PSY 250 final

descriptive norms

how people typically behave in a given group or situation

interpersonal trust

involves the belief that people are generally trustworthy and dependable as opposed to the opposite and is the attitude that underlies the development of attachment styles

jigsaw classroom technique

teaching method that focuses on small group activities and fosters a cooperative rather than competitive environment

ingratiation techniques

techniques in which we get others to like us so they are more likely to comply with a request

gender prejudice

the tendency to hold a hostile attitude toward an individual because of his or her gender

outgroup homogeneity effect

the tendency to see outgroup members as similar to one another but in-group members as diverse individuals

group

two or more people who are seen as a unit and interact with one another

reciprocity norm

.The saying "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours" most aptly characterizes the:

racism

An apartment complex manager refuses to rent apartments to Asian-American families. This is an example of:

racism or discrimination.

An apartment complex manager refuses to rent apartments to Latino families. This is an example of:

John, a 30 year old man

Based on information presented in your textbook, which of the following individuals would be most likely to act aggressively if provoked?

Tyrone; Sam

Based on research presented in your textbook related to aversive racism, you would predict that, despite similar qualifications, an individual with a name like _______ would be less like

Marc, who has features that are very symmetrical.

Based on research presented in your textbook, who would likely receive the highest ratings of attractiveness?

True

Decreasing self-awareness increases the likelihood of deindividuation.

If you have fallen and hurt your ankle, which of the following tactics would lead someone to help you in this situation?

Either yelling that you fallen and making it clear that you need help or publicly identify a person, specifically requesting his or her help.

True

Even in an online learning environment, instructors assign group projects in order to assist students in building their communication/listening skills, leadership and project management skills and problem-solving and negotiation skills.

stereotype threat

Fear of confirming a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong is defined as ___________.

False

If Peter decides to lend his friend Todd money so that in the future Todd will be more likely to return the favor, then Peter is relying on the social responsibility norm.

passion

In Sternberg's triangular theory of love, physical attraction and sexual consummation represents the component __________.

When the groups are placed in a situation designed to foster friendships

Increasing contact between groups of people will be more likely to reduce prejudice and discrimination under which of the following circumstances?

Dawn, a Catholic mother who is homeless.

Laura is affiliated with the Republican Party and identifies herself as Catholic. Based on this information, who would Laura be most likely to help?

Which of the following is NOT a solution to social loafing?

Making group members anonymous to one another.

Social Exchange Theory

Mike and Sally are in a long-distance relationship but they are both very busy with their careers and don't have much free time. Since Sally feels that the relationship isn't strong enough to justify taking time off work to go visit Mike or spending the money it would cost to visit him, she decides to break things off. In this example, it appears that the costs of the relationship outweighed the benefits. Which of the following theories explains Sarah's decision to end her relationship with Mike?

Why is the hormone oxytocin believed to be important in parent-infant relationships?

Oxytocin has been linked to feeling calm and connected with the infant which encourages bonding behaviors.

attitudes; behavior

Prejudice is to ___________ as discrimination is to ___________.

False

Proximity is necessary for interaction to occur, and interaction is necessary for attraction.

The attributions we make for behavior.

Research suggests that we are more likely to offer assistance to people when we view their circumstances as something out of their control as opposed to something they might have 'caused' themselves. In other words, helping behavior is related to:

triangular theory of love

Robert Sternberg's theory that love is made of three components; intimacy, passion and commitment

gender stereotypes

The idea that women should stay home and take care of the children while men should go out and earn money for the family best describes the notion of:

What have researchers found with the respect to the effectiveness of training programs designed to reduce violence in schools?

Violence prevention programs in schools have resulted in decreased aggression among students.

frustration

You are aggravated because you are late to meet your friends at the movies and cannot find the keys to your car. This illustrates:

direct aggression

an action or behavior that is clearly derived from the aggressor and is aimed directly at the target

indirect aggression

an action or behavior that is not clearly derived from the aggressor, and when it is not obvious to the target that he or she has been the victim of aggression

reinforcement

an action or process that strengthens a behavior

cohesion

degree to which a group is connected

relative deprivation

discontent caused by the belief that we might fare badly in comparison with people in other groups

False

What about FLIRTING? You and the person you are dating go to a party. Your date starts flirting with one of your friends. You notice that everyone at the party seems to be flirting with someone. You think about it and remember that last week when you went shopping together your date was flirting with the salesperson. The behavior described above is: low consensus, low distinctiveness, and high consistency, resulting in a situational attribution.

The level of self-esteem

What characteristic distinguishes a fearful-avoidant attachment style from a dismissive attachment style?

He found that obedience rates were higher when the person in charge looked like a scientist compared to when he was perceived to be another 'participant'.

What did Stanley Milgram find in his work which supports the notion that the perception of authority is important for promoting obedience?

Violence prevention programs in schools have resulted in decreased aggression among students.

What have researchers found with the respect to the effectiveness of training programs designed to reduce violence in schools?

In 2008, 51% of hate crimes committed in the US were racially motivated.

Which of the following can be considered evidence that prejudice still exists today in various forms?

high individuality / individualism

Which of the following factors is associated with decreased conformity?

Tom, who is dressed in a Halloween costume and on his way to a party.

Which of the following individuals would you predict is most susceptible to deindividuation?

Decide how to help.

Which of the following is considered the fourth step in Latane and Darley's Decision Model of Bystander Intervention?

Cognitive-neoassociation theory

Which theory would predict that you are more likely to exhibit aggression just by being in the same room as a gun mounted on the wall?

injunctive norms

Which type of norm is most closely associated with understanding and adhering to the moral rules of a society?

Tim, who is a talented Olympic swimmer.

Who would be the most likely to experience improved performance in the presence of an audience?

deindividuation

You are attending a school football game with thousands of other college students. The official makes a bad call and people begin to protest by throwing things onto the field. You begin to follow the crowd and thro

pluralistic ignorance

You are doing a group project with 8 other people and it's due in one week. One group member suggests that it shouldn't be very hard to finish it up and that it can be completed the night before it needs to be handed in. You feel that this is a bad idea but nobody else seems to be reacting negatively to his suggestion. Later you find out that others also believed that his plan bad idea. This illustrates an example of:

view your friend's help as humiliating and patronizing

You are finalizing plans for your friend's big anniversary bash. Another friend offers to help pay for the party because as she tells you, she is 'much more financially sound and has access to fun party venues that you cannot possibly afford.' In this circumstance you would likely:

an aversive experience

You are on a crowded bus that has no air-conditioning and you hate being in small spaces. You are trying to get off the bus but it seems as if nobody will make room for you to move through the crowd. As a result, you begin to push people out of your way. In this example, Leonard Berkowitzwould most likely explain your aggressive behavior as a function of:

compliance

You go to the drugstore to pick up medicine because a friend asked you to do her the favor. This can be considered an example of:

your mom.

You have just experienced the death of a loved one and are in need of encouragement, empathy, and support. You might be more likely to receive help from:

the scarcity principle.

You see an advertisement for a new ipod which claims "Buy now! Limited Supply.' You decide to buy it because you want to be sure to have the latest ipod model before it sells out of stock. This example illustrates:

Risky shift

________ refers to the tendency for people to take greater risks than individuals would alone.

Social roles; injunctive norms

_________ refer to expectations for the ways in which one should behave in a given situation while _________ refer to behaviors people typically approve or disapprove of in a given situation.

Descriptive norms; injunctive norms

_________ refers to how people typically behave in a situation while _________ refers to what people typically approve or disapprove of in a given situation.

Social impact theory

__________ suggests that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to the target person.

Group polarization

____________ refers to the tendency of an attitude to become magnified within a group after members discuss an issue among themselves.

discrimination

a behavior directed toward a group of people based solely on their membership in that gorup

hostile (affective) agression

a behavior that occurs when the primary goal of an action is to make the victim suffer

lowball techniques

a compliance technique in which a target accepts "low cost" offer, only then to be told that there are additional hidden costs

foot-in-the-door technique

a compliance technique that begins with a small request that, when granted, leads to a larger request

dismissive attachment style

a conflicted, insecure attachment style characterized by high self-esteem and low interpersonal trust

preoccupied attachment style

a conflicted, insecure attachment style characterized by low self-esteem and high interpersonal trust

diffusion of responsibility

a decreased feeling of responsibility to help in a group; if an emergency arises in a group setting, it is less likely that any one person will help than if someone was witnessing the emergency alone, because being in a group decreases each person's feeling of personal responsibility to help

frustration

a feeling of being upset or annoyed by the inability to reach a goal or perform an activity

obedience

a form of social influence in which an indivdual orders another person to do something

compliance

a form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another

groupthink

a manner of thinking that happens when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic evaluation of other solutions

bargaining

a means of resolving conflict that involves each side of the dispute making offers, counteroffers and concessions

empathy-altruism model of prosocial behavior

a model suggesting that true altruism is a product of empathy; this empathy can create nurturing feelings toward a target or a goal to increase the target's welfare

prejudice

a negative learned attitude toward particular groups of people

door-in-the-face technique

a persuasive compliance in which the requester makes an initial offer that is much larger than the target offer, in the hope that the final offer will have the appearance of the requester doing a favor for the target person

bystander effect

a phenomenon in which as more people are present, each individual is less likely to help

communal relationship

a relationship in which partners expect mutual responsiveness to one another's needs

exchange relationship

a relationship in which partners expect strict reciprocity

frustration aggression theory

a theory stating that frustration precedes aggression because our motivation for aggression increases when our current behavior is interrupted or we are prevented from reaching a goal

general aggression model (GAM)

a theory that builds on the social learning theory and provide a more integrative framework for specific theories of aggression by including situational and personal variables

social impact theory

a theory that suggest that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy and number of source persons relative to the target person(s)

social learning theory

a theory that suggests that human aggression is largely learned by observing the aggressive behavior of other people and is reinforced by consequences such as punishment or reward in the individual's environment

normative social influence

a type of influence that occurs when one goes along with a group because one wants to be accepted

informative social influence

a type of influence that occurs when one turns to members of a one's group to obtain accurate information

pluralistic ignorance

a type of norm misperception that occurs when each individual in a group privately rejects the norms of the group, but believes that others accept them

conformity

a type of social influence in which an individual changes his or her behaviors to stay in line with social norms

just-world hypothesis

The notion that people 'get what they deserve' is associated with which of the following biases?

Both persuasive arguments and social comparison

Which of the following is mentioned as an explanation for the phenomenon of group polarization?

instrumental aggression

a behavior that occurs when the primary goal of an action is not to make the victim suffer, but to attain a non-injurious goal

negative state relief model

a model positing that the reason people help others is to improve their own negative mood

passionate love

a state of intense longing for union with one another

peripheral route

a type of processing that occurs when an individual lacks the ability and motivation to thoroughly listen to and evaluate a persuasive message, and is therefore influenced by external cues like attractiveness of the speaker

prosocial behavior

behavior designed to help another person

social exchange theory

an economic model of human behavior in which people make decisions based on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs in relationships

racism

an institutional practice that discriminates against individuals on the basis of their race

aggression

behavior, either verbal or physical, that is used to intentionally harm another individual

injunctive norms

behaviors of which people typically approve or disapprove in a given group or situation

when the message contains information on how to avoid the problem or implement a solution.

A fear-based appeal might be more successful under which of the following conditions:

True

A good way for Sarah to increase her son's prosocial behavior is to engage in lots of volunteer opportunities to act as a model for how one should behave towards others.

True

A hockey player who checks an opponent to prevent him from getting the puck is engaging in instrumental aggression.

hostile aggression

A man hits his wife because he is angry with her and wants her to feel pain. This serves as an example of:

prejudice

A negative learned attitude towards particular groups of people is best defined as:

reciprocation

A political candidate sends a signed picture to everyone in her district, along with a letter soliciting campaign donations. This candidate is employing the ____________ tactic.

get members of the audience to nod their heads in an up and down motion

A politician who wants to deliver a more persuasive speech could attempt to do which of the following?

Albert Bandura; Social cognitive theory

A psychologist by the name of ___________ developed social learning theory, which is also known as ___________.

emphasize the problems that will result if students don't receive testing.

A public health campaign is being designed to persuade college students to get tested for sexually transmitted diseases. Based on information presented in your textbook, public health officials should:

self-fulfilling prophecy

A teacher believes that students in his class that are from lower income areas are not as intelligent as students from higher income areas. As a result, he inadvertently provides them with less challenging work and does not demand the same level of performance. Over time, these students begin to show a decline in their test scores across a variety of subject matters. This illustrates what phenomenon?

the jigsaw classroom technique

A teacher who wants to reduce prejudice in her classroom and promote acceptance and harmony assigns the students to complete group projects where the final grade is dependent on each group member completing their assigned task. The teacher is utilizing what technique?

central route

A type of processing that occurs when an individual has the ability and motivation to thoroughly listen to and evaluate a persuasive message

Well established groups are often characterized by all of the following EXCEPT?

Absence of social rank or hierarchy among group member

The formation of self-esteem and interpersonal trust.

According to work by John Bowlby, early parent-child interactions lead to what in children?

being part of a small ingroup

According to your textbook, which of the following conditions is associated with an increased tendency to engage in ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation?

False

Aggression that is performed to attain a non-injurious goal refers to hostile aggression.

Which of the following ideas could be used to refute the validity of instinct theory?

Aggressive behavior varies from culture to culture.

True

An individual high in the need for cognition is less likely to engage in social loafing.

Which of the following represents an example of social facilitation?

An individual runs faster with a group of friends than by herself.

stereotype threat

Andrea knows that many people believe that women are not good at math. When taking the math portion of the standardized test needed for admission to graduate school, she feels anxiety about the possibility that she might do poorly and confirm society's expectation about women's math abilities. This example best describes the notion of:

True

Andrea, who is high in the need for cognition, will be more easily persuaded to purchase a more expensive television if the salesperson has a strong, convincing argument for why the television is a good deal.

True

Attachment style refers to the degree of security experienced in interpersonal relationships.

Which of the following is a strategy that can be used to resist authority?

Both taking away the perceived authority level from the authority figure and changing proximity to the authority figure can be used to resist authority.

the peripheral route to persuasion

Changing the likeability, attractiveness, and credibility of the source are all methods that involve:

Social learning theory

Charlie learns that when his father yells at his mother, she complies with his demands. As a result, Charlie yells at his girlfriend when she doesn't agree with him in an attempt to get her to change her views. Which theory of aggression best explains Charlie's verbal aggression against his girlfriend.

Social learning theory

Charlie learns that when his father yells at his mother, she complies with his demands. As a result, Charlie yells at his girlfriend when she doesn't agree with him in an attempt to get her to change her views. Which theory of aggression best explains Charlie's verbal aggression against his girlfriend?

Peripheral route processing.

Chris is buying a last minute gift for his father's birthday and he doesn't have much time pick it out. He decides to purchase a digital camera because it has a big sign next to it that says "Sale." Chris probably arrived at his decision through:

False

Companionate love is a state of intense longing for union with another person.

remain more resistant to persuasion

Compared with an attitude formed through the peripheral route, an attitude formed through the central route will

Cultures of Honor refer to which of the following?

Cultures where strong norms suggest that aggression is an appropriate response to insults or threats.

through the peripheral route.

Dan is watching television and is highly motivated to process a message delivered by a political candidate. However, he is distracted by loud noises outside his house. In this circumstance, Dan is likely to process the candidate's message:

her college roommate has more perceived similarities.

Dawn is persuaded by her college roommate to cut her hair short even though her mom has been trying to persuade her to get it cut short for years. Dawn may have been more easily persuaded by her roommate because:

True

Different areas of the brain become more active when recognizing someone of the same race versus someone of a different race.

equity theory

Doug believes that he invests far more time, energy, and resources in his relationship with his girlfriend Mellissa. As a result, he breaks up with Melissa because he feels she benefits much more than he does from their relationship. Doug's break-up with Melissa can be understood in terms of:

Which of the following is NOT a solution to groupthink?

Excluding members outside of the group.

modeling

Greg wants his son to learn to solve his problems and frustrations without using any verbal or physical aggression. In order to teach his son to solve problems without aggression, he takes great care to solve his own problems through calm communication. What strategy is Greg using in this example?

rural; urban

Helping behavior is more likely to take place in ________than in ________ settings.

Which of the following have researchers found is associated with aggressive tendencies in people?

Higher temperatures, increased pain, and increased alcohol consumption have all been associated with aggressive tendencies.

True

Honor killings are often committed against women and perpetrated by a male relative.

False

If Anna is an accomplished violinist she will perform worse in the presence of other people.

False

If Chris was in a good mood and came across an elderly women who needed assistance, you would predict that he would be less likely to help so that he could maintain his good mood.

he would be more resistant to the pressure to conform.

If James, who is from the United States, has a high need to feel unique and different, we would predict that:

more likely to favor the outgroup and less likely to stereotype.

If Julie is in a happy mood, you would predict that she would be:

False

If a neighbor's child misses the school bus and you offer to drive him to school because you feel a sense of duty to make sure he reaches school safely, then you are likely helping based on norm of reciprocity.

True

If government officials want to avoid groupthink they should consult with a diverse group of individuals while making their decision.

reduced feelings of personal responsibility

In 1968, Darley and Latane conducted a study where they exposed participants to a clear emergency in which they heard the sounds of another student having an epileptic seizure. They found that participants who were alone were faster to report the emergency than those who believed others were present. The failure to help in this situation can be attributed to:

These children engaged in aggressive behavior towards the doll.

In one version of Bandura's Bobo doll study, children watched one of three videos where they were exposed to an individual either being punished, rewarded, or receiving no consequences for aggressing against a Bobo doll. What did Bandura find with respect to the group who watched the video of an individual receiving no consequences for acting aggressively?

The cost-benefit analysis model

Joe is trying to decide if he wants to put in a good word to help an acquaintance get a job at his company. He considers how it might affect his reputation if his acquaintance does a poor job. At the same time, he also considers how helping someone get a job would make him feel good and that he would likely be perceived in the eyes of others as a 'good' guy. Joe's internal dialogue is most consistent with which of the following models of helping?

True

Jonathon lets his co-workers do most of the work on a budget report because his boss will not be able to identify his contribution. This is an example of social loafing.

normative social influence

Julia doesn't like to drink but decides to drink with her sorority sisters anyway because she wants to fit in and be liked by her new college friends. This illustrates a form of:

normative social influence.

Julia doesn't like to drink but decides to drink with her sorority sisters anyway because she wants to fit in and be liked by her new college friends. This illustrates a form of:

The transfer of physiological arousal she feels from her fear of flying to the handsome stranger.

Julie is fearful of flying and on her trip to Florida finds herself sitting next to a handsome stranger. They strike up a conversation during take-off and exchange numbers when they land. Julie feels very attracted to her new acquaintance and hopes he will call her soon. According to the excitation transfer hypothesis, Julie's attraction could be a function of which of the following?

social learning

Laura's family is deeply religious and she has grown up listening to her parents make disparaging remarks about other religious groups, especially those who are Jewish. Laura has developed similar negative feelings towards those who subscribe to Judaism. Laura's attitude likely formed through which of the following?

the fundamental attribution error

Marc is driving to work and sees a woman cause a 3-car accident on the highway. He is not surprised by this because he believes that almost all women are bad drivers. Marc's conclusion illustrates the concept of:

physically; relationally

Men are more __________ aggressive while women are more __________ aggressive.

more likely

People who are self-aware are _______ to help others.

India; The United States

People's tendencies to help out can vary based upon cultural norms. Researchers have found that people from ________are more likely than people from ________ to offer their bone marrow to strangers.

injunctive norms

Robert Cialdini argued that public service announcements would be most effective if they focused on:

an honor killing

Salma has been seen in public with a man other than her husband, thereby shaming her family. Her brother kills her because she has damaged her family's reputation. This serves as an example of:

appraisal

Schacter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion argues that __________is important for determining how we label our arousal.

reinforcement learning

Scientists have shown that conformity is based on mechanisms in the brain that are associated with which of the following?

True

Steele and Aronson's study (1995), conducted on black and white college students, illustrated the effect of stereotype threat on performance.

an investment

Stephanie has dated her boyfriend Johnny for 11 years. Although she feels the relationship is not working anymore, she is hesitant to break things off because she has devoted so much time and energy to their relationship. In this example, the time that Stephanie has spent with her boyfriend can be considered: boyfriend Johnny for 11 years. Although she feels the relationship is not working anymore, she is hesitant to break things off because she has devoted so much time and energy to their relationship. In this example, the time that Stephanie has spent with her boyfriend can be considered:

a different race

Studies conducted with the Implicit Associations Test (IAT) suggests that people tend to hold implicit negative attitudes toward people of:

If just one other person expressed the desire to do something other than go to the party.

Suppose Danielle doesn't want to go a party but everyone else in her friend group wants to go. What would make it easier for Danielle to resist conforming in this circumstance?

True

The IAT (EXTRA CREDIT: IAT PSY250 Extra Credit Quiz) can measure the association between concepts and evaluations, which are interpreted as automatic preferences or attitudes. For example, a stronger association between Young and good versus Old and good on an Age IAT would suggest an implicit preference for Young versus Old.

lowball technique; that's-not-all technique

The ___________ is based on commitment and consistency while the ___________ is based on reciprocity.

Based on research presented in your textbook on compliance, which of the following statements is MOST true?

The appearance of a reason for a request is enough to elicit compliance.

False

The negative state relief model argues that true altruism is a product of empathy and empathy then creates nurturing feelings towards a target.

social role

expectations for the ways in which an individual should behave in a given situation

altruistic

having a selfless motivation for helping

social norms

patterns of behavior that are accepted as normal, and to which an individual is expected to conform in a particular group or culture

gender stereotypes

people's ideas about how men and women behaved based on socially and culturally defined beliefs

conflict

perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas

proximity

physical closeness; the smaller the physical distance, the more likely the two people will experience repeat contact, which could lead to the development of mutual attraction

group norms

rules or expectation regarding desirable behaviors that group members strive to follow

GRIT

stands for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"; a step-by-step formula for de-escalating a conflict that involves unilateral concessions and quick reciprocation by the opposition

cost-benefit analysis

the act of weighing the relative costs and benefits of helping to decide whether or not to provide the help

companionate love

the affection we feel for people with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

contact hypothesis

the belief that increased communication and contact between different racial groups reduces levels of prejudice and discrimination

valence

the degree of attraction or aversion that a person feels toward a specific object, event or idea

attachment style

the degree of security experienced in interpersonal relationship

reciprocity

the exchange of what we receive for what we get, which can include liking those who like us back

mere exposure

the hypothesis that the mere repeated exposure of an individual to a stimulus is enough for an increased in favorable response to that stimulus

reciprocity norm

the idea that if others help us, we should help them, and that if we help them, they will help us

evaluation apprehension

the idea that one's performance will be hindered or heightened due to approval and disapproval from others

social responsibility norm

the idea that we have social responsibility to help others; the intent to which this extends to outgroup members varies by culture

realist group conflict theory

the idea that when different groups are in competition for resources, they tend to close ranks, favoring in-group members and discriminating against outgroup members

decision model of bystander intervention

the model derived by Bibb Latane and John Darley that explains the five steps required to provide help to someone in need and what can interfere with successful completion of each of these steps

fearful-avoidant attachment style

the most insecure of the attachment styles, charactered by low self-esteem and low interpersonal trust

secure attachment style

the most successful of the attachment styes, characterized by high self-esteem and high interpersonal trust

in-group favoritism

the natural tendency to favor an in-group versus an outgroup

source

the person or persons who delivers the message

exception transfer

the process by which arousal from one stimulus can be transferred to the second stimulus

forewarning

the process of being informed ahead of time that a favored attitude will be challenged

inoculation

the process of building up resistance to unwanted persuasion

group polarization

the tendency for an attitude or belief to become magnified within a group after members discuss an issue amongst themselves

deindividuation

the tendency for individuals with in a group to go off self-awareness and restraint and do what the group is doing

risky shift

the tendency for people in groups to take greater risks than if the actions were to be taken by an individual member

just-world hypothesis

the tendency for people to believe that the work is fair and just; therefore, victims of misfortune deserve what happens to them

realistic group conflict

the theory that conflict stems from competition for limited resources such as money, land power or other resources

persuasion

the way people communicate in order to influence other people's attitudes and behaviors

equity theory

theory that relationships are most satisfying when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners

investment

those resources that have been devoted to a relationship that cannot be retrieved

reactance

when individuals feel that their freedom is threatened, they intuitively want to restore their freedom

desensitization

when physiological reaction to violence are reduced as a result of repeated exposure