PSY FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Freud's personality theory

- Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. - This "structural theory" of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the parts of the mind shape behavior and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious. - According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through a series of five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of development. - During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality. - Freud's ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development. READING: To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg (Figure 4). He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access (Freud, 1923). According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression. For example, we sometimes say things that we don't intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You've probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning (Motley, 2002). According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives. Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego (Figure 5). The unconscious id contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Freud believed that the id operates on what he called the "pleasure principle," in which the id seeks immediate gratification. Through social interactions with parents and others in a child's environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the id. The superego develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt. In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the ego is the rational part of our personality. It's what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the "reality principle." The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way. The id and superego are in constant conflict, because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego's job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id's desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).

All memory stages -Encoding, etc,

1.) Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and combining information. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process. 2.) Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of time. 3.) Retrieval (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information. Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from forgetfulness to amnesia. Distraction can prevent us from encoding information initially; information might not be stored properly, or might not move from short-term to long-term storage; and/or we might not be able to retrieve the information once it's stored. - The three main stages of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Problems can occur at any of these stages. - The three main forms of memory storage are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. - Sensory memory is not consciously controlled; it allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. - Short-term memory lasts for a very brief time and can only hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at once. - Long-term storage can hold an indefinitely large amount of information and can last for a very long time. - Implicit and explicit memories are two different types of long-term memory. Implicit memories are of sensory and automatized behaviors, and explicit memories are of information, episodes, or events. encoding: input of information into the memory system automatic processing encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words declarative memory type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience effortful processing encoding of information that takes effort and attention episodic memory type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory explicit memory memories we consciously try to remember and recall implicit memory memories that are not part of our consciousness long-term memory (LTM) continuous storage of information memory system or process that stores what we learn for future use memory consolidation active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory procedural memory type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim semantic encoding input of words and their meaning semantic memory type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts sensory memory storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes short-term memory (STM) (also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used READING: We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing. If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is known as effortful processing.

Hallucination

A hallucination is a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation. Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) occur in roughly two-thirds of patients with schizophrenia and are by far the most common form of hallucination (Andreasen, 1987). The voices may be familiar or unfamiliar, they may have a conversation or argue, or the voices may provide a running commentary on the person's behavior (Tsuang, Farone, & Green, 1999). Less common are visual hallucinations (seeing things that are not there) and olfactory hallucinations (smelling odors that are not actually present). A symptom of Schizophrenia

Observer bias

Another potential problem in observational research is observer bias. Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability: a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers

Brain divisions (Forebrain, Midbrain, etc.)

FOREBRAIN: largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures - The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the forebrain (Figure 3), which is the largest part of the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions. - Other areas of the forebrain (which includes the lobes that you learned about previously), are the parts located beneath the cerebral cortex, including the thalamus and the limbic system. The thalamus is a sensory relay for the brain. All of our senses, with the exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing (Figure 1). - The limbic system is involved in processing both emotion and memory. Interestingly, the sense of smell projects directly to the limbic system; therefore, not surprisingly, smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot. The limbic system is made up of a number of different structures, but three of the most important are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus (Figure 2). The hippocampus is an essential structure for learning and memory. The amygdala is involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories. The hypothalamus regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure. The hypothalamus also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior. MIDBRAIN: division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation - The midbrain is comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain. The reticular formation is centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain. The reticular formation is important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity. - The substantia nigra (Latin for "black substance") and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are also located in the midbrain (Figure 3). Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson's disease. In addition, these structures are involved in mood, reward, and addiction (Berridge & Robinson, 1998; Gardner, 2011; George, Le Moal, & Koob, 2012). HINDBRAIN: division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum - The hindbrain is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. It contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum (Figure 4). The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. The word pons literally means "bridge," and as the name suggests, the pons serves to connect the brain and spinal cord. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep. The medulla, pons, and midbrain together are known as the brainstem. - The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to the fact that H. M.'s cerebellum remained intact. SEE ULTIMATE MIDTERM PACKET FOR MORE

Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment (regulating hormones, body temp., water balance, etc.). tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system

Piaget's stages

Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. READING: The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants' reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused. Piaget's second stage is the preoperational stage, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child's arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre-operational). Children's logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny's pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. Piaget's third stage is the concrete operational stage, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza? The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget's theory is the formal operational stage, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.

Narcissistic personality disorder

Overinflated and unjustified sense of self-importance and preoccupied with fantasies of success; believes he is entitled to special treatment from others; shows arrogant attitudes and behaviors; takes advantage of others; lacks empathy

Psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person's unconscious in affecting conscious behavior, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades. - psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido that develops in five stages. Structural Model of personality : Id - the unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives, such as sex & aggression. Ego - contains conscious and unconscious elements and is the rational and reasonable part of personality. Mediates tendencies of the ID and Superego. Super Ego - a person's conscience, which develops early in life and is learned from parents, teachers, and others. (if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt.) All three are called dynamic equilibrium READING: Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology's history was Sigmund Freud ([link]). Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients' problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud's view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient's problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people's minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person's unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Freud's ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when you study lifespan development, personality, and therapy. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person's life. The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud's other ideas, however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the criticisms of Freud's ideas are misplaced, in that they attack his older ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experiences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for all of these ideas. More modern iterations of Freud's clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current practices in psychotherapy involve examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client. Freud's historical significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion in a discussion of the historical movements within psychology.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Psychologists consider three types of consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (inter-rater reliability). READING: Test-retest reliability is the extent to which this is actually the case. For example, intelligence is generally thought to be consistent across time. A person who is highly intelligent today will be highly intelligent next week. This means that any good measure of intelligence should produce roughly the same scores for this individual next week as it does today. Clearly, a measure that produces highly inconsistent scores over time cannot be a very good measure of a construct that is supposed to be consistent. A second kind of reliability is internal consistency, which is the consistency of people's responses across the items on a multiple-item measure. In general, all the items on such measures are supposed to reflect the same underlying construct, so people's scores on those items should be correlated with each other. On the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, people who agree that they are a person of worth should tend to agree that that they have a number of good qualities. If people's responses to the different items are not correlated with each other, then it would no longer make sense to claim that they are all measuring the same underlying construct. This is as true for behavioural and physiological measures as for self-report measures. For example, people might make a series of bets in a simulated game of roulette as a measure of their level of risk seeking. This measure would be internally consistent to the extent that individual participants' bets were consistently high or low across trials. Like test-retest reliability, internal consistency can only be assessed by collecting and analyzing data. One approach is to look at a split-half correlation. This involves splitting the items into two sets, such as the first and second halves of the items or the even- and odd-numbered items. Then a score is computed for each set of items, and the relationship between the two sets of scores is examined. For example, Figure 5.3 shows the split-half correlation between several university students' scores on the even-numbered items and their scores on the odd-numbered items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Pearson's r for these data is +.88. A split-half correlation of +.80 or greater is generally considered good internal consistency. Many behavioural measures involve significant judgment on the part of an observer or a rater. Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which different observers are consistent in their judgments. For example, if you were interested in measuring university students' social skills, you could make video recordings of them as they interacted with another student whom they are meeting for the first time. Then you could have two or more observers watch the videos and rate each student's level of social skills. To the extent that each participant does in fact have some level of social skills that can be detected by an attentive observer, different observers' ratings should be highly correlated with each other. Inter-rater reliability would also have been measured in Bandura's Bobo doll study. In this case, the observers' ratings of how many acts of aggression a particular child committed while playing with the Bobo doll should have been highly positively correlated. Interrater reliability is often assessed using Cronbach's α when the judgments are quantitative or an analogous statistic called Cohen's κ (the Greek letter kappa) when they are categorical.

Sternberg's Theory of Love

Sternberg (1988) suggests that there are three main components of love: passion, intimacy, and commitment. Love relationships vary depending on the presence or absence of each of these components. Passion refers to the intense, physical attraction partners feel toward one another. Intimacy involves the ability the share feelings, personal thoughts and psychological closeness with the other. Commitment is the conscious decision to stay together. Passion can be found in the early stages of a relationship, but intimacy takes time to develop because it is based on knowledge of the partner. Once intimacy has been established, partners may resolve to stay in the relationship. Although many would agree that all three components are important to a relationship, many love relationships do not consist of all three. Types of possibilities: Liking: In this relationship, intimacy or knowledge of the other and a sense of closeness is present. Passion and commitment, however, are not. Partners feel free to be themselves and disclose personal information. They may feel that the other person knows them well and can be honest with them and let them know if they think the person is wrong. These partners are friends. However, being told that your partner 'thinks of you as a friend' can be a devastating blow if you are attracted to them and seek a romantic involvement. Infatuation: Perhaps, this is Sternberg's version of "love at first sight". Infatuation consists of an immediate, intense physical attraction to someone. A person who is infatuated finds it hard to think of anything but the other person. Brief encounters are played over and over in one's head; it may be difficult to eat and there may be a rather constant state of arousal. Infatuation is rather short-lived, however, lasting perhaps only a matter of months or as long as a year or so. It tends to be based on chemical attraction and an image of what one thinks the other is all about. Fatuous Love: However, some people who have a strong physical attraction push for commitment early in the relationship. Passion and commitment are aspects of fatuous love. There is no intimacy and the commitment is premature. Partners rarely talk seriously or share their ideas. They focus on their intense physical attraction and yet one, or both, is also talking of making a lasting commitment. Sometimes this is out of a sense of insecurity and a desire to make sure the partner is locked into the relationship. Empty Love: This type of love may be found later in a relationship or in a relationship that was formed to meet needs other than intimacy or passion (money, childrearing, status). Here the partners are committed to staying in the relationship (for the children, because of a religious conviction, or because there are no alternatives perhaps), but do not share ideas or feelings with each other and have no physical attraction for one another. Romantic Love: Intimacy and passion are components of romantic love, but there is no commitment. The partners spend much time with one another and enjoy their closeness but have not made plans to continue 'no matter what'. This may be true because they are not in a position to make such commitments or because they are looking for passion and closeness and are afraid it will die out if they commit to one another and start to focus on other kinds of obligations. Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment are the hallmarks of companionate love. Partners love and respect one another and they are committed to staying together. But their physical attraction may have never been strong or may have just died out. This may be interpreted as 'just the way things are' after so much time together or there may be a sense of regret and loss. Nevertheless, partners are good friends committed to one another. Consummate Love: Intimacy, passion, and commitment are present in consummate love. This is often the ideal type of love. The couple shares passion; the spark has not died, and the closeness is there. They feel like best friends as well as lovers and they are committed to staying together

Pregnancy stages and environmental influences

Teratogens A teratogen is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus. Exposure to teratogens during the prenatal stage can significantly raise the risk of birth defects. Several factors influence the amount of damage a teratogen can have, including dose or level of exposure, heredity, age of the teratogen, and any other negative influences (for example, several teratogens or a teratogen combined with poor health). There are several known teratogens that expectant mothers are advised to avoid during pregnancy, including alcohol, prescription and/or illegal drugs, and tobacco. Alcohol Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental disabilities in children in the United States (Maier & West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) with life-long consequences for the child, ranging in severity from minor to major. It is unknown how much alcohol is necessary to cause damage, and so doctors typically recommend that alcohol should be completely avoided during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD and learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has been suggested that a mother's alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: The symptoms of FASD include slow physical growth, abnormal facial features (such as a smooth philtrum, or no dent in the upper lip), and brain injury. Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy, called the critical or sensitive period. Research into FASD has demonstrated that the time during which a developing fetus is exposed to alcohol can dramatically affect the appearance of facial characteristics associated with FASD. Specifically, this research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring of primates (Ashley, Magnuson, Omnell, & Clarren, 1999). Given regions of the brain also show sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic effects of alcohol (Tran & Kelly, 2003). Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs Use of any type of drug—whether illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter—can be dangerous during pregnancy. Illegal drugs such as heroine, cocaine, and methamphetamine can cause a myriad of problems for the developing fetus: babies can be born addicted to certain drugs and are also more likely to be born prematurely, have low birth weight, and experience other physical defects. Many end up with attention and behavioral problems as well. Prescription drugs taken during pregnancy such as streptomycin, tetracycline, some antidepressants, progestin, synthetic estrogen, Accutane, thalidomide, and diethylstilbestrol (known as DES)—as well as over-the-counter drugs such as diet pills—can also result in teratogenic outcomes for the developing fetus. Thalidomide causes bodily deformities as well as damage to internal organs. DES-exposed fetuses have been shown to have higher rates of cancer and infertility as adults. Additionally, high doses of aspirin are known to lead to maternal and fetal bleeding, although low-dose aspirin is usually not harmful. The classification of a drug (as A, B, C, D, or X) allows a mother to make determinations about using drugs during pregnancy: for example, class A drugs are deemed always safe, whereas class X drugs have proven to be damaging to the fetus. Smoking Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)—the sudden and unexplained death of a child less than one year of age. Other issues that can be caused by prenatal exposure to smoking are inattentiveness, muscle tension, and colic (a form of pain which starts and stops abruptly and occurs due to muscular contractions in the body). The more a mother smokes or is exposed to second-hand smoke, the greater the risk; however, quitting (even after smoking during pregnancy) greatly reduces the risks of these problems. Other Teratogens Other teratogens that affect prenatal development include radiation, pollution, and infectious disease. Radiation increases the risk of childhood cancer, as well as emotional and behavioral disorders; because of this, it is recommended that pregnant women avoid x-rays unless absolutely necessary. Pollution, such as exposure to mercury or PCBs, can cause physical deformities, abnormal speech, and difficulty with coordination. Maternal infections such as viruses or parasites can also cause brain damage to the fetus, or even death. Maternal Stress and Depression Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal development, and can cause harm to both mother and child. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally, a stressed mother is more likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such as smoking, drug use, and alcohol abuse. Prenatal depression is often caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring, only at a more severe level. Other factors that can put a person at risk for prenatal depression include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family problems. The use of antidepressants in pregnancy, mentioned above, has been associated with a variety of risks for the fetus with varying degrees of proof of causation. While some studies clearly show the adverse outcomes of prenatal antidepressant exposure, others are less clear—and complications arise because depression itself is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes. Determining the extent to which adverse outcomes are caused by antidepressant use or by depression—or a combination of both—is difficult to measure; it is also important to factor in the negative consequences of a mother going off prescription antidepressants during pregnancy, which may adversely effect her health in other ways.

Sleep rhythms and process

The first stage of NREM sleep is known as stage 1 sleep. Stage 1 sleep is a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature.In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. The early portion of stage 1 sleep produces alpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (8-13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized. This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Theta waves are even lower frequency (4-7 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. As we move into stage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 3). A sleep spindle is a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. A K-complex is a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halász, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Stage 3 of sleep is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude delta waves (Figure 4). During this time, an individual's heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). This brainwave pattern is associated with deep relaxation and with some stages of sleep, including the lighter stages of non-REM (NREM) sleep. ... Deep meditation produces theta waves, which are slower and of lower frequency (between 5-8 hertz) than Alpha waves As mentioned earlier, REM sleep is marked by rapid movements of the eyes. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown in Figure 5, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001), although there is disagreement within the scientific community about how important both NREM and REM sleep are for normal learning and memory (paralyzed/brain is active like its awake). REM known as paradoxical sleep (brain awake; body asleep) biological rhythm: internal cycle of biological activity circadian rhythm: biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours consciousness: awareness of internal and external stimuli homeostasis: tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time jet lag: collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment melatonin: hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle meta-analysis: study that combines the results of several related studies pineal gland: endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin rotating shift work: work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis sleep: state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis sleep regulation: brain's control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside worldsuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located wakefulness: characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

Informational and normative Influence

The two major motives in conformity are: 1) normative influence, or the tendency to conform in order to gain social acceptance; and 2) informational influence, which is based on the desire to obtain useful information through conformity and achieve a correct or appropriate result.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are intended to. As an absurd example, imagine someone who believes that people's index finger length reflects their self-esteem and therefore tries to measure self-esteem by holding a ruler up to people's index fingers. Although this measure would have extremely good test-retest reliability, it would have absolutely no validity. The fact that one person's index finger is a centimeter longer than another's would indicate nothing about which one had higher self-esteem. READING: Face validity is the extent to which a measurement method appears "on its face" to measure the construct of interest. Most people would expect a self-esteem questionnaire to include items about whether they see themselves as a person of worth and whether they think they have good qualities. So a questionnaire that included these kinds of items would have good face validity. The finger-length method of measuring self-esteem, on the other hand, seems to have nothing to do with self-esteem and therefore has poor face validity. Although face validity can be assessed quantitatively—for example, by having a large sample of people rate a measure in terms of whether it appears to measure what it is intended to—it is usually assessed informally. Face validity is at best a very weak kind of evidence that a measurement method is measuring what it is supposed to. One reason is that it is based on people's intuitions about human behaviour, which are frequently wrong. It is also the case that many established measures in psychology work quite well despite lacking face validity. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) measures many personality characteristics and disorders by having people decide whether each of over 567 different statements applies to them—where many of the statements do not have any obvious relationship to the construct that they measure. For example, the items "I enjoy detective or mystery stories" and "The sight of blood doesn't frighten me or make me sick" both measure the suppression of aggression. In this case, it is not the participants' literal answers to these questions that are of interest, but rather whether the pattern of the participants' responses to a series of questions matches those of individuals who tend to suppress their aggression. Content validity is the extent to which a measure "covers" the construct of interest. For example, if a researcher conceptually defines test anxiety as involving both sympathetic nervous system activation (leading to nervous feelings) and negative thoughts, then his measure of test anxiety should include items about both nervous feelings and negative thoughts. Or consider that attitudes are usually defined as involving thoughts, feelings, and actions toward something. By this conceptual definition, a person has a positive attitude toward exercise to the extent that he or she thinks positive thoughts about exercising, feels good about exercising, and actually exercises. So to have good content validity, a measure of people's attitudes toward exercise would have to reflect all three of these aspects. Like face validity, content validity is not usually assessed quantitatively. Instead, it is assessed by carefully checking the measurement method against the conceptual definition of the construct. Criterion validity is the extent to which people's scores on a measure are correlated with other variables (known as criteria) that one would expect them to be correlated with. For example, people's scores on a new measure of test anxiety should be negatively correlated with their performance on an important school exam. If it were found that people's scores were in fact negatively correlated with their exam performance, then this would be a piece of evidence that these scores really represent people's test anxiety. But if it were found that people scored equally well on the exam regardless of their test anxiety scores, then this would cast doubt on the validity of the measure. A criterion can be any variable that one has reason to think should be correlated with the construct being measured, and there will usually be many of them. For example, one would expect test anxiety scores to be negatively correlated with exam performance and course grades and positively correlated with general anxiety and with blood pressure during an exam. Or imagine that a researcher develops a new measure of physical risk taking. People's scores on this measure should be correlated with their participation in "extreme" activities such as snowboarding and rock climbing, the number of speeding tickets they have received, and even the number of broken bones they have had over the years. When the criterion is measured at the same time as the construct, criterion validity is referred to as concurrent validity; however, when the criterion is measured at some point in the future (after the construct has been measured), it is referred to as predictive validity (because scores on the measure have "predicted" a future outcome). Discriminant validity, on the other hand, is the extent to which scores on a measure are not correlated with measures of variables that are conceptually distinct. For example, self-esteem is a general attitude toward the self that is fairly stable over time. It is not the same as mood, which is how good or bad one happens to be feeling right now. So people's scores on a new measure of self-esteem should not be very highly correlated with their moods. If the new measure of self-esteem were highly correlated with a measure of mood, it could be argued that the new measure is not really measuring self-esteem; it is measuring mood instead. When they created the Need for Cognition Scale, Cacioppo and Petty also provided evidence of discriminant validity by showing that people's scores were not correlated with certain other variables. For example, they found only a weak correlation between people's need for cognition and a measure of their cognitive style—the extent to which they tend to think analytically by breaking ideas into smaller parts or holistically in terms of "the big picture." They also found no correlation between people's need for cognition and measures of their test anxiety and their tendency to respond in socially desirable ways. All these low correlations provide evidence that the measure is reflecting a conceptually distinct construct.

Amnesia

amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma absentmindedness: lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma anterograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma bias: how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events forgetting: loss of information from long-term memory misattribution: memory error in which you confuse the source of your information persistence: failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones proactive interference: old information hinders the recall of newly learned information reconstruction: process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma retroactive interference: information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information transience: memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time READING: There are two common types of amnesia: anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia (Figure 1). Anterograde amnesia is commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head. With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury. The hippocampus is usually affected (McLeod, 2011). This suggests that damage to the brain has resulted in the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory; that is, the inability to consolidate memories. Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or semantic memories, but are still able to form new procedural memories (Bayley & Squire, 2002). This was true of H. M., which was discussed earlier. The brain damage caused by his surgery resulted in anterograde amnesia. H. M. would read the same magazine over and over, having no memory of ever reading it—it was always new to him. He also could not remember people he had met after his surgery. If you were introduced to H. M. and then you left the room for a few minutes, he would not know you upon your return and would introduce himself to you again. However, when presented the same puzzle several days in a row, although he did not remember having seen the puzzle before, his speed at solving it became faster each day (because of relearning) (Corkin, 1965, 1968). Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. People with retrograde amnesia cannot remember some or even all of their past. They have difficulty remembering episodic memories. What if you woke up in the hospital one day and there were people surrounding your bed claiming to be your spouse, your children, and your parents? The trouble is you don't recognize any of them. You were in a car accident, suffered a head injury, and now have retrograde amnesia. You don't remember anything about your life prior to waking up in the hospital. This may sound like the stuff of Hollywood movies, and Hollywood has been fascinated with the amnesia plot for nearly a century, going all the way back to the film Garden of Lies from 1915 to more recent movies such as the Jason Bourne trilogy starring Matt Damon. However, for real-life sufferers of retrograde amnesia, like former NFL football player Scott Bolzan, the story is not a Hollywood movie. Bolzan fell, hit his head, and deleted 46 years of his life in an instant. He is now living with one of the most extreme cases of retrograde amnesia on record.

Borderline personality disorder

borderline personality disorder: instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as impulsivity; key features include intolerance of being alone and fear of abandonment, unstable relationships, unpredictable behavior and moods, and intense and inappropriate anger. Reading: instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity (APA, 2013). People with borderline personality disorder cannot tolerate the thought of being alone and will make frantic efforts (including making suicidal gestures and engaging in self-mutilation) to avoid abandonment or separation (whether real or imagined). Caused biologically.

Confirmation bias

confirmation bias faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

Erickson's stages

eight stages of psychosocial development: Erikson's stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair READING: Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)—From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child's basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant's needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby's needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world. Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)—As toddlers (ages 1-3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler's main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the "me do it" stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)—Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3-6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child's choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt. Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)—During the elementary school stage (ages 7-12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don't measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)—In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?" Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people's perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents' ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)—People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)—When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)—From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson's task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what "would have," "should have," and "could have" been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Flashbulb memory

flashbulb memory: exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

the Neuron and all its parts

neuron: cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system READING: neural communication In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell (Figure 3). In addition, the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the outside. This provides an additional force on sodium, causing it to move into the cell. From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its state changes abruptly (Figure 4). When a neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open on the neuronal membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge and concentration differences, to move into the cell. With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. This process of when the cell's charge becomes positive, or less negative, is called depolarization. Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of Na+ ions and a huge positive spike in the membrane potential, the peak action potential. At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium ions leave, the cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting potential. This positive spike constitutes the action potential: the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal moves down the axon like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions. The action potential moves all the way down the axon to the terminal buttons. The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. In simple terms, this means that an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation. There is no in-between, and there is no turning off an action potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an email or a text message. You can think about sending it all you want, but the message is not sent until you hit the send button. Furthermore, once you send the message, there is no stopping it. Because it is all or none, the action potential is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength at every point along the axon. Much like the lit fuse of a firecracker, it does not fade away as it travels down the axon. It is this all-or-none property that explains the fact that your brain perceives an injury to a distant body part like your toe as equally painful as one to your nose. As noted earlier, when the action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and the process repeats itself in the new neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently strong to trigger an action potential). Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake. Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse (Figure 5). Clearing the synapse serves both to provide a clear "on" and "off" state between signals and to regulate the production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional neurotransmitters need to be produced). Neuron Structure Action potential - Electrical signal that moves down the neuron's axon (all or none) Agonists - Chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter and strengthen its effects Antagonist - Blocks or impedes the normal activity of the neurotransmitter. Axon - major extension of the soma Dendrites - branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from neurons Glial Cells - cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons/insulation/communication/transport Membrane potential - difference in charge across the neuronal membrane Myelin sheath - fatty substance that insulates axons Neurons - interconnected information processos, essential for tasks of nervous system Nervous system - the network of nerve cells and fibers which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body - central nervous system and peripheral nervous system Neurotransmitters - Chemical messenger of the nervous system Receptors - protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach Resting potential - state of readiness of a neuron membrane potential between signals Reuptake - neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it. Soma - cell body Synaptic vesicles - storage unit for neurotransmitters Synapse - small gap between neurons where communication occurs Terminal Buttons - Axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles Threshold of excitation - level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

Social norms

social norm: group's expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members READING: One major social determinant of human behavior is our social roles. A social role is a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group (Hare, 2003). Each one of us has several social roles. You may be, at the same time, a student, a parent, an aspiring teacher, a son or daughter, a spouse, and a lifeguard. How do these social roles influence your behavior? Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person in a given role. For example, what is the social role for a student? If you look around a college classroom you will likely see students engaging in studious behavior, taking notes, listening to the professor, reading the textbook, and sitting quietly at their desks (Figure 1). Of course you may see students deviating from the expected studious behavior such as texting on their phones or using Facebook on their laptops, but in all cases, the students that you observe are attending class—a part of the social role of students.

Medications for disorders

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Correlational Study (including what the correlation coefficients mean)

Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect. When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other. We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r. READING: The number portion of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes. The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship, and the less predictable the relationships between the variables becomes. For instance, a correlation coefficient of 0.9 indicates a far stronger relationship than a correlation coefficient of 0.3. If the variables are not related to one another at all, the correlation coefficient is 0. The example above about ice cream and crime is an example of two variables that we might expect to have no relationship to each other. The sign—positive or negative—of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the relationship (Figure 1). A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same direction. Put another way, it means that as one variable increases so does the other, and conversely, when one variable decreases so does the other. A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions. If two variables are negatively correlated, a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa. SUMMARY: 1 = perfect positive correlation (both values increase) 0 = no correlation (no association) -1 = perfect negative correlation (both value increases while other decreases) (The correlation coefficient indicates the weakest relationship when it is closest to zero.)

Rorschack

Rorschach Inkblot Test projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to reveal the person's unconscious desires, fears, and struggles Reading: Some examples of projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story), and the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB). The Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach (pronounced "ROAR-shock"). It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks the client, "What might this be?" What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles (Piotrowski, 1987; Weiner, 2003). The Rorschach has been standardized using the Exner system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.

Cognitive psychology

cognitive psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions. READING: Like biological psychology, cognitive psychology is broad in its scope and often involves collaborations among people from a diverse range of disciplinary backgrounds. This has led some to coin the term cognitive science to describe the interdisciplinary nature of this area of research (Miller, 2003). Cognitive psychologists have research interests that span a spectrum of topics, ranging from attention to problem solving to language to memory. The approaches used in studying these topics are equally diverse. The bulk of content coverage on cognitive psychology will be covered in the modules in this text on thinking, intelligence, and memory. But given its diversity, various concepts related to cognitive psychology will be covered in other sections such as lifespan development, social psychology, and therapy.

All Memory

Types of Memory Sensory Memory Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. One of the most common examples of sensory memory is fast-moving lights in darkness: if you've ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of July or watched traffic rush by at night, the light appears to leave a trail. This is because of "iconic memory," the visual sensory store. Two other types of sensory memory have been extensively studied: echoic memory (the auditory sensory store) and haptic memory (the tactile sensory store). Sensory memory is not involved in higher cognitive functions like short- and long-term memory; it is not consciously controlled. The role of sensory memory is to provide a detailed representation of our entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information are extracted by short-term memory and processed by working memory. Short-Term Memory Short-term memory is also known as working memory. It holds only a few items (research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However, items can be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory via processes like rehearsal. An example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until you can write it down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-term memory. Long-Term Memory Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds; long-term memory encompasses everything from what we learned in first grade to our old addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly vast storage capacity, and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die. There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or declarative memory requires conscious recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or retrieved. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory (facts taken out of context, such as "Paris is the capital of France") and episodic memory (personal experiences, such as "When I was in Paris, I saw the Mona Lisa"). In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a system for procedural/implicit memory. These memories are not based on consciously storing and retrieving information, but on implicit learning. Often this type of memory is employed in learning new motor skills. An example of implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you do not need to consciously remember how to ride a bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory.

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that believes all objects and scenes can be observed in their simplest forms. Sometimes referred to as the 'Law of Simplicity,' the theory proposes that the whole of an object or scene is more important than its individual parts. - figure group relationship - Gestalt principles of grouping closure organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts figure-ground relationship segmenting our visual world into figure and ground Gestalt psychology field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts good continuation (also, continuity) we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines pattern perception ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes perceptual hypothesis educated guess used to interpret sensory information principle of closure organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts proximity things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together similarity things that are alike tend to be grouped together READING: In the early part of the 20th century, Max Wertheimer published a paper demonstrating that individuals perceived motion in rapidly flickering static images—an insight that came to him as he used a child's toy tachistoscope. Wertheimer, and his assistants Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, who later became his partners, believed that perception involved more than simply combining sensory stimuli. This belief led to a new movement within the field of psychology known as Gestalt psychology. The word gestalt literally means form or pattern, but its use reflects the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In other words, the brain creates a perception that is more than simply the sum of available sensory inputs, and it does so in predictable ways. Gestalt psychologists translated these predictable ways into principles by which we organize sensory information. As a result, Gestalt psychology has been extremely influential in the area of sensation and perception (Rock & Palmer, 1990). One Gestalt principle is the figure-ground relationship. According to this principle, we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background.

Bipolar - manic and depression

A person with bipolar disorder (commonly known as manic depression) often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person's mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other. To be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a person must have experienced a manic episode at least once in his life. Manic episode: period in which an individual experiences mania, characterized by extremely cheerful and euphoric mood, excessive talkativeness, irritability, increased activity levels, and other symptoms.

Sleep waves

Awake: beta waves, alertness REM: rapid-eye movement, all voluntary muscle action is suppressed, dreams in this stage are unrealistic, bizarre, vivid, easy to remember NREM 1: transitional stage where you can regain consciousness quickly, dreams in this stage are realistic and harder to remember NREM 2: sleep spindles which are bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity, delta waves emerge NREM 3: alpha waves, relaxed and awake activity

Clinical psychology

Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior. READING: As such, it is generally considered to be a more applied area within psychology; however, some clinicians are also actively engaged in scientific research. Counseling psychology is a similar discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy. As mentioned earlier, both Freud and Rogers provided perspectives that have been influential in shaping how clinicians interact with people seeking psychotherapy. While aspects of the psychoanalytic theory are still found among some of today's therapists who are trained from a psychodynamic perspective, Roger's ideas about client-centered therapy have been especially influential in shaping how many clinicians operate. Furthermore, both behaviorism and the cognitive revolution have shaped clinical practice in the forms of behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior will be discussed in detail later in this textbook. By far, this is the area of psychology that receives the most attention in popular media, and many people mistakenly assume that all psychology is clinical psychology.

Types of Personality Disorders

Cluster A (odd and eccentric) Paranoid personality disorder: Characterized by a pattern of irrational suspicion and mistrust of others and the interpretation of motivations as malevolent. The person is guarded, defensive, distrustful, suspicious, and always looking for evidence to confirm hidden plots and schemes. Schizoid personality disorder: Characterized by a lack of interest and detachment from social relationships, and restricted emotional expression. The individual is apathetic, indifferent, remote, solitary, distant, and humorless. They neither desire, nor need, human attachments, and withdraw from relationships and prefer to be alone. Schizotypal personality disorder: Characterized by a pattern of extreme discomfort interacting socially, and distorted cognitions and perceptions. One is eccentric, self-estranged, bizarre, absent, and exhibits magical thinking and strange beliefs. Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic) Antisocial personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others, rooted in a lack of empathy. The person is impulsive, irresponsible, unruly, inconsiderate, and sometimes violent. They comply with social obligations only when they see personal benefit. Borderline personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of instability in relationships, self-image, identity, behavior, and affect, often leading to self-harm and impulsivity. One is unpredictable, manipulative, unstable, and frantically fears abandonment and isolation. One shifts rapidly between loving and hating. Histrionic personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of attention-seeking behavior and excessive emotions. One is dramatic, seductive, shallow, stimulus-seeking, and vain. One overreacts to minor events and is exhibitionistic. Narcissistic personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. Cluster C (anxious or fearful) Avoidant personality disorder: Pervasive feelings of social inhibition and inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation. One is hesitant, self-conscious, embarrassed, anxious, and sees self as inept, inferior, or unappealing. Dependent personality disorder: A pervasive psychological need to be cared for by other people. One is helpless, incompetent, submissive, immature, and sees self as weak or fragile. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Characterized by a rigid conformity to rules, perfectionism, and control. One maintains a rule-bound lifestyle, adheres closely to social conventions, sees the world in terms of regulations and hierarchies, and often follows directions and rules to the point of missing the purpose of the task.

Compulsions

Compulsions are ritualistic behaviors that an individual performs in order to mitigate the anxiety that stems from obsessive thoughts. They often include such behaviors as repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning, checking (e.g., making sure the oven is off), counting things, hoarding, or ordering (e.g., lining up all the pencils in a particular way). They may also include such mental acts as counting, praying, or reciting something to oneself, as well as nervous rituals like touching a doorknob or opening and closing a door a certain number of times before leaving a room. These compulsions can be alienating and time-consuming, often causing severe emotional, interpersonal, and even financial distress. The ability to relieve their stress is often temporary, and individuals may have a hard time switching from one task to another.

Delusion

Delusions are beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence. Many of us hold beliefs that some would consider odd, but a delusion is easily identified because it is clearly absurd. A person with schizophrenia may believe that his mother is plotting with the FBI to poison his coffee, or that his neighbor is an enemy spy who wants to kill him. These kinds of delusions are known as paranoid delusions, which involve the (false) belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person. People with schizophrenia also may hold grandiose delusions, beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important. For example, the person who claims to be Jesus Christ, or who claims to have knowledge going back 5,000 years, or who claims to be a great philosopher is experiencing grandiose delusions. Other delusions include the belief that one's thoughts are being removed (thought withdrawal) or thoughts have been placed inside one's head (thought insertion). Another type of delusion is somatic delusion, which is the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body (e.g., that one's kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches). Symptom of Schizophrenia.

Flynn effect

Flynn effect: observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation READING: Interestingly, the periodic recalibrations have led to an interesting observation known as the Flynn effect. Named after James Flynn, who was among the first to describe this trend, the Flynn effect refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. Flynn himself argues, however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent per se (Flynn, Shaughnessy, & Fulgham, 2012). As a part of the recalibration process, the WISC-V (which was released in 2014) was given to thousands of children across the country, and children taking the test today are compared with their same-age peers. The WISC-V is composed of 14 subtests, which comprise five indices, which then render an IQ score. The five indices are Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. When the test is complete, individuals receive a score for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. The method of scoring reflects the understanding that intelligence is comprised of multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses on the mental processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each test item (Heaton, 2004).

Insomnia

Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one month's time (Roth, 2007). Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia

Kohlberg's morality levels

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages. Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages. During the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences. During the conventional level, an individual's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. During the postconventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward white, upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral judgments.

Dreams - latent and manifest content

Manifest content is the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the woman's fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a man's penis. activation-synthesis theory: states that dreams don't actually mean anything. Instead, dreams are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. collective unconscious: theoretical repository of information shared by all people across cultures, as described by Carl Jung continual-activation theory: proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; its assumption is that, during REM sleep, the unconscious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory latent content: hidden meaning of a dream, per Sigmund Freud's view of the function of dreams lucid dream: people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content manifest content: storyline of events that occur during a dream, per Sigmund Freud's view of the function of dreams threat-simulation theory: suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defense mechanism that provides an evolutionary advantage because of its capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required for efficient threat avoidance.

All parts of the nervous systems

NERVOUS SYSTEM - The nervous system is the body's main communication system; it gathers, synthesizes, and uses data from the environment. - The most basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, which serves as both a sensor and communicator of internal and external stimuli. - The nervous system can be broken down into two major parts—the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - The central nervous system, the main data center of the body, includes the brain and spinal cord.. - The CNS is the main control center of the body—it takes in sensory information, organizes and synthesizes this input, then provides instructions for motor output to the rest of the body. - The brain is the main data center of the body, consisting of the cerebrum (which regulates higher-level functioning such as thought) and the cerebellum (which maintains coordination). - The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla, and controls lower-level functioning such as respiration and digestion. - The spinal cord connects the brain and the body's main receptors, and serves as a conduit for sensory input and motor output. - BRAIN: the frontal lobe, which controls specialized motor control, learning, planning, and speech; ; contains motor cortex; the parietal lobe, which controls somatic or voluntary sensory functions; ; contains the primary somatosensory cortex; the occipital lobe, which controls vision; contains the primary visual cortex; the temporal lobe, which controls hearing and some other speech functions: contains primary auditory cortex. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - The peripheral nervous system includes all of the neurons that sense and communicate data to the central nervous system. - The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the autonomic system, which regulates involuntary actions, and the somatic system, which controls voluntary actions. - The peripheral nervous system (PNS) provides the connection between internal or external stimuli and the central nervous system to allow the body to respond to its environment. - The PNS is made up of different kinds of neurons, or nerve cells, which communicate with each other through electric signaling and neurotransmitters. - The PNS can be broken down into two systems: the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary actions such as breathing and digestion, and the somatic nervous system, which governs voluntary action and body reflexes. - The autonomic nervous system has two complementary parts: the sympathetic nervous system, which activates the "fight-or-flight-or-freeze" stress response, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which reacts with the "rest-and-digest" response after stress. - The somatic nervous system coordinates voluntary physical action. It is also responsible for our reflexes, which do not require brain input. (SEE MIDTERM PACKET FOR MORE)

Obsessions

Obsessions are characterized as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing (APA, 2013). Common obsessions include concerns about germs and contamination, doubts ("Did I turn the water off?"), order and symmetry ("I need all the spoons in the tray to be arranged a certain way"), and urges that are aggressive or lustful. Usually, the person knows that such thoughts and urges are irrational and thus tries to suppress or ignore them, but has an extremely difficult time doing so.

Intelligence including the research

analytical intelligence: aligned with academic problem solving and computations creative intelligence: ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem crystallized intelligence: characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it cultural intelligence: ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture emotional intelligence: ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others fluid intelligence: ability to see complex relationships and solve problems Multiple Intelligences Theory: Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence practical intelligence: aka "street smarts" triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical

Experimental design (all parts- including.independent and dependent variables)

Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two groups, the experimental group, and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group and not the control group. cause-and-effect relationship: changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design confirmation bias: tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs control group: serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups correlation: relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does dependent variable: variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had double-blind study: experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments experimental group: group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance experimenter bias: researcher expectations skew the results of the study independent variable: variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group operational definition: description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables participants: subjects of psychological research placebo effect: people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation random assignment: method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group random sample: subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected replicate: repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability single-blind study: experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group statistical analysis: determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance READING: In a research experiment, we strive to study whether changes in one thing cause changes in another. To achieve this, we must pay attention to two important variables, or things that can be changed, in any experimental study: the independent variable and the dependent variable. An independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control groups. In our example of how violent television programs affect children's display of violent behavior, the independent variable is the type of program—violent or nonviolent—viewed by participants in the study (Figure 3). A dependent variable is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our example, the dependent variable is the number of violent acts displayed by the experimental participants. We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

Types of therapy

Psychotherapy: is a psychological treatment that employs various methods to help someone overcome personal problems, or to attain personal growth. Biomedical therapy: involves medication and/or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders. exposure therapy: counterconditioning technique in which a therapist seeks to treat a client's fear or anxiety by presenting the feared object or situation with the idea that the person will eventually get used to it virtual reality exposure therapy: uses a simulation rather than the actual feared object or situation to help people conquer their fears play therapy: therapeutic process, often used with children, that employs toys to help them resolve psychological problems cognitive-behavioral therapy: form of psychotherapy that aims to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors cognitive therapy: form of psychotherapy that focuses on how a person's thoughts lead to feelings of distress, with the aim of helping them change these irrational thoughts rational emotive therapy (RET): form of cognitive-behavioral therapy humanistic therapy: therapeutic orientation aimed at helping people become more self-aware and accepting of themselves nondirective therapy: therapeutic approach in which the therapist does not give advice or provide interpretations but helps the person identify conflicts and understand feelings rational emotive therapy (RET): form of cognitive-behavioral therapy Rogerian (client-centered therapy): non-directive form of humanistic psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers that emphasizes unconditional positive regard and self-acceptance electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): type of biomedical therapy that involves using an electrical current to induce seizures in a person to help alleviate the effects of severe depression READING: - Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud. Freud's theory is that a person's psychological problems are the result of repressed impulses or childhood trauma. The goal of the therapist is to help a person uncover buried feelings by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis. - Play therapy is a psychodynamic therapy technique often used with children. The idea is that children play out their hopes, fantasies, and traumas, using dolls, stuffed animals, and sandbox figurines. - In behavior therapy, a therapist employs principles of learning from classical and operant conditioning to help clients change undesirable behaviors. Counterconditioning is a commonly used therapeutic technique in which a client learns a new response to a stimulus that has previously elicited an undesirable behavior via classical conditioning. Principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people deal with a wide range of psychological problems. Token economy is an example of a popular operant conditioning technique. - Cognitive therapy is a technique that focuses on how thoughts lead to feelings of distress. The idea behind cognitive therapy is that how you think determines how you feel and act. Cognitive therapists help clients change dysfunctional thoughts in order to relieve distress. Cognitive-behavioral therapy explores how our thoughts affect our behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy aims to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors. - Humanistic therapy focuses on helping people achieve their potential. One form of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers is known as client-centered or Rogerian therapy. Client-centered therapists use the techniques of active listening, unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy to help clients become more accepting of themselves.

Schizophrenia - delusions and hallucinations

Schizophrenia is a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. Symptoms include: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Delusions are beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence. hallucination: perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation, such as the auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) common to schizophrenia disorganized thinking: disjointed and incoherent thought processes, usually detected by what a person says disorganized/abnormal motor behavior: highly unusual behaviors and movements (such as child-like behaviors), repeated and purposeless movements, and displaying odd facial expressions and gestures negative symptom: characterized by decreases and absences in certain normal behaviors, emotions, or drives, such as an expressionless face, lack of motivation to engage in activities, reduced speech, lack of social engagement, and inability to experience pleasure Caused through genetics.

schizotypal personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder (STPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a need for social isolation, anxiety in social situations, odd behavior and thinking, and unconventional beliefs. READING: People with this disorder feel extreme discomfort maintaining close relationships with people, so they generally avoid forming them altogether. Peculiar speech mannerisms and odd modes of dress are also diagnostic signs of this disorder. In some cases, people with STPD may react oddly in conversations, not respond, or talk to themselves. They also experience what are called "ideas of reference"—that is to say, they frequently misinterpret insignificant or coincidental events or situations as being highly and personally significant. Paranormal and superstitious beliefs are not uncommon. People with STPD frequently seek medical attention for anxiety or depression, but the underlying personality disorder often goes undiagnosed.

Self-report

Self-report inventories are a kind of objective test used to assess personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). They often are called Likert scales after their developer, Rensis Likert (1932) - The Big Five personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB): projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture convergent validity the relationship between traits that are similar to (but not identical to) the trait being measured criterion validity the relationship between some measure and some real-world outcome discriminant validity the relationship between some traits that should have weak or no relationship Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): personality test composed of a series of true/false questions in order to establish a clinical profile of an individual Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment: a questionnaire that measures the psychological preferences that influence how people perceive the world and make decisions. The MBTI sorts psychological differences into four opposite pairs, resulting in 16 possible personality types. - Attitudes: Extraversion-Introversion. This measures whether someone is "outward-turning" and action-oriented or "inward turning" and thought-oriented. - The perceiving function: Sensing- Intuition . This measures whether someone understands and interprets new information using their five senses (sensing) or intuition. - The judging function: Thinking-Feeling. This measures whether one tends to make decisions based on rational thought or empathic feeling. - Lifestyle preferences: Judging-Perceiving. This measures whether a person relates to the outside world primarily using their judging function (which is either thinking or feeling) or their perceiving function (which is either sensing or intuition). Revised Neo Pi (personality inventory): designed to measure personality traits using the five factor model. predictive validity: the relationship between experimental results and the ability to predict people's behavior in certain situations projective test: personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden feelings, impulses, and desires Rorschach Inkblot Test: projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to reveal the person's unconscious desires, fears, and struggles Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB): projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test: projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling that relate to minority culture Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles READING: - Validity refers to whether or not a test actually measures the construct that it is meant to measure; reliability refers to the degree to which a test produces stable and consistent results. - Objective tests tend to be relatively free from rater bias and are thought to have more validity than projective tests. - The challenge of objective tests, however, is that they are subject to the willingness and ability of the respondents to be open, honest, and self-reflective enough to represent and report their true personality. - Projective tests have been criticized for having poor reliability and validity, for lacking scientific evidence, and for relying too much on the subjective judgment of a clinician. - One problem with personality measures is that individuals have a tendency to endorse vague generalizations that could apply to anyone; this is known as the Forer Effect.

Anti-social personality disorder

antisocial personality disorder: characterized by a lack of regard for others' rights, impulsivity, deceitfulness, irresponsibility, and lack of remorse over misdeeds. People with antisocial personality disorder, however, do not seem to have a moral compass. These individuals act as though they neither have a sense of nor care about right or wrong. Not surprisingly, these people represent a serious problem for others and for society in general. READING: A useful way to conceptualize antisocial personality disorder is boiling the diagnosis down to three major concepts: disinhibition, boldness, and meanness (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009). Disinhibition is a propensity toward impulse control problems, lack of planning and forethought, insistence on immediate gratification, and inability to restrain behavior. Boldness describes a tendency to remain calm in threatening situations, high self-assurance, a sense of dominance, and a tendency toward thrill-seeking. Meanness is defined as "aggressive resource seeking without regard for others," and is signaled by a lack of empathy, disdain for and lack of close relationships with others, and a tendency to accomplish goals through cruelty (Patrick et al., 2009, p. 913).

Naturalistic observation

Suppose we send a classmate into the restroom to actually watch whether everyone washes their hands after using the restroom. Will our observer blend into the restroom environment by wearing a white lab coat, sitting with a clipboard, and staring at the sinks? We want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps standing at one of the sinks pretending to put in contact lenses while secretly recording the relevant information. This type of observational study is called naturalistic observation: observing behavior in its natural setting. To better understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular preschool (a "laboratory preschool") were accustomed to having observers on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012). The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. - Jane Goodall made a career of conducting naturalistic observations of chimpanzee behavior. SUMMARY: PROS: higher validity or realism, able to generalize findings CONS: often difficult to set up and control, observer bias.

Somatosensory area

The brain's parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body's senses. It contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist.

Diathesis-stress model

The diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying diathesis, or vulnerability, for a psychological disorder are more likely than those without the diathesis to develop the disorder when faced with stressful events. READING: The diathesis-stress model integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a pessimistic, self-defeating way). The key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors, diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder. Different models explore the relationship between the two factors: the level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional to the level of diathesis.

Motor movements and part of the brain

The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the motor cortex, which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; One particularly fascinating area in the frontal lobe is called the "primary motor cortex". This strip running along the side of the brain is in charge of voluntary movements like waving goodbye, wiggling your eyebrows, and kissing. It is an excellent example of the way that the various regions of the brain are highly specialized. Interestingly, each of our various body parts has a unique portion of the primary motor cortex devoted to it. Each individual finger has about as much dedicated brain space as your entire leg. Your lips, in turn, require about as much dedicated brain processing as all of your fingers and your hand combined! Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). Gross motor skills focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping). Types of Neurons There are three major types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. All three have different functions, but the brain needs all of them to communicate effectively with the rest of the body (and vice versa). Sensory Neurons Sensory neurons are neurons responsible for converting external stimuli from the environment into corresponding internal stimuli. They are activated by sensory input, and send projections to other elements of the nervous system, ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord. Unlike the motor neurons of the central nervous system (CNS), whose inputs come from other neurons, sensory neurons are activated by physical modalities (such as visible light, sound, heat, physical contact, etc.) or by chemical signals (such as smell and taste). Most sensory neurons are pseudounipolar, meaning they have an axon that branches into two extensions—one connected to dendrites that receive sensory information and another that transmits this information to the spinal cord. Multipolar and pseudounipolar neurons: This diagram shows the difference between: 1) a unipolar neuron; 2) a bipolar neuron; 3) a multipolar neuron; 4) a pseudounipolar neuron. Motor Neurons Motor neurons are neurons located in the central nervous system, and they project their axons outside of the CNS to directly or indirectly control muscles. The interface between a motor neuron and muscle fiber is a specialized synapse called the neuromuscular junction. The structure of motor neurons is multipolar, meaning each cell contains a single axon and multiple dendrites. This is the most common type of neuron. Interneurons Interneurons are neither sensory nor motor; rather, they act as the "middle men" that form connections between the other two types. Located in the CNS, they operate locally, meaning their axons connect only with nearby sensory or motor neurons. Interneurons can save time and therefore prevent injury by sending messages to the spinal cord and back instead of all the way to the brain. Like motor neurons, they are multipolar in structure. READING: As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child's pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.

Broca's and Wernicke's area

The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head (temporal means "near the temples"), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke's area, important for speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca's area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke's area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it. Damage to the Wernicke's area disrupts one's ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one's ability to produce words intact.

Thematic apperception

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles Reading: A second projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), created in the 1930s by Henry Murray, an American psychologist, and a psychoanalyst named Christiana Morgan. A person taking the TAT is shown 8-12 ambiguous pictures and is asked to tell a story about each picture. The stories give insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a person's resistance divulging unconscious personal details (Cramer, 2004). The TAT has been used in clinical settings to evaluate psychological disorders; more recently, it has been used in counseling settings to help clients gain a better understanding of themselves and achieve personal growth. Standardization of test administration is virtually nonexistent among clinicians, and the test tends to be modest to low on validity and reliability (Aronow, Weiss, & Rezinkoff, 2001; Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000). Despite these shortcomings, the TAT has been one of the most widely used projective tests.

Behaviorism

behaviorism: focus on observing and controlling behavior Reading: Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism. A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, "I believe that everything important in psychology (except ... such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze." Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and its influence can still be felt today (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation. In addition, it is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on environmental influences on human behavior.

Biopsychology

biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior. While biological psychology is a broad field, many biological psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology. The research interests of biological psychologists span a number of domains, including but not limited to, sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, reproductive behavior, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological correlates of psychological disorders. Given the broad areas of interest falling under the purview of biological psychology, it will probably come as no surprise that individuals from all sorts of backgrounds are involved in this research, including biologists, medical professionals, physiologists, and chemists. This interdisciplinary approach is often referred to as neuroscience, of which biological psychology is a component (Carlson, 2013).

Cataplexy and Narcolepsy

cataplexy lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles narcolepsy sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times - Narcolepsy involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours and is often associated with cataplexy and hallucination READING: Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person with narcolepsy cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often associated with cataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform one's job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment). Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrán-Arita & Drucker-Colín, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system.

Cerebellum

cerebellum: hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills through messages from muscles, tendons, and joints, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory - Explicit memories. Processes memories involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks. READING: The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to the fact that H. M.'s cerebellum remained intact.

Case study

clinical or case study: observational research study focusing on one or a few people - Case studies allow for the development of novel hypotheses for later testing, provide detailed descriptions of rare events, and can explore the intricacies of existing theories of causation. - Case studies cannot directly indicate cause and effect relationships or test hypotheses. In addition, findings from case studies cannot be generalized to a wider population. - Famous case studies, like that of Phineas Gage, and researchers using case studies, like Jean Piaget, have helped establish entire fields of psychology. Phineas Gage helped researchers understand the relationship between brain areas and personality, while Piaget developed a model of development based on his studies. - In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10-20 individuals The most common techniques used to collect data for case studies are: - personal interviews - direct observation - psychometric tests: The measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurements. - archival records Some famous case studies in psychology include: Phineas Gage: Gage was a rail construction foreman who survived an accident in which a tamping rod went through his skull and brain. The injury destroyed most of his frontal cortex, and subsequently had dramatic effects on his personality, therefore informing scientists about the connection between regions of the brain and personality and behavior. Freud and Little Hans: Sigmund Freud completed an extensive case study about a 5-year-old boy he called "Little Hans," exploring the reason for his phobia of horses. Little Albert: John Watson's study of classical conditioning in a 9-month-old boy named Albert examined whether it was possible to condition an otherwise emotionally stable child to fear a stimulus that most children would not find fearful. John Money and the John/Joan case: An examination of the impacts of sexual reassignment surgery on David Reimer. Genie: The case study of a child who was raised in total isolation and thought of as "feral." Jean Piaget's studies examined phases of cognitive and intellectual development.

Confounding variables

confounding variable: unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables READING: To confound means to mix up or to confuse. -Confounding variables mix up our ability to determine if the explanatory variable causes a change in the response variable. If we do not control the effects of confounding variables, the experiment does not provide evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between the explanatory and response variables. Researchers use two common strategies to control the effects of confounding variables: - Direct control - Random assignment

Fluid and crystalized intelligence

crystallized intelligence: characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it fluid intelligence: ability to see complex relationships and solve problems READING: Others psychologists believe that instead of a single factor, intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963). Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized intelligence all the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered the information covered in the course. Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems (Cattell, 1963).

Prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes

discrimination negative actions toward individuals as a result of their membership in a particular group. prejudice negative attitudes and feelings toward individuals based solely on their membership in a particular group. stereotype negative beliefs about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Reading: As diverse individuals, humans can experience conflict when interacting with people who are different from each other. Prejudice, or negative feelings and evaluations, is common when people are from a different social group (i.e., out-group). Negative attitudes toward out-groups can lead to discrimination. Prejudice and discrimination against others can be based on gender, race, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, or a variety of other social identities. In-group's who feel threatened may blame the out-groups for their plight, thus using the out-group as a scapegoat for their frustration.

Functionalism

emphasized how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment James, William (1842-1910) - First American psychologists to argue difference in operation of Psychology. Focused on Adaptation and Functionalism (Mental activities help adaptation to environment) - objective measures like recording devices. - James remains a widely read philosopher, and his theories on pragmatism have contributed both to the field of psychology and philosophy. According to -James's pragmatism, the value of an idea is dependent upon its usefulness in the practical world rather than its absolute truth. - William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism's environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well. - In the late 19th century, the early school of psychology that was heavily influenced by biology was functionalism. James was introduced to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism's characteristics. READING: William James (1842-1910) was the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate ([link]). James was introduced to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism's characteristics. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected. As James saw it, psychology's purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism. Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism. Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could serve as one means by which someone might study mental activities, but James also relied on more objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology (Gordon, 1995).

Engram

engram physical trace of memory READING: Beginning with Karl Lashley, researchers and psychologists have been searching for the engram, which is the physical trace of memory. Lashley did not find the engram, but he did suggest that memories are distributed throughout the entire brain rather than stored in one specific area. Now we know that three brain areas do play significant roles in the processing and storage of different types of memories: cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala. The cerebellum's job is to process procedural memories; the hippocampus is where new memories are encoded; the amygdala helps determine what memories to store, and it plays a part in determining where the memories are stored based on whether we have a strong or weak emotional response to the event. Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so that memory for an emotional event is usually stronger than memory for a non-emotional event. This is shown by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon: our ability to remember significant life events. However, our memory for life events (autobiographical memory) is not always accurate.

Implicit and explicit memories

explicit memory memories we consciously try to remember and recall implicit memory memories that are not part of our consciousness READING: Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit. Understanding the different types is important because a person's age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory are used interchangeably.) Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.

Structuralism

focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection Wundt, Wilhelm (1832-1920) German, first psychologist - wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology, Study of conscious experiences (internal perception) began Structuralism (understanding the characteristics of the mind - dealt with reaction speed, father of experimental psychology Wundt, who noted psychology as a science apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Wundt came before William James. READING: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it "internal perception"), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. Wundt's version of introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable (repeatable) experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first stringent requirement was the use of "trained" or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental requirements were put in place to eliminate "interpretation" in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person. This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind was known as structuralism. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive a stimulus such as a light, image, or sound. The subject's reaction to the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas & Ferrand, 1999). However, despite his efforts to train individuals in the process of introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was very little agreement between individuals. As a result, structuralism fell out of favor with the passing of Wundt's student, Edward Titchener, in 1927 (Gordon, 1995).

Behavioral psychology

focuses on observing and controlling behavior through what is observable. Puts an emphasis on learning and conditioning. - Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the time, and focused on observable behaviors rather than on unconscious inner states. - The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov is widely known for describing the phenomenon now known as classicalconditioning in his experiments with dogs. - John B. Watson was an American psychologist best known for his controversial "Little Albert" experiment using classical conditioning. - Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on animal behavior and the learning process led him to discover what he termed the "law of effect." - B. F. Skinner coined the term "operant conditioning," which describes the strengthening or attenuation of a voluntary response based on association with positive or negative consequences. READING: John B. Watson (1878-1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism. A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, "I believe that everything important in psychology (except ... such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze."

Functional fixedness

functional fixedness inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended READING: Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts. Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals. The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to highly specialized tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).

Language

grammar: set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon language: communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another lexicon: the words of a given language morpheme: smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning overgeneralization: extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule phoneme: basic sound unit of a given language Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: the hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts semantics: process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words syntax: manner by which words are organized into sentences READING: Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar. Lexicon refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language's vocabulary. Grammar refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs receive an "-ed" at the end to indicate past tense. Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A phoneme (e.g., the sounds "ah" vs. "eh") is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., "I" is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language's grammar. Semantics refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. Syntax refers to the way words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined.

Groupthink

groupthink: group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the group consensus Reading: When in group settings, we are often influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors around us. Whether it is due to normative or informational social influence, groups have power to influence individuals. Another phenomenon of group conformity is groupthink. Groupthink is the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus (Janis, 1972). In group situations, the group often takes action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do. Moreover, groupthink can hinder opposing trains of thought. This elimination of diverse opinions contributes to faulty decision by the group. Why does groupthink occur? There are several causes of groupthink, which makes it preventable. When the group is highly cohesive, or has a strong sense of connection, maintaining group harmony may become more important to the group than making sound decisions. If the group leader is directive and makes his opinions known, this may discourage group members from disagreeing with the leader. If the group is isolated from hearing alternative or new viewpoints, groupthink may be more likely. How do you know when groupthink is occurring? There are several symptoms of groupthink including the following: perceiving the group as invulnerable or invincible—believing it can do no wrong, believing the group is morally correct, self-censorship by group members such as withholding information to avoid disrupting the group consensus, the quashing of dissenting group members' opinions, the shielding of the group leader from dissenting views, perceiving an illusion of unanimity among group members, holding stereotypes or negative attitudes toward the out-group or others' with differing viewpoints. Given the causes and symptoms of groupthink, how can it be avoided? There are several strategies that can improve group decision making including seeking outside opinions, voting in private, having the leader withhold position statements until all group members have voiced their views, conducting research on all viewpoints, weighing the costs and benefits of all options, and developing a contingency plan (Janis, 1972; Mitchell & Eckstein, 2009).

Heuristics

heuristic mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem READING: A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A "rule of thumb" is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989): 1. When one is faced with too much information 2.When the time to make a decision is limited 3.When the decision to be made is unimportant 4.When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision 5.When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Lateralization

lateralization: concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions READING: There is evidence of some specialization of function—referred to as lateralization—in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the differences that have been found have been minor (this means that it is a myth that a person is either left-brained dominant or right-brained dominant). What we do know is that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body.

Locus of Control

locus of control: beliefs about the power we have over our lives; an external locus of control is the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control; an internal locus of control is the belief that we control our own outcomes Reading: Julian Rotter (1966) proposed the concept of locus of control, another cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. In Rotter's view, people possess either an internal or an external locus of control (Figure 2). Those of us with an internal locus of control ("internals") tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. Those of us with an external locus of control ("externals") tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control. Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance. For example, say you didn't spend much time studying for your psychology test and went out to dinner with friends instead. When you receive your test score, you see that you earned a D. If you possess an internal locus of control, you would most likely admit that you failed because you didn't spend enough time studying and decide to study more for the next test. On the other hand, if you possess an external locus of control, you might conclude that the test was too hard and not bother studying for the next test, because you figure you will fail it anyway. Researchers have found that people with an internal locus of control perform better academically, achieve more in their careers, are more independent, are healthier, are better able to cope, and are less depressed than people who have an external locus of control (Benassi, Sweeney, & Durfour, 1988; Lefcourt, 1982; Maltby, Day, & Macaskill, 2007; Whyte, 1977, 1978, 1980).

Mood disorders

mood disorder one of a group of disorders characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions; the categories of mood disorders listed in the DSM-5 are bipolar and related disorders and depressive disorders Reading: Mood disorders are characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania and elation. All of us experience fluctuations in our moods and emotional states, and often these fluctuations are caused by events in our lives. We become elated if our favorite team wins the World Series and dejected if a romantic relationship ends or if we lose our job. At times, we feel fantastic or miserable for no clear reason. People with mood disorders also experience mood fluctuations, but their fluctuations are extreme, distort their outlook on life, and impair their ability to function. Mood disorders have been shown to have a strong genetic and biological basis. Relatives of those with major depressive disorder have double the risk of developing major depressive disorder, whereas relatives of patients with bipolar disorder have over nine times the risk. People with mood disorders often have imbalances in certain neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine and serotonin. These neurotransmitters are important regulators of the bodily functions that are disrupted in mood disorders, including appetite, sex drive, sleep, arousal, and mood. Medications that are used to treat major depressive disorder typically boost serotonin and norepinephrine activity, whereas lithium—used in the treatment of bipolar disorder—blocks norepinephrine activity at the synapses. The DSM-5 lists two general categories of mood disorders. Depressive disorders are a group of disorders in which depression is the main feature. Depression is a vague term that, in everyday language, refers to an intense and persistent sadness. Depression is a heterogeneous mood state—it consists of a broad spectrum of symptoms that range in severity. Depressed people feel sad, discouraged, and hopeless. These individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal worth. Depressive disorders vary by degree, but this chapter highlights the most well-known: major depressive disorder (sometimes called unipolar depression). Bipolar and related disorders are a group of disorders in which mania is the defining feature. Mania is a state of extreme elation and agitation. When people experience mania, they may become extremely talkative, behave recklessly, or attempt to take on many tasks simultaneously. The most recognized of these disorders is bipolar disorder.

Observational Learning

observational learning: type of learning that occurs by watching others READING: In observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behavior are called models. In imitation, a person simply copies what the model does. Observational learning is much more complex. According to Lefrançois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur: You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won't be late. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get burned on a stove. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.

OCD

obsessive-compulsive disorder characterized by the tendency to experience intrusive and unwanted thoughts and urges (obsession) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) in response to the unwanted thoughts and urges. EX) Washing hands, checking that the door is locked. OCD has a moderate genetic component. The disorder is five times more frequent in the first-degree relatives of people with OCD than in people without the disorder. Additionally, the concordance rate of OCD among identical twins is around 57%; however, the concordance rate for fraternal twins is 22%.

Operant and Classical - Conditioned and unconditioned responses and stimuli

operant conditioning form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated classical conditioning: learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior READING: As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned stimulus. acquisition: period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response classical conditioning: learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior conditioned response (CR): response caused by the conditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus extinction: decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus habituation: when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change higher-order conditioning: (also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus neutral stimulus (NS:) stimulus that does not initially elicit a response spontaneous recovery: return of a previously extinguished conditioned response stimulus discrimination: ability to respond differently to similar stimuli stimulus generalization: demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus unconditioned response (UCR): natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stim

Panic Attacks

panic attack: period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly; symptoms of panic attacks are both physiological and psychological Reading: A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying (APA, 2013). Sometimes panic attacks are expected, occurring in response to specific environmental triggers (such as being in a tunnel); other times, these episodes are unexpected and emerge randomly (such as when relaxing). According to the DSM-5, the person must experience unexpected panic attacks to qualify for a diagnosis of panic disorder. Experiencing a panic attack is often terrifying. Rather than recognizing the symptoms of a panic attack merely as signs of intense anxiety, individuals with panic disorder often misinterpret them as a sign that something is intensely wrong internally (thinking, for example, that the pounding heart represents an impending heart attack). Panic attacks can occasionally precipitate trips to the emergency room because several symptoms of panic attacks are, in fact, similar to those associated with heart problems (e.g., palpitations, racing pulse, and a pounding sensation in the chest) (Root, 2000). Unsurprisingly, those with panic disorder fear future attacks and may become preoccupied with modifying their behavior in an effort to avoid future panic attacks. For this reason, panic disorder is often characterized as fear of fear (Goldstein & Chambless, 1978).

Eye-witness testimony

testimony by eyewitnesses to a crime about what they saw during commission of the crime, are subject to giving false information. false memory syndrome: recall of false autobiographical memories memory construction: formulation of new memories misattribution: memory error in which you confuse the source of your information misinformation effect paradigm: after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event reconstruction: process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information suggestibility: effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

Humanism psychology

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans; A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. READING: Humanism is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Two of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (O'Hara, n.d.). Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Although this concept will be discussed in more detail in a later section, a brief overview will be provided here. Maslow's hierarchy of needs emphasizes that basic needs for food and safety need to be met before higher level needs can serve as motivators. Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential. Obviously, the focus on the positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanistic psychologists rejected, on principle, the research approach based on reductionist experimentation in the tradition of the physical and biological sciences, because it missed the "whole" human being. Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an insistence on a humanistic research program. This program has been largely qualitative (not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on happiness, self-concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008). Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or she might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Persuasion and all forms

persuasion: process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication READING: central route persuasion: logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness foot-in-the-door technique: persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item peripheral route persuasion: one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message

PTSD

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) experiencing a profoundly traumatic event leads to a constellation of symptoms that include intrusive and distressing memories of the event, avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, negative emotional states, feelings of detachment from others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, hypervigilance, and a tendency to startle easily; these symptoms must occur for at least one month. Reading: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was described through much of the 20th century and was referred to as shell shock and combat neurosis in the belief that its symptoms were thought to emerge from the stress of active combat. Today, PTSD is defined as a disorder in which the experience of a traumatic or profoundly stressful event, such as combat, sexual assault, or natural disaster, produces a constellation of symptoms that must last for one month or more. These symptoms include intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks, avoidance of stimuli or situations that are connected to the event, persistently negative emotional states, feeling detached from others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, and a tendency to be easily startled. Not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will develop PTSD; a variety of risk factors associated with its development have been identified.

Primary and secondary reinforcers

primary reinforcer: has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex) secondary reinforcer: has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips) READING: Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers. Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately reinforcing—the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as well as provide pleasure. A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out "Great shot!" every time Joaquin made a goal. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and you had stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you could not spend it. What about the stickers on the behavior chart? They also are secondary reinforcers.

Reinforcement and punishment

punishment: implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior reinforcement: implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior READING: In positive reinforcement, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior. In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go "beep, beep, beep" until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future. Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse training. Riders apply pressure—by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs—and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove. Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they are two very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behavior. In contrast, punishment always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.

Bottom down and top down processing

top-down processing: interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts bottom-up processing: system in which perceptions are built from sensory input Reading: While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we interact with the world. Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing.

Unconditional positive regard

unconditional positive regard: fundamental acceptance of a person regardless of what they say or do; term associated with humanistic psychology. Reading: In active listening, the therapist acknowledges, restates, and clarifies what the client expresses. Therapists also practice what Rogers called unconditional positive regard, which involves not judging clients and simply accepting them for who they are. Rogers (1951) also felt that therapists should demonstrate genuineness, empathy, and acceptance toward their clients because this helps people become more accepting of themselves, which results in personal growth.