PSY 252 Midterm 1

self concept

(Markus and Wurf) Only a sub-set of a person's vast knowledge is brought to mind in any given context; usually the one that is most relevant/appropriate to the situation

door-in-the-face technique

(reciprocal concessions technique): Asking for a very large favor that the person will refuse and then asking for a smaller favor (*tends to be seen as a concession the target feels compelled to honor).

Burger (2009) Milgran replication

-only went to 150v -random assigned to "base condition" or "modeled refusal" -personality variables: empathy, desire for control over events Results: 70% base and 63.3% modeled continued to administer shocks -personality diff. didn't predict stopping before 150 v but did predict hesitation

5 steps to helping in emergency

1. Notice: (ex. looking at phones and don't see person on ground) 2. interpret as emergency (pluralistic ignorance could be barrier; ex. no one concerned @ party) 3. take responsibility for helping 4. decide how to help 5. Provide help

self schemas

A cognitive structure, derived from past experience, that represents a person's beliefs and feelings about the self in general and in specific situations

conceptual variables vs. operational definitions

A conceptual independent variable is one that a researcher may "think up" or conceptualize prior to performing a study. *It is abstract/general form of variable (Ex. prejudice, conformity, drug abuse) An operational independent variable is one that the researcher uses in study. Ex. a researcher interested in measuring a person's IQ may give a Raven's Matrices IQ test; in this case the operational variable is an individual's score on this test. *Specific way a conceptual variable is manipulated or measured. (ex. self reported dislike of other groups, following instructions of experimenter, illegal drug more than 1/wk. )

correlation coefficient

A correlation coefficient can be calculated when there are two (or more) sets of scores for the same individuals or matched groups. A correlation coefficient describes direction (positive or negative) and degree (strength) of relationship between two variables. When positive, they move in same direction.

statistical significance

A measure of the probability a given result could have occurred by chance

Contingent self esteem (contingencies of self worth)

A perspective maintaining that self esteem is contingent on success and failures in domains on which a person has based his or her self worth.

diffusion of responsibility

A reduction of the sense of urgency to help someone involved in an emergency or dangerous situation, based on the assumption that others who are present will help/equally able to.

basic vs. applied research

Applied research is research that seeks to answer a question in the real world and to solve a problem. Basic research is research that fills in the knowledge we don't have; it tries to learn things that aren't always directly applicable or useful immediately. (theory-driven, hypothesis testing)

random assignment

Assigning participants in experimental research to diff. groups randomly, so they arent likely to be assigned to one condition as another

Bystander intervention

Assistance given by a witness to someone in need

factors decreasing disobedience in Milgram Study

Authority figure, entrapment: (if give 105v, what's wrong with 120V), fast pace: no time to reflect on actions, responsibility, no exit: no apparent way to get out of situation, no allies: no one els there to support participant,to help advance sci. and understanding of human behavior (why they participated), agreed to serve (already been paid and felt needed to continue), normative soc. influence (desire to avoid disapproval by experimenter, avoid "making scene"/upsetting others.

Asch (1951)

Believed people wouldn't conform in highly unambiguous situations. Determining which of 3 lines was the same as ex. line. Third trial, only one real participant and 3/4 said same "wrong" answer as the confederates at least once. 1/3 of time for critical trials overall. In absence of social pressure, they got answer right. Study due to normative soc. influence. Ex. of public compliance

conformity

Changing one's behavior or beliefs in response to explicit or implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others. In western society, it connotes something negative. Some types of conformity are good, while some are bad.

Sherif's autokinetic effect study

Designed study to examine circumstances where other people serve as a social frame of reference. Dark room with stationary point of light and asked how far it moved. (both individually and then with multiple ppl in room). Estimates converged overtime; quickly fused into a group norm. behavior was a result of informational social influence. Persisted after others were removed=private acceptance

Correlational study

Doesn't involve random assignments to diff. situations and are conducted to determine whether there is a relationship b/t the variables.

Latane and Darley (1970)

Examined role of pluralistic ignorance in bystander intervention where researchers asked participants to fill out stack of questionaries. 3 conditions: alone, with 2 confederates, or all 3 participants. Smoke filling in. Alone: 75% went to report. 3 real: 38% left to report. With 2 confed: 10% report

Informational vs.normative social influence

I: Influence of other ppl that results from taking their comments/actions as source of info. about what is correct, proper, or effective., especially in ambiguous situations N: Influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism)

Greenwald and Farnham (2000)

If you have high self esteem, it should take you longer to pair negative words -implicit measure: reaction times (happy, sunshine, vomit, poison) -explicit measure: self-esteem questionnaire Results: Although there are group differences on explicit measure, (N.M scoring higher) no group (cultural) diff. on implicit measure (if anything, Japanese scored higher sometimes)

positive vs. negative correlation

In a negative correlation, the variables move in inverse, or opposite, directions. In other words, as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. For example, there is a negative correlation between self-esteem and depression

independent vs. interdependent views of self

Ind: Much of the West, especially northwestern Europe and Canada/U.S., Australia, NZ. Self is autonomous entity that is distinct and separate from others. Foster uniqueness and independence Inter: Self is connected to others. Find a place within community and fulfill appropriate roles. Self is embedded within relationships, roles, and duties. Many Asian and Eastern European , African, and Latin American cultures.

independent vs. dependent variables

Ind: the variable that is manipulated; hypothesized to be cause of a particular outcome Dep: Variable that is measured; affected by manipulation of ind. var.

internal vs. external validity

Internal validity in experimental research is confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results. External validity is an indication of how well the results of a study generalize to contexts besides those of the study itself. When researchers unable to generalize results to real life situations, there's poor validity

foot-in-the-door technique for compliance

Involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behavior of interest. Ex. display in window, then display in lawn.

archival studies

Look at evidence found in archives (census reports, police records, sports stats, newspaper articles, databases)

Egoism

Motivated by desire to increase one's own welfare. The view that humans are always motivated by self-interest, even in what seem to be acts of altruism. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do so b/c of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or indirectly, from doing so.

surveys

One of the most common types of studies in soc. psych. Asking ppl questions either by interview or written questionnaires. Ppl in survey must be a random sample of population as a whole.

theories

Organized set of principles used to explain multiple observed phenomena (ex. Freudian theory)

Hindsight bias

People's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome

rural-urban diff.in helping

Ppl in rural areas report higher levels of empathic concern. Strangers more likely to be helped in rural areas (even tho population is smaller) Explanations to this: 1. amount of stimulation in modern urban environments is so great that no one can register all of it. (stimulus overload) 2. diversity hypothesis (urban areas=more diverse=people less likely to help) 3. more ppl are around to help in urban areas than rural (diffusion of responsibility) 4. Ppl's actions more likely to be observed by ppl who know the in rural areas/can comment on their reputation to others

private vs. public conformity

Private conformity occurs when people truly believe that the group is right and even occurs in the absence of group members. Public conformity occurs when we are pressured and feel we do not have a choice other than to conform to group norms. People pretend to agree, but privately think the group is wrong.

Milgram (1963)

Random person was "teacher" and confederate was "learner". Teacher gave electric shock every time mistake was made. 62.5% gave max voltage (425v). Average was 360v. 80% continued shock after learner began protesting

Experimental study

Research that randomly assigns ppl to diff. conditions that enables them to make strong inferences about how these diff. conditions affect behavior. All participants treated the same except for experimental manipulation. Focus on situational rather than personal factors.

sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study. (random, convenience-not random/may be biased in some way

Rosenberg (2005)

Scale measure of self esteem

Taylor (2003) Correlational Study

Self reported self esteem was positively correlated with interviewers ratings of adjustment -friends, strangers, etc. saw saw ppl who rated as having higher self esteem as they got more adjusted -ego and self esteem: word task and those told its achievement test of ability--partner thought they were annoying, while non-ego group was equally liked regardless of self esteem

self-serving bias

The common human tendency to attribute one's successes to personal characteristics, and one's failures to factors beyond one's control. The reason people tend to personalize success is because it helps their self-esteem levels.

social comparison theory

The hypothesis that people compare themselves to other people in order to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinions, abilities, and internal states

distinctiveness hypothesis

The hypothesis that we identity what make us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self-definition.

self esteem

The overall positive or negative evaluation an individual has on himself or herself. Trait: person's level of self regard across time; fairly stable. State: dynamic, changeable, self-evaluations someone experiences as momentary feelings about self.

self-handicapping

The tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to have an excuse ready should one perform poorly or fail.

self monitoring

The tendency to monitor one's behavior to fit the current situation. Low self monitors are more likely to behave according to their own traits and preferences, regardless of social context.

self-verification theory

Theory that ppl strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about the self b/c such self views give a sense of coherence. Makes us more predictable to ourselves and others, which helps interactions with others go smoother. Want others to see you as you do w/ preexisting beliefs.

Altruism

Unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself. Motivated by desire to improve another's welfare.

impression management

a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.

pluralistic ignorance

a situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it. Bystanders may do nothing if they arent sure what's happening/ don't see anyone else responding. (assume nothing is wrong)

self-enhancement

a type of motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem. This motive becomes especially prominent in situations of threat, failure or blows to one's self-esteem. Self-enhancement involves a preference for positive over negative self-views.

longitudinal study

an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Can extend over years or even decades. In a longitudinal cohort study, the same individuals are observed over the study period.

hypotheses

explicit, testable prediction about conditions under which an event will occur.

good mood effect

hypothesis: being in a good mood will increase helping. ex. pleasant smell on mall/ no odor area and giving change. 50% gave change in pleasnt, under 20% in non odor.

Tesser and Smith (1980) : exception to helping friends

hypothesis: envy and resentment may prevent from helping friends -given false feedback about performing "below avg" -give clues to stranger and close friend -trivial and self esteem games -results: trivial game condition-more helpful to friend, self esteem: more helpful to stranger

Cunningham (1980) Negative emotions

hypothesis: people who feel guilty will be more likely to help IV: led to believe you broke someone's camera vs. control condition -DV: helping pick up dropped items Results: 80% help fro broken cam., 40% help for not broken

Trafimou (1991) Individualistic v. collectivist cultures

hypothesis: ppl from collectivist cultures will think in interdependent terms and vice versa. Results: chinese students=more group affiliation descriptions while U.S.=more individual trait descriptions.

observational studies

observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population where the independent variable is not under the control of the researcher because of ethical concerns or logistical constraints

self-perception theory

people determine their attitudes and preferences by interpreting the meaning of their own behavior. Critcher and Gilovich looked at whether people also rely on the unobservable behavior that is their mindwandering when making inferences about their attitudes and preferences.

self report

provide details about (one's circumstances, typically one's medical or psychological condition).

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

Taylor & Brown

those with depression are more accurate in their perception of reality, and that for most of us, functioning adequately requires an element of self-delusion