the meaning of words and sentences

short-term memory

the memory component in which individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal

short term memory

the memory coponent in whchi individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of the information

The continuation of two changes that began before birth contributes to the brain's growth during early childhood. What are these two changes?

the number and size of dendrites increase; myelination continues.

Children can better adjust to their parents' divorce if

the parents have joint custody. the divorced parents' relationship with each other is harmonious. the children have easy temperaments. all of these factors are present.

prefrontal cortex

the place where the most rapid growth in the brain takes place between ages 3-6, also plays a key role in planning and organizing new actions and maintaining attention to tasks

The second stage in Piaget's theory, which lasts from approximately ages ________.

the pre-operational stage; 2-7

myelination

the process by which the axons are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells, which increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system

Object permanence

the realization that an object continues to exist even when it is not immediately visible.

In early childhood, self-understanding involves

the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions.

memory

the retention of information overtime

During Piaget's first stage of development, ____________, the infant becomes increasingly able to organize and coordi- nate sensations and perceptions with physical movements and actions.

the sensorimotor stage

phonology

the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined

Pre-operational thought can be divided into two substages:

the symbolic function substage and the intuitive thought substage

The word "gender" refers to

the symbolism of masculinity and femininity that we connect to being male-bodied or female-bodied.

Refers to the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others.

the theory of mind

What is sexual dimorphism?

the typical differences between males and females of a species

private speech

the use of language for self-regulation

syntax

the ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences

reversibility

thinking is reversible; child can mentally reverse a physical operation.

The child gradually becomes _________

thinner

If Anna is a female-bodied individual who identifies as female, how could she best use gender expression to communicate her identity to those around her?

through her appearance, dress, and behavior

Disequilibrium

throwing kids off balance

Guidelines recommend that preschool children engage in _______ hours of physical activity per day.

two; one hour of structured activity, one hour of unstructured free play

Gender _____ refers to acquisition of a traditional male or female role. (Q)

typing

1 to 2 years of age (moral development)

undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another's distress grow into more genuine feelings of concern, but infants cannot translate realization of other's unhappy feelings into effective action

morphology

units of meaning involved in word formation

Emotion-coaching parents

use more scaffolding and praise.

Jean Berko

used fictional wrods to test childrens understanding of morphological language rules

Emotion-coaching parents

view negative emotions as behavior problems that need correcting.

zone of proximal development

vygotsky's term for tasks too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance

Vygotsky's view on internalization for Cog. Dev.

was a continous process

representational thought

well formed mental representations, or ideas, of external stimuli

List three positive outcomes linked with religiosity in adolescence OR adulthood.

well-being self-esteem conscientiousness agreeableness openness -caring and concern for others

preoperational

what is the second stage of piaget's cognitive theory of development that emphasizes a child's ability to represent the world with words, images and drawings

Two current controversies in early childhood education involve:

what the curriculum for early childhood edu- cation should be whether preschool education should be universal in the united states

canalization

when a behavior or an ability develops w/o respect to the environment.

What factors facilitate positive adjustment to divorce?

when the divorced parents relationship is harmonious.

symbolic function substage

which substage of preoperational thinking occurs between the ages of 2-4 years old and involved the child's ability to mental represent an object that is not present

Which of the following is an example of a Gentle Black Man strategy?

whistling classical music while walking down the street at night

Distinction is an important concept for understanding the sociology of gender because

without distinguishing men from women, there would be no basis for gender difference or inequality.

females:

women: 2x body fat (breasts & hips - Estrogens stop growth @ puberty - longer life expectancy - less likely to develop physical/mental disorders, more resistent to infections, - area where emotional expression tend to show more metabolic activity - smaller then males but have more folds in brains(brain tissue)

In the pre-operational stage, children begin to represent the world with _________, _________, and _________. They form stable ________ and begin to _______.

words, images, and drawings; concepts, reason

In our gender binary, __________chromosomes are associated with males, while __________ chromosomes are associated with females.

xy;xx

Are children better adjusted in never-divorced families than divorced families?

yes

When the authors emphasize that, when a child gets a pair of gender binary glasses, it's just the first pair, they mean to say that

young children perceive gender in their society, but they may do so differently than when they are adults.