Psy. Ch. 3

the spinal cord

"extension of the brain" It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes. The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs—contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine. The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment. Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don't have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.

the case of Henry Molaison (H.M.)

1953 - Henry Gustav Molaison was a 27 year old man who had severe seizures; in attempt to control them, he underwent brain surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala following surgery, his seizures were much less severe but he also suffered some unexpected and devastating consequences of it - he lost his ability to form many new memories ex. he was able to learn new skills, but afterward he had no recollection of learning them - he might learn to use a computer but then have no conscious memory of ever having used one [Researchers were fascinated by his experience, and he is considered one of the most studied cases in medical and psychological history (Hardt, Einarsson, & Nader, 2010; Squire, 2009). Indeed, his case has provided tremendous insight into the role that the hippocampus plays in the consolidation of new learning into explicit memory.]

lobes of the brain

4 = frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital People who suffer damage to Broca's area have great difficulty producing language of any form Probably the most famous case of frontal lobe damage is that of a man by the name of Phineas Gage. On September 13, 1848, Gage (age 25) was working as a railroad foreman in Vermont. He and his crew were using an iron rod to tamp explosives down into a blasting hole to remove rock along the railway's path. Unfortunately, the iron rod created a spark and caused the rod to explode out of the blasting hole, into Gage's face, and through his skull (Figure 3.19). Although lying in a pool of his own blood with brain matter emerging from his head, Gage was conscious and able to get up, walk, and speak (in the months following, his personality changed and he was no longer himself) - before the accident, he was a well-mannered, soft-spoken man, but he began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after the accident - such changes in personality would be consistent w/ the loss of impulse control, a frontal lobe function Beyond the damage to the frontal lobe itself, subsequent investigations into the rod's path also identified probable damage to pathways between the frontal lobe and other brain structures, including the limbic system. With connections between the planning functions of the frontal lobe and the emotional processes of the limbic system severed, Gage had difficulty controlling his emotional impulses. - However, there is some evidence suggesting that the dramatic changes in Gage's personality were exaggerated and embellished. Gage's case occurred in the midst of a 19th century debate over localization—regarding whether certain areas of the brain are associated with particular functions. On the basis of extremely limited information about Gage, the extent of his injury, and his life before and after the accident, scientists tended to find support for their own views, on whichever side of the debate they fell The brain's parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body's senses. It contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex ex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist. temporal lobe = located on the side of the head "near temples" and is associated w/ hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language - The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke's area, important for speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca's area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke's area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it occipital lobe = located at the very back of the brain; contains the visual cortex which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual info. - The occipital cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a close relationship between the position of an object in a person's visual field and the position of that object's representation on the cortex

genetic variation

= genetic differences = contributes to a species adaptation to its environment In humans, genetic variation begins with an egg, about 100 million sperm, and fertilization. - The egg and the sperm each contain 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs. In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes that control or partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on. A single gene may have multiple possible variations, or alleles. An allele is a specific version of a gene. So, a given gene may code for the trait of hair color, and the different alleles of that gene affect which hair color an individual has When a sperm and egg fuse, their 23 chromosomes pair up and create a zygote with 23 pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, each parent contributes half the genetic information carried by the offspring; the resulting physical characteristics of the offspring (called the phenotype) are determined by the interaction of genetic material supplied by the parents (called the genotype) *most traits are controlled by multiple genes, but some traits are controlled by one gene* - few human characteristics are controlled by a single gene - most traits are polygenic = controlled by more than one gene

athletes and anabolic steroids

Although it is against Federal laws and many professional athletic associations (The National Football League, for example) have banned their use, anabolic steroid drugs continue to be used by amateur and professional athletes. The drugs are believed to enhance athletic performance. Anabolic steroid drugs mimic the effects of the body's own steroid hormones, like testosterone and its derivatives. These drugs have the potential to provide a competitive edge by increasing muscle mass, strength, and endurance, although not all users may experience these results use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) does not come without risks. Anabolic steroid use has been linked with a wide variety of potentially negative outcomes, ranging in severity from largely cosmetic (acne) to life threatening (heart attack). Furthermore, use of these substances can result in profound changes in mood and can increase aggressive behavior Baseball player Alex Rodriguez (A-Rod) has been at the center of a media storm regarding his use of illegal PEDs. Rodriguez's performance on the field was unparalleled while using the drugs; his success played a large role in negotiating a contract that made him the highest paid player in professional baseball. Although Rodriguez maintains that he has not used PEDs for the several years, he received a substantial suspension in 2013 that, if upheld, will cost him more than 20 million dollars in earnings

gene-environment interactions

Although we are all biological organisms, we also exist in an environment that is incredibly important in determining not only when and how our genes express themselves, but also in what combination. Each of us represents a unique interaction between our genetic makeup and our environment; range of reaction is one way to describe this interaction. range of reaction: asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall. (ex. if an individual's genetic makeup predisposes her to high levels of intellectual potential and she is reared in a rich, stimulating environment, then she will be more likely to achieve her full potential than if she were raised under conditions of significant deprivation) - According to the concept of range of reaction, genes set definite limits on potential, and environment determines how much of that potential is achieved. Some disagree with this theory and argue that genes do not set a limit on a person's potential. another perspective on the interaction b/w genes and the environment = genetic environmental correlation - our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes [Not only do our genes and environment interact, as in range of reaction, but they also influence one another bidirectionally. For example, the child of an NBA player would probably be exposed to basketball from an early age. Such exposure might allow the child to realize his or her full genetic, athletic potential. Thus, the parents' genes, which the child shares, influence the child's environment, and that environment, in turn, is well suited to support the child's genetic potential] another approach to gene-environment interactions = field of epigenetics [looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways. In other words, researchers study how the same genotype can lead to very different phenotypes. As mentioned earlier, gene expression is often influenced by environmental context in ways that are not entirely obvious. For instance, identical twins share the same genetic information (identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each; in contrast, fraternal twins develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the genetic material varies as with non-twin siblings). But even with identical genes, there remains an incredible amount of variability in how gene expression can unfold over the course of each twin's life. Sometimes, one twin will develop a disease and the other will not.] genes affects more than our physical characteristics - scientists have found genetic linkages to a # of beh. characteristics: basic personality traits, sexual orientation, spirituality, temperament, psychological disorders such as schizophrenia [experiences and behaviors]

Terri Schiavo

Feb. 25, 1990; Florida went into cardiac arrest, apparently triggered by a bulimic episode. She was eventually revived, but her brain had been deprived of oxygen for a long time. Brain scans indicated that there was no activity in her cerebral cortex, and she suffered from severe and permanent cerebral atrophy. Basically, Schiavo was in a vegetative state. Medical professionals determined that she would never again be able to move, talk, or respond in any way. To remain alive, she required a feeding tube, and there was no chance that her situation would ever improve. sometimes she would move her eyes and groan making her parents to believe that they were signs of communication - after 12 years, her husband argues that his wife would not have wanted to be kept alive with no feelings, sensations, or brain activity; her parents were very much against removing her feeding tube - the case was made to the courts and the feeding tube was removed; she died 13 days later her eyes moved and she groaned b/c although parts of her brain that controlled thought, voluntary movement, and feeling were completely damaged, her brain stream was still intact (her medullla and pons maintained her breathing and caused involuntary movements of her eyes and the occasional groans - over the 15 year period that she was on a feeding tube, her medical costs may have topped $7 million

brain imaging

Increasingly, however, we are able to obtain that information using brain imaging techniques on individuals who have not suffered brain injury. In this section, we take a more in-depth look at some of the techniques that are available for imaging the brain, including techniques that rely on radiation, magnetic fields, or electrical activity within the brain.

cells of the nervous system

Psychologists striving to understand the human mind may study the nervous system. Learning how the cells and organs (like the brain) function, help us understand the biological basis behind human psychology. The nervous system is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons. *Glial cells*, which outnumber neurons ten to one, are traditionally thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically. Glial cells provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses. Neurons, on the other hand, serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system.

the 2 hemispheres of the brain

The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as sulci (singular: sulcus), The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. deep sulcus = fissure such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the two hemispheres - There is evidence of some specialization of function—referred to as lateralization—in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the differences that have been found have been minor. What we do know is that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side. Much of what we know about the functions of different areas of the brain comes from studying changes in the behavior and ability of individuals who have suffered damage to the brain. For example, researchers study the behavioral changes caused by strokes to learn about the functions of specific brain areas. A stroke, caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region in the brain, causes a loss of brain function in the affected region.

forebrain structures

The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the forebrain (Figure 3.17), which is the largest part of the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions. *the brain and its parts can be divided into three main categories: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain*

neurotransmitters and drugs

There are several different types of neurotransmitters released by different neurons, and we can speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with different neurotransmitters (Table 3.1). Much of what psychologists know about the functions of neurotransmitters comes from research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders. Psychologists who take a biological perspective and focus on the physiological causes of behavior assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems. In this perspective, psychotropic medications can help improve the symptoms associated with these disorders. Psychotropic medications are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance. Psychoactive drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system. Agonists are chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus, strengthen its effects. An antagonist, on the other hand, blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. Agonist and antagonist drugs are prescribed to correct the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person's condition. - ex. For example, Parkinson's disease, a progressive nervous system disorder, is associated with low levels of dopamine. Therefore dopamine agonists, which mimic the effects of dopamine by binding to dopamine receptors, are one treatment strategy. (block effects by such as dopamine's effects by binding its receptors without activating them) = antagonists [reuptake inhibitors prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to the neuron. This leaves more neurotransmitters in the synapse for a longer time, increasing its effects] The nervous system can be divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), shown in Figure 3.13. The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord; the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body

neuronal communication

We begin at the neuronal membrane. The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate—a critical role because the electrical signal that passes through the neuron depends on the intra- and extracellular fluids being electrically different. This difference in charge across the membrane, called the *membrane potential*, provides energy for the signal. The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules, and, as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell. Between signals, the neuron membrane's potential is held in a state of readiness, called the resting potential. Like a rubber band stretched out and waiting to spring into action, ions line up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the membrane when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates (i.e., a sodium-potassium pump that allows movement of ions across the membrane). Ions in high-concentration areas are ready to move to low-concentration areas, and positive ions are ready to move to areas with a negative charge. In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell (Figure 3.10). In addition, the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the outside. This provides an additional force on sodium, causing it to move into the cell. From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its state changes abruptly (Figure 3.11). When a neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open on the neuronal membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge and concentration differences, to move into the cell. With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. This positive spike constitutes the action potential: the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal moves down the axon like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions. The action potential moves all the way down to the terminal buttons action potential = all or none phenomena = In simple terms, this means that an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation. There is no in- between, and there is no turning off an action potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an email or a text message. You can think about sending it all you want, but the message is not sent until you hit the send button. Furthermore, once you send the message, there is no stopping it. - Because it is all or none, the action potential is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength at every point along the axon. Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake. Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse (Figure 3.12). Clearing the synapse serves both to provide a clear "on" and "off" state between signals and to regulate the production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional neurotransmitters need to be produced). Neuronal communication is often referred to as an electrochemical event. The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is an electrical event, and movement of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic space represents the chemical portion of the process.

neuron structure

are the central building blocks of the nervous system, 100 billion strong at birth. Like all cells, neurons consist of several different parts, each serving a specialized function outer surface: made up of semipermeable membrane = allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body. The soma has branching extensions known as dendrites. The neuron is a small information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system. Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells form a fatty substance known as the myelin sheath, which coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin sheath is crucial for the normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of the insulation it provides can be detrimental to normal function. ex.Multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disorder, involves a large-scale loss of the myelin sheath on axons throughout the nervous system. The resulting interference in the electrical signal prevents the quick transmittal of information by neurons and can lead to a number of symptoms, such as dizziness, fatigue, loss of motor control, and sexual dysfunction. While some treatments may help to modify the course of the disease and manage certain symptoms, there is currently no known cure for multiple sclerosis. In healthy individuals, the neuronal signal moves rapidly down the axon to the terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synapse (Figure 3.9). The synapse is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, they travel across the small space and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. Receptors, proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes "matching" different neurotransmitters.

techniques involving radiation

computerized tomography (CT scan): involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person's body or brain - The x-rays pass through tissues of different densities at different rates, allowing a computer to construct an overall image of the area of the body being scanned. A CT scan is often used to determine whether someone has a tumor, or significant brain atrophy (decay) positron emission tomography (PET): creates pictures of the living, active brain; the person receiving this scan is either is injected or drinks a mild radioactive substance called a tracer - once in the bloodstream the amount of any tracer in any given region of the brain can be monitored [as brain areas become more active, more blood flows to that area - a computer monitors the movement of the tracer and creates a rough map of active and inactive areas of the brain during a given beh.] though, they show little detail; are unable to pinpoint events precisely in time, and req. that the brain be exposed to radiation, and therefore this technique has been replaced by the fMRI as an alternative diagnostic tool [However, combined with CT, PET technology is still being used in certain contexts. For example, CT/ PET scans allow better imaging of the activity of neurotransmitter receptors and open new avenues in schizophrenia research. In this hybrid CT/PET technology, CT contributes clear images of brain structures, while PET shows the brain's activity]

the endocrine system

consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones (Figure 3.30). Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters, which are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, *hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them* Thus, whereas neurotransmitters' effects are localized, the effects of hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting. Hormones are involved in regulating all sorts of bodily functions, and they are ultimately controlled through interactions between the hypothalamus (in the central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in the endocrine system). Imbalances in hormones are related to a number of disorders.

techniques involving electrical activity

electroencephalography (EEG) helps to gain an understanding of a person's brain w/o needing info. on the actual location of the activity - provides a measure of a brain's electrical activity an array of electrodes is placed around a person's head; the signals received by the electrodes result in a printout of the electrical activity of his or her brain, or brainwaves, showing both the frequency (# of waves per second) and amplitude (height) of the recorded brainwaves, w/ an accuracy of milliseconds (this info. is especially helpful to researchers studying sleep patterns among individuals w/ sleep disorders)

job of psychologists

find the connection b/w the inner workings of the human body and the external expression of those workings ex. how millions of neurons became a thought [explanation of biological mechanisms that underlie behavior]

evolutionary psychology

focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time. Therefore, variations in cognition and behavior would make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing those genes to their offspring. Evolutionary psychologists study a variety of psychological phenomena that may have evolved as adaptations, including fear response, food preferences, mate selection, and cooperative behaviors

other areas of the forebrain

located beneath the cerebral cortex thalamus & limbic system thalamus = sensory relay for the brain (all of our senses w/ the exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing) limbic system = involved in processing both emotion and memory - sense of smell projects directly to the limbic system, therefore, smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot - 3 of the most impt. structures are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus [hippocampus: essential structure for learning and memory; amygdala: involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories; hypothalamus: regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure - also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior] *the limbic system is involved in mediating emotional response and memory*

peripheral nervous system

made of thick bundles of axons called nerves carrying messages back and forth b/w the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body (everything outside of the CNS) has 2 major subdivisions: - somatic nervous system - autonomic nervous system somatic nervous sytem: associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor neurons, carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent fibers (efferent means "moving away from"). Sensory neurons, carrying sensory information to the CNS, are afferent fibers (afferent means "moving toward"). Each nerve is basically a two-way superhighway, containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent. autonomic nervous sytem: controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions [The sympathetic nervous system is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities; the parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two systems have complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body's homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels] *the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system have the opposite effects on various systems* - pg. 88 fight or flight response, allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety - Once the threat has been resolved, the parasympathetic nervous system takes over and returns bodily functions to a relaxed state. The brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors.

techniques involving magnetic fields

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): a person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the hydrogen atoms in the body's cells to move. When the magnetic field is turned off, the hydrogen atoms emit electromagnetic signals as they return to their original positions. Tissues of different densities give off different signals, which a computer interprets and displays on a monitor functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): operates on the same principles as MRI but it shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels. The fMRI provides more detailed images of the brain's structure, as well as better accuracy in time, than is possible in PET scans; With their high level of detail, MRI and fMRI are often used to compare the brains of healthy individuals to the brains of individuals diagnosed with psychological disorders. This comparison helps determine what structural and functional differences exist between these populations.

midbrain and hindbrain structures

midbrain: composed of structures located deep within the brain, b/w the forebrain and the hindbrain The reticular formation is centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain. The reticular formation is important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity. the substantia nigra (Latin for "black substance") and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are also located in the midbrain [both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson's disease. In addition, these structures are involved in mood, reward, and addiction] the hind brain is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. It contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum - The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. The word pons literally means "bridge," and as the name suggests, the pons serves to connect the brain and spinal cord. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep. *The medulla, pons, and midbrain together are known as the brainstem* - The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to the fact that H. M.'s cerebellum remained intact.

major glands of the endocrine system

pituitary gland: descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the "master gland" because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body. thyroid gland: located in the neck; releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. In hyperthyroidism, or Grave's disease, the thyroid secretes too much of the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss. In hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience tiredness, and they often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid disorders are often treatable with medications that help reestablish a balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid adrenal glands: sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). pancreas: secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon). People who suffer from diabetes do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume. gonads: secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads are the testes. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete androgens, such as testosterone.

psychological researchers

study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions. ex.'s Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? [sickle-cell anemia -> common among people of African descent; two young women - one carries the gene, the other does not - the carrier only experiences effects when she is severely dehydrated or deprived of oxygen; carriers are thought to be immune to malaria b/c of changes in blood chemistry & immune functioning prevent its effects; though two copies of the sickle-cell gene does NOT provide immunity to malaria - while walking from school one dies b/c she does not have 1 copy of the gene for sickle cell; the other reproduces and she may or may not pass on the sickle cell mutation] - effects are minor in carriers but severely debilitating in the full blown disease with both copies of the gene

behavioral geneticists

study how individual differences arise, in the present, through the interaction of genes and the environment. When studying human behavior, behavioral geneticists often employ twin and adoption studies to research questions of interest. Twin studies compare the rates that a given behavioral trait is shared among identical and fraternal twins; adoption studies compare those rates among biologically related relatives and adopted relatives. Both approaches provide some insight into the relative importance of genes and environment for the expression of a given trait.