Psy 309 Exam #2
What is negative punishment or omission training?
BKLO 100. Removal of a desired stimulus or event following a behavior that causes the future likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future to decrease. Omission training is a form of negative punishment in which the desired behavior is being reinforced and when the organism engages in the undesired behavior, they are unable to be reinforced. EX. Antecedent: Spending time with loved one Behavior: Insult them Consequence: Loved one leaves room, ending time together Future Occurrence: Less likely to insult loved one
What is a punisher?
BKLO 101. A stimulus or event that decrease the likelihood of the behavior it follows occurring again in a similar situation in the future in response to this consequence
How does contiguity influence operant conditioning?
BKLO 111. Reward and reinforcement are much more effective if immediate EX. Much more likely to eat dessert now than engage in a diet, which as a delayed reinforcement of losing weight
How does reward magnitude impact operant conditioning?
BKLO 112. Positively correlated with acquisition. Higher reward leads to quicker acquisition of response EX. Earning .5 points vs. 10 points for each correct word. You will learn the words quicker if you received 10 points. Positively correlated with performance. Higher reward magnitude, more performance EX. more likely to do a better job for $1 million vs. $10
How do characteristics of reinforcer and behavior influence operant conditioning?
BKLO 113. Preferred reinforcers are more effective than less preferred reinforcer EX. More likely to do a behavior for your favorite dessert vs. just any dessert Some behaviors are easier to learn than others EX. Balancing on one foot flat vs. the ball of your foot
What is a schedule or reinforcement?
BKLO 114. A contingency that determines when or how often reinforcement will be provided for a behavior if it occurs EX. Every 5 minutes the behavior occurs the organism gets reinforced The rate of learning varies The pattern of engaging in the behavior varies
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
BKLO 115. A schedule in which every instance of behavior is reinforced EX. Every time you flip a light switch, you are reinforced with light This leads to high rates of learning and rapid increase in response
When using reinforcement, when is it ideal to use a continuous schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 116. For teaching a new behavior and for increasing the rate or duration of responding for a behavior EX. Teaching a child to respond to their name by every time they look at you reinforce them by talking to them
What is a ratio schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 117. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies how many times the behavior must occur to receive reinforcement EX. Reward card after buying 9 coffees, you get you 10th coffee free
What is a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 118. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies a fixed number of times the behavior must occur to receive reinforcement. Can be a continuous schedule (FR-1) or longer ratio (FR-10) EX. FR-2: Behavior, behavior--> reinforcement
What is a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 119. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies an average number of times the behavior must occur to receive reinforcement. EX. Sale person making an average of 1 sale after 10 sale pitches
What is an interval schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 120. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies the length of time since the last reinforcement occurred before the next occurrence of the behavior will receive reinforcement EX. When baking, you are reinforced with cake after the time it takes to bake the batter Thus, if a behavior occurs prior to the specified interval since last reinforcement passing, no reinforcement occurs EX. Interval= 5 minutes, the organism just got reinforced, so within that 5 minutes anything the organism does will not be reinforced Once the specified interval since the last reinforcement passes, the behavior must occur in order to earn reinforcement EX. Just because the 5 minute interval ended does not mean the organism will be reinforced. The behavior has to occur in order to earn reinforcement
What is a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 121. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies a constant length of time since the last reinforcement occurred before the next occurrence of the behavior will receive reinforcement EX. Mail gets delivered at the exact same time everyday
How can probability-differential theory be utilized for behavioral changes? (What is the dual benefit of this method of behavioral change?)
BKLO 145. A preferred activity can be used as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity Dual benefit: -Increase the desired behavior -Decrease the undesired behavior
What is a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 122. A schedule of reinforcement in which the contingency specifies a variable length of time since the last reinforcement occurred before the next occurrence of the behavior will receive reinforcement EX. Parent will reinforce child for playing nicely, yet that can be for 5 minutes or 15 minutes. Average is 10 minutes
What is a differential reinforcement schedule?
BKLO 123. A schedule of reinforcement in which the behavior must occur a set number of times within a specific time period to be reinforced EX. Kids earn a point for getting ready in time EX. Enjoying a concert only at the place and time the concert is held
What is a differential reinforcement of high responding (DRH) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 124. A schedule of reinforcement that occurs based on reinforcing a behavior when it occurs at a high rate during a specified time EX. Hit enough targets in a minute to win the big stuffed animal at the carnival
What is a differential reinforcement of low responding (DRL) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 125. A schedule of reinforcement that occurs based on reinforcing a behavior when it occurs after a specified period of non-occurrence. If the behavior occurs during the interval, the interval resets. EX. Student answering to many questions in class and the teacher wants him to keep answering just not dominate the class. The teacher can say to go 15 minutes without answering any questions and if the student doesn't answer questions then the teacher will call on him. If the student answers a question before the 15 minutes is up, then the time resets.
What is a differential reinforcement of other responding (DRO) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 126. Schedule in which the contingency requires the behavior to not be performed for a specified period of time in order to receive reinforcement EX. Parents tell children to go 15 minutes without whining, then the kid will get reinforced
What is a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 127. Schedule in which the contingency requires another behavior to be performed in order to receive reinforcement and a previously reinforced behavior no longer receives reinforcement EX. Kid whining and parents saying 'I will reinforce you if you speak in a normal tone of voice'
What is a differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 128. Schedule in which the contingency requires incompatible behavior to be performed in order to receive reinforcement Incompatible behavior: A behavior that cannot be performed at the same time as the undesired behavior EX. Reinforce child for walking, walking is incompatible with running
What are the likely patterns of responding for each of the major reinforcement schedules?
BKLO 129. Cumulative record graph X-axis= Time (minutes) and Y-axis=Responses ( #) -Responding will accumulate, thus the graph will always show increasing # of responses -Thus, slope is always zero or positive (it can never be negative) -Slope indicates rate of responding (Steep=faster responding, Shallow=slower responding, Flat Line= pause in responding) -Fixed ratio schedule typically have pauses following reinforcement -Variable schedules typically have no pauses or very little pauses following reinforcement, thus they produce more steady rates of responding -Interval schedules typically have lower rates of responding than on similar ratio schedules. Fixed interval schedules typically cause a post-reinforcement pause and then positively accelerating response rate as the end of the interval nears (stair shape graph). Variable interval schedule cause high steady levels of responding (bumpy hill shape graph) -Ratio schedule typically produce higher rates of responding then interval schedules because reinforcement cannot be obtained an an interval schedule until the interval has passed whereas faster responding on a ratio schedule will result in more reinforcement -Fixed ratio produced a consistent response rate until habituation or satiation to the reinforcer occurs & encourage rapid acquisition of behavior or rapid increase in rate of responding EX. Picking an entire barrel of apples to get paid $1, take a break, and start again. -Variable ratio produced steady rates of responding with no or very short pre-ratio pauses EX. Gambling, high rates of response even if reinforcement is infrequent -Differential reinforcement and DRH both increase the frequency/rate of the behavior -DRL reduce the frequency of the undesired behavior but keeps it happening at the more desired frequency -DRO reduced the frequency of the undesired behavior and can eliminate it -DRA and DRI both reduce the frequency of the undesired behavior and increase the frequency of the desired behavior
What is a compound schedule of reinforcement?
BKLO 130. A schedule of reinforcement that occurs based on the combination of two or more other schedules
What is extinction of an operant or instrumental response?
BKLO 131. When a previously rewarded response or reinforced behavior no longer results in reward/reinforcement, it will decrease in strength and gradually cease to be displayed -EX. Traffic light button does not work after you keep pushing it, so you eventually stop Operant Extinction Antecedent: Environmental Behavior: Behavior occurs Consequence: No reinforcement Future Occurrence: Decrease in strength and eventually future occurrence of the behavior
What is an extinction burst?
BKLO 132. Temporary increase in intensity and/or frequency of responding following removing reinforcement for previously reinforced response EX. Putting money into a vending machine and it doesn't give you a soda, the person will press the button more vigorously for a longer period of time as a result of not getting the reinforcement
What is the phenomenon of resurgence in extinction?
BKLO 133. When the organism experiencing extinction engages in other behaviors that used to result in the desired reinforcement EX. When the vending machine is not working, some may try kicking the machine instead of pressing the button EX. Yelling to get what you want, yet that was extinguished and now you ask nicely for what you want. When you ask nicely and you don't get reinforced, you will try yelling again because it worked for you previously
What is spontaneous recovery in operant/instrumental conditioning?
BKLO 134. When a previously extinguished operant/instrumental response reappears without further reinforcement. It will go away if response continues to not be reinforced EX. Extinguishing the behavior of pressing the cross walk button but it never works, then you will never attempt to press the button again
How does consistency of the reward prior to extinction influence the extinction process?
BKLO 135. Behavior that was reinforced with intermittent or partial reinforcement is much more resistant to extinction than behavior reinforced continuously= partial reinforcement effect EX. Saying someone's name and they don't respond. Are they ignoring you or did they just not hear you Implications of the partial reinforcement effect -If trying to extinguish an undesired behavior do not reinforce if after extinction has begun, you will strengthen the persistence of the behavior and may even increase the intensity of the behavior -If the behavior is something you want to make resistant to extinguish, make sure to reinforce the behavior using intermittent reinforcement one the behavior is at the desired strength and frequency
What must be done to successfully extinguish an avoidance response?
BKLO 180. Maintain exposure to the feared stimulus for a prolonged period. Duration matters more than number of exposures
What is shaping (aka the successive approximation procedure)?
BKLO 136. A procedure in which the behavior being reinforced is reinforced for successively more accurate approximation of the final goal behavior. This procedure starts by reinforcing a successive approximation of the final goal behavior that the organism is currently able to engage in. Once the initially reinforced behavior is happening more frequently, the contingency is changed to require the organism to engage in the behavior at a level just slightly higher than what they can currently do to receive reinforcement. Then when they engage in that level of the behavior, the requirement for reinforcement is consistently increased to closer approximation of the goal behavior until this process results in the organism engaging in the goal level consistently. Can be used to obtain a new behavior, to reduce behavioral variation of a current behavior, or to increase behavioral variation of current behavior. The reinforcement does not change, just the requirement for the reinforcement. EX. Goal behavior= dog jumping up onto a stool Begin by reinforcing standing within 2 feet of stool Then 1 foot of stool Then to look up at stool within 1 foot of stool Then raise front paws withing 1 foot of stool Then front paws on stool Then jump onto stool
What role does each of the following play in the process of shaping: (A) behavioral variation, (B) successive approximation, (C) reinforcement and extinction?
BKLO 137. (A) During shaping, the organism must engage in a variety of behaviors that can then be shaped. If the organism just keeps doing the same behavior because the next approximation will never be displayed. Thus, for shaping to work optimally, the organism engages in a wide variety of behavior. (B) During shaping, the organism must be reinforced for successive approximations of the end goal behavior, thus gradually requiring the organism to behave in closer and closer approximations to the ultimate desired behavior (C) During shaping the individual doing the shaping must balance reinforcing successive approximations with extinguishing all previous approximations such that the organism being shaped continues to behave in closer approximations to the end goal behavior. Without extinguishing previous approximations, there would not be enough behavioral variation to shape. The individual doing the shaping must avoid reinforcing the organism being shaped on one step for too long so that the organism thinks that is the ultimate goal and will just keep doing that behavior. The individual doing the shaping must avoid extinguishing previous approximations too early, which would lead to extinction of all behavior and thus never reach final goal behavior
When shaping yourself or another organism, what must you make sure you do?
BKLO 138. Very key to remember when shaping to not increase requirement for reinforcement too much. Must make sure reinforcement of small steps approximating the end goal behavior get reinforced. If the individual doing the shaping does not reinforce enough, they might extinguish too much behavioral variation and potentially cause the organism being shaped to stop responding and the shaping program will fail. Also need to make sure to not reinforce any one approximation for too long so that the organism stops engaging in a variety of behaviors that can be chosen from for reinforcement of the next approximation.
What is chaining?
BKLO 139. A procedure in which the behavior being taught is comprised of multiple steps so each step is taught through reinforcement successively -Forward chaining: Where the first step is taught and reinforced, and then the next step is added to previously taught step and reinforced, and so one until the entire chain is taught -Backward chaining: Where the last step is taught and reinforced, and then the next to last step is added to the previously taught step and reinforced, and so on until the entire chain is taught -Whole task method: Where the entire chain is taught by prompting each step and reinforcing at the very end of the chain EX. Teaching how to make a PB&J sandwich 1. Taking out things needed 2. 1& opening PB&J jars 3. 2& taking out two slices of bread 4. 3& spreading PB on one slice 5. 4& spreading jelly on other slice 6. 5& putting pieces of bread back together 1-6 Forward chaining 6-1 Backward chaining Giving verbal instructions and not helping them Whole task method
What is contingency management (previously referred to as behavior modification)?
BKLO 140. Utilizing the principles of operant conditioning to modify behavior. Specifically using contingent reinforcement and nonreinforcment. Uses reinforcement to increase appropriate/desired behavior(s). Uses nonreiforcement to decrease or eliminate inappropriate/undesired behavior(s)
What are the components of contingency management?
BKLO 141. 1. Assessment phase: During which the undesired behavior is clearly defined and information about the undesired behavior is obtained. Answers to questions to gain initial understanding. Baseline measures are taken of the behaviors of interest to determine: frequency and intensity of behavior, When and where behavior takes place, What immediately follows those behaviors 2. Contingency contracting stage: Where the contingencies are set and the individual responsible for providing the contingencies is trained to do so, so that desired behaviors are reinforced according to set schedule and undesired behaviors no longer receive reinforcement. Shaping is built in if necessary. Typically reinforcement is provided by other individuals but it can also be self administered successfully 3. Implementation stage: Where the plan is put into action and monitored and modified as necessary until the goals are met
What is a token economy?
BKLO 142. A system in which an individual earns tokens for specified behaviors that can be exchanged for reinforcers
Explain how contingency management, including token economies, have been effective at treating a variety of behavioral and mental health problems
BKLO 143. Contingency management programs have successfully treated a multitude of behavioral problems by reinforcing appropriate behaviors that are typically the opposite of the inappropriate behaviors and no longer reinforcing the inappropriate behaviors Increasing pro-social behaviors Treating individuals who are currently psychotic to increase self-care behaviors and decrease psychotic behaviors Decrease symptoms of mental health disorders such as depressed and anxious behaviors, and externalizing behaviors problems Increase desirable behaviors in the classroom, workplace, hospital settings, ect. Reducing chronic pain Reducing drug use Decreasing self-injurious behavior Improving creativity Improving health related behaviors Improve competence in desired skill
What is Premack's probability-differential theory?
BKLO 144. The theory that a preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less preferred activity EX. Person prefers to hang out with friends than study. Can reinforce studying by hanging out with friends afterwards
What is stimulus control in operant conditioning?
BKLO 146. Inhibitory and excitatory control of stimuli over operantly conditioned behaviors. When a response is emitted in the presence of a particular stimuli but not in the presence of other stimuli EX. When the rat is conditioned to press the lever when the light is on, he is under stimulus control of the light
What is stimulus generalization in operant conditioning?
BKLO 147. Responding to stimuli similar to the excitatory stimuli (S+) as though it is excitatory stimuli and responding to stimuli similar to the inhibitory stimuli (S-) as though it is inhibitory
What is stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning?
BKLO 148. Not responding to stimuli that are not the S+. Created by differentially reinforcing the target response/behavior in the presence of different stimuli
What are discriminative stimuli in operant conditioning?
BKLO 149. Stimuli that indicate whether reinforcing consequences will follow a behavior -S+ (S Delta)= Stimulus indicates the behavior will receive reinforcement -S (S Sigma)= Stimulus indicates the behavior will not receive reinforcement EX. Swearing S+= Hanging out with friends S-= Hanging out with grandparents
Be able to understand excitatory and inhibitory generalization gradients
BKLO 150. Generalization gradients are graphs that show stimulus discrimination training results by showing the strength of the response according to stimuli of varying levels of similarity to the stimuli present during conditioning
How can excitatory and inhibitory generalization cause a peak shift?
BKLO 151. If there is an explicit excitatory and explicit inhibitory stimuli, a peak shift in responding may occur. An excitatory generalization gradient develops around the S+. An inhibitory generalization gradient develops around the S-. When there is overlap between these gradients, the probability of responding to each stimuli is the average of the probability of responding on the excitatory generalization gradients and the inhibitory generalization gradient. EX. If the probability of responding to a red light is .5 on the excitatory generalization gradient and -.75 on the inhibitory generalization gradient, the net probability is -.25. Thus, the probability of responding to the S+ is reduced by the decrease probability of responding to stimuli similar to the S- and that makes the probability of responding to stimuli similar to the S+ (and further from the S-) more likely
What does research on the effectiveness of punishment suggest?
BKLO 152. Thorndike's research suggested punishment has little effect on behavior. Skinner's research suggested punishment only temporarily suppresses behavior so he thought extinction should be used Based on later research, we now know punishment can: -Have no effect on behavior -Only temporarily suppress behavior -Permanently suppress behavior but only under certain conditions
When is the only time that punishment will be effective?
BKLO 153. If the only way to prevent punishment is to not engage in the behaviors that will result in punishment EX. Avoid getting caught for stealing
According to Estes's motivational view of punishment (and research supporting this view), when does punishment work best?
BKLO 154. When it decrease motivation to engage in the punished behavior
What other responses can inhibit punishment being effective?
BKLO 155. Other behaviors that prevent punishment from occurring but don't inhibit the inappropriate behavior EX. Engage in a behavior that gets them punished, yet say they are sorry afterwards or lie about engaging in the behavior It is also possible that conditioned responses may elicit "cravings" to engage in the punished behavior and reduce effectiveness of punishment
What are the eight major factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment? For each one, how does that factor influence the effectiveness of punishment?
BKLO 156. 1. Contingency: Whether the punishing consequence depends on the behavior. Does the organism ever experience the punishing consequence even if they haven't engaged in the behavior? EX. Being shocked when swearing, yet being shocked even when not swearing Contingency is positively correlated with how quickly behavior decreases. Thus, as contingency increases, so does how quickly behaviors decrease. Punishment is most effective if the aversive consequence is only given in response to the behavior to be punished. 2. Continuity/Immediacy: Delay between punished response and punishment reduces effectiveness. Delay is negatively correlated with suppression, Thus, as the time delay increases, suppression decreases. In order for punishment to be optimally effective, it should be administered as immediately as possible. 3. Severity: Mild severity punishment is associated with no or temporary suppression of the punished behavior. Severity is positively correlated with suppression. Thus, as severity increases, so does suppression. More severe punishment is related to longer inhibition of punishment response. Permanent suppression may follow severe punishment. 4. Consistency: Refers to how frequently the punished behavior is performed and receives punishment. If the behavior is punished inconsistently, punishment will be ineffective is suppressing the behavior. Consistency is positively correlated with suppression. Thus, as consistency increases, so does suppression. Punishment should be administered every time the behavior occurs to truly suppress the behavior' EX. Speeding, yet not always getting a ticket every single time 5. Introductory level punisher: If the punisher starts off as mild and gets more intense, this is less effective than if the punisher starts off as intense 6. Level of reinforcement the punished behavior is receiving: If the punished behavior is still being reinforced, punishment is less effective. Effectiveness of punishment will depend on how strongly the behavior is being reinforced. Thus, to be most effective, the punished behavior should not also receive reinforcement 7. Whether there are alternatives behaviors that will obtain the desired reinforcers the punished behavior received: If the only way to get reinforcement is to engage in the punished behavior and the reinforcement is highly valued, the organism will engage in punished behavior and take the punishment to get reinforcement but if they can not get the reinforcement in another way, punishment is more effective at suppressing the punished behavior. Thus, to be most effective, there should be an alternative way to obtain the reinforcement that maintained the punished behavior. Punishment is more effective if the punisher is simultaneously reinforcing alternative (opposite or incompatible behavior to the undesired behavior being punished) 8. Punisher can be made more or less effective by modifying levels of satiation and deprivation: If satiated on the reiforcer that maintains the behavior to be punished, punishment is more effective (because organism doesn't currently need/want the reinforcer). If deprived of desired outcome and punishment further deprives organism, punishment is more effective
What are the major potential desired consequences of punishment?
BKLO 157. When done effectively, punishment reduces the punished behaviors quickly and sometimes permanently. If it is going to work, it begins to work immediately. If it is done effectively, punishment can permanently suppress the behavior. When done effectively, other desirable behaviors are able to flourish after the punished behavior diminishes
What is Mower's two factor theory of avoidance learning?
BKLO 177. The theory that avoidance learning happens in 2 phases 1st the animal is classically conditioned to fear the stimuli associated with the aversive event EX. US (shock)--> UR (Pain) NS paired (chamber) with US (shock) CS (chamber)--> CR (fear) 2nd the animal is negatively reinforced for behavior that helps avoid those stimuli EX. A: Placed in chamber shock was given in and becomes fearful B: Escape chamber C: Fear goes away and the aversive US is avoided FO: More likely to avoid going into chamber Thus, Mower believed that instead of avoiding aversive events, organisms are escaping feared stimuli
Other theories of avoidance conditioning
BKLO 178. Cognitive Expectancy Theory: States the animal learns cognitive expectiancies and behaves based on those expectancies. So, the animal decides whether to respond or not based on what they expect to happen Warning Signal (Sd)-->Respond-->No aversive OR Warning Signal (Sd)-->Do not respond--> Aversive
What are the ten major potential undesired consequences of punishment?
BKLO 158. 1. Leads to attempt to escape or avoid the source of the punishment. The punisher can become classically conditioned aversive leading to escape responding EX. Being shocked every time you enter the front door, you would just then enter through another door 2. Lying and cheating are frequently successfully used to escape or avoid punishment. When these work, they are reinforced, and thus increase in frequency. So by punishing we may increase other undesired behavior 3. Pain-induced aggression is possible reaction to aversive events. This aggression can be directed towards punisher, other organisms, or inanimate objects 4. Suppression effects might generalize to similar behaviors that the punisher does not want to suppress EX. Teacher who punishes a lot may reduce desired behavior as well as undesired behavior 5. Modeling of aggression is learned through witnessing aggressive punishment being applied to another EX. Bobo doll 6. Sometimes the contingency between the undesired behavior and the punishment is not recognized and is thought to be noncontingent. If this happens, it increases risk of developing learned helplessness and depression. 7. Punishment in the absence of reinforcement for positive opposite is not likely to be successful at achieving the desired behavior EX. Punishing a child for snatching a toy, yet not teaching them how to politely ask for a toy 8. Punishment can be negatively reinforcing for the punisher. It temporarily removes the averisve behavior, thus increasing the frequency of punishing 9. May result in the punishment trap of escalation because subjects will habituate to punishment if it did not suppress behavior initially 10. Increased risk of the punisher escalating to physically abusing punished organism EX. Ment to pull the child, yet not pull the child's arm out of its socket
When attempting to suppress behavior, what are alternatives top punishment?
BKLO 159. Response preventing: Prevent the behavior from happening by modifying the environment EX. Don't want toddler to touch something, then you move that item to where they can't get it Extinction of the undesired behavior Use of DRO, DRA, or DRI schedules of reinforcement to increase desired behavior and decrease undesired behavior Use of DRL if goal is to just reduce the frequency of the behavior
What is the recommended hierarchy among the four major ways to suppress behavior?
BKLO 160. Go from least intrusive and most socially acceptable method to suppress behavior to the most intrusive and least socially acceptable method to suppress behavior that will successfully suppress the behavior Level 1= Differential reinforcement procedures Level 2= Nonreinforcement procedure (extinction) Level 3= Response cost and Time-out procedures (negative punishment) Level 4= Positive punishment pain-inducing procedures like shock or conditioned aversive stimuli
What is response cost?
BKLO 161. When a reinforcer is removed as a consequence of a behavior or a reinforcer is no longer available to be earned as a consequence of a behavior EX. Candy is removed as a consequence of behavior EX. Traffic ticket, had money and lose money as consequence
What is the time out from reinforcement?
BKLO 162. Mild punishment procedure in which the individual loses all opportunities or reinforcement for a specific (typically brief) period of time. To be effective: -Environment person was in must be reinforcing to them -Environment person goes to for time out must not be reinforcing to them -And all of the other components that make punishment effective
When considering the use of punishment, what are the ethical concerns with its use (Both pros and cons of its use)
BKLO 163. -Only ethical is less sever treatment options have failed and it is not excessive, cruel, or unusual, or it does not cause more pain/discomfort than the behavior itself -Welfare of the individual must be of paramount concern -In some cases it may be the most humane way to suppress dangerous behavior and thus to not use it would be unethical
What are Guthrie's three methods to break a habit?
BKLO 164. 1. Fatigue method: Repeatedly present the stimuli that elicits the response until the response is not elicited because the individual is too tired to engage in it. The person eventually no longer performs a response or performs a new response. If a new response occurs, this is now paired with the stimulus EX. Smoking when getting in the car, yet if they get in the car all the time they will get tired of smoking EX. Checking social media after class and having that person doing it repeatedly will fatigue them 2. Threshold method: Presenting the stimulus associated with the threshold and gradually increasing the intensity until it is at full strength and doesn't elicit the habit EX. If boredom elicits nail biting we would present mild boredom stimuli that does not elicit the habit of nail biting and gradually increase stimuli to full boredom and the habit is broken EX. Someone having difficult time reading with noise. Introduce a low noise setting first that doesn't bother them and gradually increase to louder noise 3. Incompatible stimuli method: Going in a situation that the old habit can't occur in EX. Can't check social media when you don't have your phone EX. Can't chew gum and smoke at the same time All three methods involve replacing the undesired habit with a new one.
What is response deprivation theroy?
BKLO 165. The theory that is an animal is deprived of making a response (even non-preferred ones), they will engage is a behavior in order to gain access to the deprived response. When the organism is prevented from engaging in the behavior at the preferred level for that behavior, engaging in the behavior becomes reinforcing. The behavior must occur at some frequency prior to the deprivation and the deprivation must cause the behavior to occur lower than the optimal frequency for it to be reinforcing EX. Don't read as frequently as watching TV, yet if deprived of reading below the baseline, reading will then become a reinforcer Choosing between behaviors-Problem: An organism allowed to choose how frequently to engage in two behaviors and they want to engage in both behaviors at some level. What do they do? Solution: Distribute the frequency of each behavior to reach a point (blisspoint), at which they are engaging in the optimal level of each behavior
What is blisspoint?
BKLO 166. The point at which the organism would engage in each behavior when allowed to behave with no restrictions. The point at which the ratio of how frequently the organism engages in two behaviors is at the ideal level for each behavior for the organism. Organisms are thought to distribute their behaviors among the options so that they reach an optimal level of each EX. 2 hours of hanging out with friends for every 1 hour of studying or 3 hours of hanging out with friends for every 1 hour of studying
When forced to choose between behaviors, how does matching law suggest animals (including humans) will respond?
BKLO 167. Broadly: After experience with reinforcement schedules in operation, organisms will match their behavior to the contingencies at hand to obtain the highest amount of reinforcement possible Proportion of responses when choosing between two responses will equal (match) the proportion of reinforcement available for each of those responses EX. If animal receives food every 1 minute for pecking on Key A and every 4 minutes for pecking Key B then they will peck on each key in proportion of food they obtain Matching Law Formula: B1/B1+B2=R1/R1+R2 B1= # of responses for 1st behavior B2=# of responses for 2nd behavior R1=# of reinforcements for 1st behavior R2=# or reinforcements for 2nd behavior EX. B1= Variable interval of 10 seconds B2= Variable interval of 30 seconds R1= 1 pellet R2= 1 pellet B1 will be engaged in more frequently because it is a more frequent reinforcer. However, if the bird only engages in this behavior he will get 6 pellets per minute vs. 8 pellets per minute if he does both Organisms will match their level of behavior on two different schedules of reinforcement to the different schedules of reinforcement -If schedules are different with identical magnitude of reinforcement an each, organism will match behavior to be proportional to the amount of reinforcement available on each schedule EX. 6 pellets per minute vs. 2 pellets per minute 6/6+2= 6/8= 3/4 75% of reinforcement is given to B1 and 25% to B2 -If schedules are identical with different magnitudes of reinforcement on each, organism will match behavior to be proportional to the magnitude of reinforcement available on each EX. Get reinforced every time you watch TV, yet you like a certain TV show you are more likely to watch that one more often -If both schedules involve a delay in reinforcement, organism will match behavior to choose between behavior to be proportional to the delay of reinforcement available on each EX. More likely to engage in a behavior that gives you a $1 every 5 minutes vs. $1 every 10 minutes Organisms tend to choose small, immediate reinforcers rather than large, delayed reinforcers EX. Immediate reinforcer of eating a candy bar over the delayed reinforcer of long term weight loss This can be overwritten if one of the following is true: -The choice is made in advanced (I won't eat dessert tomorrow) -The reinforcer aren't visible (No dessert in the house) -You can do something else reinforcing until the delayed reinforcer occurs (engage in a preferred activity to gain dessert)
What is an escape response?
BKLO 168. A response aimed at ending an aversive experience EX. Leaving a room when others start arguing (negative reinforcement)
How does intensity of the aversive event influence escape behavior?
BKLO 169. Positive correlation between aversivness and escape behavior due to higher cost of engaging with aversive event -Impacts helping behavior EX. More likely to help someone pick stuff up from a clean ground than a puddle -Influences escape from punisher EX. Escape more quickly from an intense shock than from a mild shock -Anticipation of failure influences escape EX. Escape from classes by dropping if they anticipate they will fail
How does the magnitude of reinforcement influence escape behavior?
BKLO 170. The greater the reduction in the level of the aversive stimulus or event the organism is attempting to escape, the more escape behavior is learned -Full escape/Complete cessation of aversive: Strongest learned EX. Car alarm goes off and you push a button to make it stop right away -Partial escape/ Partial cessation of aversive: Weaker learning EX. Don't want to be in a certain conversation so you say something to change it, yet it dosen't completely end the conversation and makes conversation less aversive -If escape behavior from similar situations has not been reinforced in the past, less likely to escape now EX. Trying to escape nagging didn't work then, you are less likely to try and escape nagging now
How does delayed reinforcement influence escape behavior?
BKLO 171. As length of delay of reinforcement increases, the slower the acquisition of escape response and the less escape behavior is observed later on EX. Leave to another room when people are arguing, yet there is a delayed reinforcement of still being able to hear them from the other room If secondary cues to negative reinforcement of escape behavior are present, some delay is okay EX. Learn to escape a shock box when a light (secondary cue) goes off indicating there is 5 seconds till a shock Extinction of escape responses, removal of reinforcement
How can the removal of negative reinforcement eliminate escape behavior?
BKLO 172. If the aversive event continues even after escape behavior, the escape response will be extinguished (or not acquired) EX. If the lever no longer lets the rat escape from the shock then they will stop pressing the lever Happens faster when strength of the escape response is weaker
How can the absence of aversive events eliminate escape behavior?
BKLO 173. Eventually when the antecedent aversive event no longer happens, the escape behavior will extinguish once the anticipatory pain response has been extinguished
How can non-reward cause an aversive reaction?
BKLO 174a. Failing to be reinforced causes frustration response/aversive reaction
How can non-reward cause an escape response?
BKLO 174b. The stimuli associated with non-reward also becomes conditioned to be associated with non-reward and cause frustration CR. Frustration CR motivates behavior to escape the frustration Sd. Escaping from conditioned non-reward environment is reinforced by negative reinforcement, so it is maintained. Impacts of non-reward: -Once an organism escapes from stimuli associated with non-reward, why do they continue to do so? -Escape behavior is negatively reinforced. Aversive stimuli associated with frustration are Antecedent/ Sd. Escape behavior removes aversive Sd. Increase likelihood of escape in the future
How can non-reward cause increases in intensity of behavior?
BKLO 174c. A twist... Non-reward can increase the intensity of the behavior under certain circumstances. If non-reward has been conditioned to be associated with responding, it will increase behavior -If the behavior was previously reinforced and now it stops getting reinforced, organism will respond to escape frustration... stimuli associated with frustration will increase escape response -Suggests FR-2 would increase how quickly a behavior occurs following non-reward (they know they'll get rewarded next time) but decrease behavior following reward (they know they won't get rewarded this time)
What is avoidance response?
BKLO 175. A response the prevents an aversive thing from happening either permanently or temporarily. A response that stops an aversive from happening that would have happened if no behavior had occurred EX. If you see a house on fire, you will not walk into the house to avoid being burned EX. Avoid unwanted text by ignoring it A: Signal that aversive stimuli or event will happen B: Behavior to avoid that stimuli or event C: Aversive stimuli or event does not happen FO: Increased likelihood of engaging in that behavior on the future
What is the difference between active and passive avoidance learning?
BKLO 176. -Active avoidance requires an overt response to avoid the aversive stimulus. Key aspects is the aversive stimulus present but the organism is not currently experiencing it -Passive avoidance requires avoiding the avesive stimulus. Key aspect is the aversive stimulus has the potential to occur but is not currently present
How do severity of the aversive event and delay between the CS and the US influence avoidance learning?
BKLO 179. -Severity of the aversive event: The more severe the aversive event is, the more avoidance behavior is learned -Delay between the CS and the US: Longer the delay, weaker CR and thus also weaker the avoidance response
What is instrumental conditioning?
BKLO 83. When and organism learns how to obtain a reward by engaging in a behavior. In this form of conditioning, the organism is limited by the environment in how often in can engage in the behavior and how many rewards it can obtain. EX. When taking a class, you only have one opportunity to get the grade you want
What is operant conditioning?
BKLO 84. When an organism learns the relationship between the environmental predictors and the consequences of engaging in a specific behavior. There is no limit to the frequency of the behavior and thus no limit on the amount of reinforcement the organism can receive in this form of conditioning. EX. A rat put in the Skinner Box learns to press the lever to obtain food. He can press the lever as many times as he wants and receives food every time he does so
What is contingency?
BKLO 85. A set relationship between a specific behavior and reinforcement for that behavior which is determined by the environment EX. You say 'excuse me' and the other person says 'you're excused'
What are behaviors?
BKLO 86. Observable actions organisms can engage in EX. Waving to someone, studying, aggression
What can be instrumentally or operantly conditioned?
BKLO 87. Behaviors Operant Conditioning Template Antecedent situation or context prior to behavior Behavior action organism engages in Consequence (good or bad) Future occurrence of the behavior (increase or decrease)
What is reinforcement?
BKLO 88. Reinforcement is when the consequence of engaging in a behavior increases the future likelihood of engaging in that behavior in a similar situation in the future EX. Antecedent: Class setting and teacher asks class a question Behavior: Student raises hand Consequence: Student is called on Future Occurrence: Student is more likely to raise hand in future in this class
What is a reinforcer?
BKLO 89. A consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of the behavior if follows occurring again in a similar situation in the future in response to this consequence. EX. Receive a high five after saying 'thank you' you are more likely to say 'thank you' to that person in the future
What is positive reinforcement?
BKLO 90. When a desirable consequence (stimuli or event) follows a behavior and increases the likelihood of the behavior it followed happening again in a similar situation in the future EX. Receiving a dessert from someone who wanted you to engage in a desired behavior Adding a stimulus or event Desirable stimulus or event Increase behavior
What is negative reinforcement?
BKLO 91. The removal of and aversive stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior it followed happening again in a similar situation in the future EX. You get anxiety when you don't check you phone and when you check your phone your anxiety goes away, making you want to check your phone more often in the future Removing a stimulus or event Aversive stimulus or event Increase in behavior
Why did Skinner define reinforcers according to their influence rather than inherent properties? What is the benefit?
BKLO 92. What organisms find reinforcing is not universal. What one person finds reinforcing another person might not. This forces us to choose reinforcers that will actually be effective for the organism being reinforced.
What is a primary reinforcer?
BKLO 93. A reinforcer that is inherently reinforcing because it has innate biological value to the organism EX. Food, sex, water, sleep, temperature, ect. (Unconditioned stimuli)
What is a secondary reinforcer?
BKLO 94. A reinforcer that becomes reinforcing through experience EX. Money, high grades, points, ect. (Conditioned stimuli)
How do secondary reinforcers become reinforcing?
BKLO 95. Through classical conditioning Primary reinforcer--> Positive emotion Paired with Secondary reinforcer Secondary reinforcer--> Positive emotion
What is punishment?
BKLO 96. When the consequence of engaging in a behavior decreases the future likelihood of engaging in that behavior in a similar situation in the future 3 components: (1) consequence must depend on behavior occurring (2) the behavior decreases in strength in the future (3) the decrease in strength is because of the consequence Consequence has to be aversive to the organism receiving it (not universal) Punishment does not equal negative reinforcement
What is the intent of punishment?
BKLO 97. The intention of punishment is to reduce or eliminate the behavior being punished
What is the outcome on the future likelihood of the behavior if punishment is effective?
BKLO 98. The behavior being punished declines in frequency, intensity, or both
What is positive punishment?
BKLO 99. Addition of an aversive stimulus or event following a behavior that causes the future likelihood of that behavior occurring to decrease. Also known as punishment by application EX. Antecedent: Hanging out with friends Behavior: Say something rude to a friend Consequence: Friend tells you that was rude and looks hurt Future Occurrence: Less likely to say something rude to your friend in the future