PSY320 Post TT2
Belief-Disconfirmation Paradigm: Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter (1956)
- Studied a group that believed a prophecy that a flood would engulf the continent, and that they had been chosen to be saved from the flood and would be evacuated in a flying saucer. - when the flood didn't happen, members who were alone at the time - members who were waiting with other group members maintained their faith - The woman reported receiving a message - Before the disconfirmation of the belief about the flood, the group engaged in little proselytizing. - After the disconfirmation, they engaged in substantial proselytizing (added consonant cognitions to maintain their belief)
where is discrimination used the least?
- used much less in public or situations where it may cause embarrassment or loss of social standing.
those with high need for cognition have _____ amount of change
?????????????
Bargh's Criticisms of Two Component Theory
??????????????/ check hoon notes
fear appeals
A persuasive communication that tries to scare people (but not too much, just enough to pay attention) into changing their attitudes by conjuring up negative consequences that will occur if they do not comply with the message recommendations - Typically done by scaring someone regarding a vice they have, BUT an alternative/solution should be given to alleviate that fear 3. Solutions should outline costs of what will happen if you don't change, as well as the benefits •If you don't eat healthy you can get sick or fat •But if you do, you'll look and feel healthier 4. Both threats and solutions should be relevant and salient to your target
compare the legal treatment of whites to blacks
Racial groups, especially black people are much more likely than whites to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated for the same crime.
Fraternity study (Festinger & Maccoby)
Participants were students who belonged to a fraternity, and were randomly divided into two groups. - both groups listened to good arguments about the evils of fraternities [these arguments were widely discrepant with the participants' attitudes (counter-attitudinal message)] - one of the groups of students was shown a funny silent film during the presentation of the message - The introduction of a film in the middle of the message significantly influenced the students: the distracted group tended to change their attitudes more than the other group of students
properties of connectionist models
Pattern completion is important for attitudes and attitude activation - different concepts share parts of the pattern (elements are reused throughout the network)
victim blaming
People tend to attribute personal responsibility to the target for any unfair outcome that is difficult to explain. - This is a milder form of our tendency to disparage a person we ourselves have victimized (cognitive dissonance)
problems with subliminal ads
Problems: 1. thresholds for conscious awareness 2. interpretation 3. attention 4. the message still might not be noticed
pathos
Appeal to emotion
how does fear relate to reception?
As fear increases due to a message, there is less and less attention paid to the message. This decreases the probability of reception.
Social Norms (Crandall, Eshleman and O'Brien, 2002) study
Asked two groups of participants to rate 105 groups of people - First group rated how acceptable in society it was to have negative feelings toward each group - Second group rated their own feelings towards the groups - Correlation between normative appropriateness of prejudice & expressed level of prejudice: r = .96 ---- this shows that if we think society thinks it's okay to act a certain way, we are more likely to act that way
Levels of Processing: Janis & Mann (1965)
Attitude: smoking among a group of women smokers. conditions: - Shallow encoding. Participants listened to a tape of a role-playing session, in which a woman pretended to be sick, sees a doctor, and the doctor tells her that she has a tumor in her lungs. - deep encoding. The other group of women actually participated in a role-playing session with the same theme. RESULTS: • role-playing had a stronger effect on the women's attitudes towards smoking immediately after the experiment, and the difference in the new attitudes between the two groups persisted even 18 months after the experiment!
Associative network models of representation
Concepts are connected to each other, presumably in the nervous system as well. When one concept is activated, this activation spreads to other connected concepts.
Persuasion and Self Monitoring
High self-monitors use social norms or follow what everyone else is doing - it's hard to predict their behaviour unless you know they're high self-monitors
Strack, Martin, and Schwarz study on dating and life-satisfaction
Dating frequency is only a predictor of life-satisfaction depending on the order of the question. if you ask about satisfaction first, the correlation is weak and negative. if you ask about dating first, the correlation is strong and positive •Answering the second question depends on how easily something comes to mind, and what comes to mind
Common features of consistency theories:
Describes the conditions for equilibrium/disequilibrium of cognitions - Asserts that disequilibrium motivates a person to restore consistency & describes procedures by which equilibrium can be restored
Lepore & Brown study 3
Direct replication of Devine's study 2 both high and low prejudice people increased negative ratings when valenced stereotype content was primed
how does distraction affect persuasion? why?
Distraction can INCREASE the effectiveness of a persuasive message. • If a person is distracted while listening to a persuasive message, cognitive responses about the persuasive message are interfered with. • When they get distracted, they are less able to produce counter-arguments (so there are typically less negative thoughts
how do we explain obedience? (BET)
Early Socialization •People are socialized to obey authority and are rewarded for it Trappings of authority •aura of legitimacy •Status of Institution (Yale) •Scientific Equipment •Lab coat Binding Forces •Hard to challenge authority (no right to challenge those with greater knowledge)
identification (attitude change)
Influence because they attempt to emulate the communicator if they are liked or admired. - uses communicator influence •Example: liking rock music bc your bf does, then when the relationship ends you stop listening to it (better notes? txtbook?)
how do levels of processing affect memory?
Information that is processed deeply (self-generated, self-relevant) is remembered better than information that is processed shallowly.
repetition of messages
Initial increase in persuasion •Followed by decrease with too much repetition - •That's why big companies change their slogans every few years
tuition study: (Osterhouse & Brock, 1970)
Exposed participants to a six-minute long persuasive message advocating a tuition increase at the participants' university. - The message included seven low quality arguments (to encourage generation of counterarguments) - participants then had to respond to flashing lights while they listened to the persuasive message. - the frequency of light flashes manipulated the amount of distraction. more distraction led to less recalled arguments, less generated counterarguments, and more agreement
(Rosko-Ewoldsen & Fazio, 1992) study
Two tasks (counterbalanced): - Participants looked at a group of objects and decided whether the objects were good or bad - people were asked which ones they remember seeing - for those with strong attitudes about an object, they recalled seeing those objects more
Gestalt Influence
Visual perception is driven by principles of good form such as symmetry and balance - Social relations also achieve good forms
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner)
We are motivated to maintain a positive self-concept. - Parts of our self-concepts are based on group memberships. In order to feel good about ourselves, we need to feel good about our groups (in comparison to out-groups)
mood and ELM
When elaboration likelihood is moderate, mood impacts message elaboration • Happy moods disrupt processing of message content • Negative moods suggest that something is wrong, and some action is necessary (More strategic processing recruited)
how does argument quality relate to yielding?
a good argument increase the probability of yielding
categorization
a shortcut, necessary to reduce the social world's complexity usually used for prejudgement, they simplify our lives and allow us to make choices quickly relate to social scripts as they help us in everyday situations
Lepore and Brown (1997) replication study 1
Replicated Devine study 1 Replicated results ! •Both high and low prejudiced participants had similar semantic knowledge of black stereotypes
frats and hazing and attitudes (Initiation Rituals: Gerard and Mathewson (1986))
Seemingly, the "best" fraternities have the most severe initiation rituals (hazing). - Dissonance theory explains this relation as a result of insufficient justification: - "The initial ritual is really horrible, I must really like this fraternity if I am willing to do it to get in."
how does social status relate to prejudice?
Several studies have shown that a good predictor of prejudice is whether a person's social status is low or declining
low-ball technique
Similar to foot-in-the-door technique •Start small (but this IS the target behaviour) •Increase demand •Now move toward a second larger request (this is the actual price you want)
Brehm (1956): example of approach-approach conflict
Students ranked 8 household appliances according to their desirability (1-8 scale) - After rating, given a choice between 2 products as gift for participation: either between objects self-rated "3" and "6" or between self-rated "5" and "6" - it was harder to choose between 5 and 6
consequentialism (utilitarian) -- ethics of persuasion
The ends justify the means - the action doesn't matter, the end result does • Example: little white lies are okay if it's to spare someone's feelings or to convince them of something good
introspection and heuristics
The less we use introspection, the more we use heuristics to explain behaviours
brown-noser
The presumption that a communicator is taking the position merely to make points with the audience (or that the communicator has a biased view of an issue) lowers credibility
message reception formula
The probability of being influenced by a message (I) = probability of receiving the message (R) multiplied by the probability of yielding to it (Y). p(I) = p(R) x p(Y) therefore, if reception = 0 or yielding = 0, then influence = 0.
problems with Devine study 2
The use of negative stereotypes as primes by the low prejudiced participants in Devine's second study might not have actually occurred - there was a potential confound apparent, and another explanation. ( meaning ???????????)
dissonance
an unpleasant state, inconsistency between 2 cognitions
Who said that "persuasion was the way that debates would be resolved, education would occur, and ideas communicated"?
aristotle
name the 2 conditions necessary for cognitive dissonance
arousal and attribution
Schuman and Presser Accessibility study
asked people "What is the most important thing for children to prepare them for life?" • If they were shown the option "to think for themselves", over 60% of people chose this option. • when no categories are presented, almost nobody thought about that answer on their own or provided it as an option
foot in the door technique
asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment •Would you mind putting a three inch "Be a Safe Driver" sign in your car? •Two weeks later - will you put an unattractive "Drive Carefully" sign in your front lawn? •Versus a control that was only asked to put the sign in the front lawn
Attitude to Behaviour Process Model (Fazio, 1986)
attitude activation -> selective attention (filter) -> immediate perception of object -> definition of the event -> behavior and/or norms -> definition of the situation -> definition of the event -> behaviour
central route persuasion
attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and their quality use interest, relevance, information involves message elaboration - the person carefully thinks about issue-relevant arguments (more mental effort)
peripheral route persuasion
attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's humour, fear, sex appeal, and eye-contact no active thinking about the attributes of the issue or object of consideration less mental effort
attribution for cognitive dissonance
attributing the cause of the dissonance to their own behaviours/attitudes
3 fundamental source factors & what they lead to
authority: compliance (go along with authorities for reward or to avoid punishment) credibility: internalization (people go along with recommendations of credible figures because it's congruent with our attitudes; it's consistent.) attractiveness: identification (go along because you identify with them, or want to establish a positive relationship)
what factors influence whether stereotype activation affects behaviour? (AMAD)
awareness, acceptance, motivation, differential activation
why does door in the face work?
• Anchoring and social judgement (Anchoring as one thing that is way too much before asking the smaller request) self-presentation •reciprocal concessions - they lowered what they were asking, you should make concessions for those who are making concessions for you •guilt - you feel bad for saying no the first time, so you say yes the second
pique technique
• Can you spare 37cents? • A target is more likely to comply if mindless refusal is disrupted by a strange or unusual request.
cognitive miser traits
• Conserves limited resources • Focuses intentional use on important matters • responds spontaneously • Can switch to deliberate when important
cognitive monster model
• Decision making was no longer believed to be a strategic choice • Instead, an unintentional, automatic process
2 routes to persuasion
central and peripheral
easiest ways to deal with cognitive dissonance
change the attitude/behaviour - change one of the cognitions by removing a dissonant cognition or adding a consonant cognition
how do we resolve inconsistency in a triad?
changing your own attitude or someone else's attitude by persuasion remove one of the elements in the triad by having no attitude toward it avoiding discussing a point of disagreement with someone you like
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
what are the 2 sides of the persuasion spectrum?
coercion to persuasion/convinced
Stereotype definition
cognitive schemas that allow for easy and efficient organization of info about people based on their membership in certain groups
what 3 types of attitude change did Kelman suggest?
compliance, identification, internalization
2 types of ethics of persuasion
consequentialism or deontological
cognitions are either irrelevant or relevant to one another. if relevant, they are one of what two things?
consistent or inconsistent
example of adding a consonant cognition
could decide that the feeling that comes with excessive drinking is worth it
children's sticker study
• Four year olds rated different stickers on a scale of smiley faces. - With each child, the researchers then picked three stickers (A, B, & C) that the child had rated equally - Two of those were randomly selected - Children chose to take one home - Next the researchers let the child choose one more—either the unchosen sticker or the third one, Sticker C. - They favoured Sticker C 63% of the time (rather than 50/50, as we might have expected). - The children apparently reduced dissonance by down-playing the appeal of the unchosen first sticker, thus moving them to favour Sticker C
that's not all technique
• Make an initial request • Before the person can respond, • increase the attractiveness of the request by offering an additional benefit • or decreasing the cost of the request
why does attractiveness lead to more persuasion?
• More likely to pay attention to an attractive person • Attractiveness also gets associated with the message
difference between cognitive dissonance theory and other theories
• Most theories assume that attitudes influence behaviour. • Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that our behaviours also influence our attitudes.
Schwarz et al. (1991) study on assertive behaviour
• Participants were asked to recall 6 examples or 12 examples of own assertive behaviour • most only came up with about 5 • Participants then rated their own assertiveness The group that were told to come up with 6 examples, described themselves as more assertive than the group that had to come up w 12 -^ this is because they thought of the number of assertive behaviours they were told to list as a point of reference - since 5 is closer to 6 than it is to 12, they thought of themselves as more assertive in that group
why does foot in the door work?
• People have a Need for consistency - it would be dissonant to agree to the first and disagree with the second • Bem's Self-perception theory ("I did the first thing, I must be a good cooperative person") • Social norms (more aware of the norm of social responsibility)
Kawakami, Dion, and Dovidio (1998)
• Primed high and low prejudice participants with category activation • Had to pronounce a target word (+ or -) after the prime was presented • Prediction: the prime facilitates pronunciation of positive or negative stereotypic trait words depending on the prejudice level of the participant (a certain prejudice level activates associated traits which helps you pronounce some words - used subliminal or superliminal •prime for either 80ms (well under conscious threshold) •or 2000ms (well within conscious awareness) Results reveal that activation (even implicit activation) differs between low and high prejudiced people
deontological (duty to do right) -- ethics of persuasion
• The action itself should be right example: lying is always wrong because the action itself is wrong
what are the things our brain pieces together for perception?
• What's in our sensory field • What was there a moment ago • What we remember from our past
fear-then-relief
• people who experience anxiety whose source is later abruptly eliminated usually respond positively to various requests addressed to them Example: a slip of paper that looks like a parking ticket. Feeling scared thinking it's a parking ticket, then realizing it's an invitation to a party/seminar or something. You're now more likely to say yes to attend the party
McGuire and Papageorgis (1961)
•"Everybody should get a chest x-ray each year in order to detect tuberculosis" •"Everybody should brush their teeth after every meal if at all possible." •Participants received an essay that included counterarguments against the health beliefs. 4 groups: Control group. How much do you believe the truism? Baseline. No defense. No additional information to defend against counterarguments. Additional support. Received further information supporting the original attitude. Inoculation group. Informed about counterarguments and information to undermine it.
when does door in the face work
•Again, when it concerns pro-social issues •When the same individual makes both requests (concessions) •Short delay between requests
forewarning of an argument study
•Freedman & Sears warned (teenage) participants about an argument about a message opposing teen driving. (told them a message was gonna be shown that opposed teen driving The warning was: •Either immediately before the message, or 10 minutes before. • When immediately before, no resistance to the argument • When 10 minutes before, resistance to attitude change was found
Why does the low-ball technique work?
•Having made the initial decision to comply, individuals experience dissonance at the thought that they may have to back out of their commitment • even though the cost is raised significantly and unfairly, it's sort of "nebulous" because it was "because of a boss we can't see"
inference effects related to mood and persuasion
•I must feel good because I like the message
example of removing a dissonant cognition
deciding that excessive drinking is not that bad
institutional bias
discriminatory practices and policies in large institutions
objective elaboration
examines the perceived strength of an argument
how does speed of response relate to strength of attitudes?
fast responses -> strong attitudes
arousal for cognitive dissonance
feeling the discomfort of dissonance through headaches, sweating, etc
First Rule of Persuasion
grab attention!
when people with high need for cognition hear a strong argument?
greater attitude change than a weak argument
Parallel Distributed Processing (Connectionist) Models
has an input pattern and output pattern has input units, hidden units, and output units
examples of powerless speech
hesitation hedges (sort of, like, kinda, etc) tag questions ("don't you think?") disclaimers ("this might be stupid but")
what happens if motivation or ability is missing?
heuristic processing takes over
if i repeatedly think about an attitude statement, what can happen to my attitude?
increased strength & extremity
where/how is discrimination used the most?
indirectly, in private setting
how does intelligence relate to reception & yielding?
it increases reception but decreases yielding... this is because intelligent people are more likely to understand arguments, yet they can also counter-argue better
how does balance relate to harmony?
it is necessary for harmony but not sufficient on its own
Patricia Devine on intentional control
it is possible, but we have to know we need it (awareness), and have the time, ability, and/or motivations to control stereotype influence activation is inevitable but application/influence is controlled
4 reasons for automatic processing (AICE)
lack of awareness lack of intention lack of control lack of effort
main components of source credibility (LGET)
likeability and expertise trustworthiness & goodwill
Lepore & Brown study 2
looked at category vs trait (association) activation • Primed participants with only Category of black Two Hypotheses: • Will activate the same black trait stereotypes for both high and low prejudiced participants • Will only activate negative stereotypes for high prejudiced participants RESULTS • High-prejudice participants formed a more negative impression of "Donald" • Low prejudice participants formed a more positive impression • proves the idea that though stereotype knowledge is the same, activation can be different
how does self-esteem relate to yielding & reception?
lower self esteem = more likely to yield, more self-esteem = more reception
recency effect
memory better for more recent argument
primacy effect
message has longer to sink in, and interferes with the second message
what amount of self-esteem yields the most attitude change?
moderate
in terms of intelligence, when does the greatest attitude change occur? why?
moderate intelligence moderate reception & yielding the graph is curvilinear
what 2 things are needed for systematic processing to occur?
motivation & ability (Fazio called it opportunity)
does a negative prime go better with a positive or negative second stimulus?
negative
Thoughtful consideration of weak arguments can lead to what?
negative boomerang effects paralleling the positive effects of strong arguments (but in the opposite direction) The attitude will be moving farther from the person's attitude, or a stronger version of your current attitude.
does stereotype knowledge differ between high-prejudice and low-prejudice individuals?
no, but endorsement does
is discrimination only based on individual attitudes?
no. it is also built into many societal institutions, and transmitted - bias through the process of social reproduction - creates and transmits social norms
attitude function & persuuasion
one can use the function of a certain attitude to persuade someone, or try to change the function
based on McGuire's processing stages theory, what 2 things are needed for message reception?
paying attention to & understanding the message
name 2 major things that motivate us
perceiving we are accurate and belonging (being accepted by others)
Most messages are processed through the _____________ route
peripheral
if you thoughtfully consider strong attitudes, what will happen?
positive shifts in attitude this is persistent over time, predicts future behaviour, and resists counter-persuasion
(Petty & Cacioppo, 1984) exam study
randomly assigned participants (non-senior students) to 8 groups. - each group heard a counter-attitudinal message regarding the introduction of a senior comprehensive exam that all students would need to pass before they could graduate. Three different Independent variables: - Number of arguments (heuristic/peripheral) - Quality of arguments (systematic/central) - Personal relevance •For personal relevance: •Students were either told that the new exam would be introduced the following year •or introduced 5 years later •Students were asked their opinions on the issue. for the low relevance condition (5 years later) •Participants focused on the number of arguments instead of their quality . •The more arguments presented, the greater the attitude change in the advocated direction. •It did not matter if the arguments were strong or weak. •Participants were engaging in heuristic processing. high relevance condition: •Participants changed their attitudes when strong arguments were given. •The more strong arguments presented, the greater the attitude change. •In contrast, participants' attitudes changed in the opposite direction when weak arguments were given.
demagogue
rather than by using rational argument, they are political leaders who seek power by exploiting people's prejudices, fears, and resentment, channeling these feelings onto scapegoats emerge during conditions of anxiety and uncertainty, appealing especially to people who feel they are falling behind or have lost status in the social order
which is more accessible: recently activated information or less recently activated info?
recently activated info
how does liking relate to reception?
reception is more likely when the message is given by a person you like
elaborating mixed/neutral messages does what?
reinforces original attitudes
Devine study 3
replication of study 1, then asked them how much they endorsed the stereotypes (they were given time to react so they could possibly control responses) • Low prejudiced participants endorsed more positive beliefs than negative beliefs about black targets • High prejudiced participants endorsed more negative beliefs than positive beliefs
Realistic Conflict Theory (Campbell)
resentment can arise because of a perceived zero-sums fate (only one group is the winner and the other loses) - the length and severity of the conflict is determined by the perceived value and shortage of a given resource.
Bargh & Peitromonaco, 1982: Automatic Effects on Social Judgment study
similar to the Donald study but subliminal instead Step 1: "Vigilance task" • Words subliminally flashed on the screen for 100 ms followed by mask (X's) - 0%, 20% or 80% of words were related to hostility Step 2: • Read about Donald and make judgments about him Results: • The greater the percentage of hostile words during priming, the more negatively they rated Donald... an even stronger effect than the supraliminal study
can relevant/important info still attract those using the peripheral route?
sometimes
can shiny things attract those using the central route?
sometimes
ethos
source of a message, especially credibility
cognitive miser model
strategic decision-making Premise: • People have limited cognitive resources • Engaging in effortful thought all the time would use up mental and attentional capacity • it is necessary to strategically use mental resources sparingly or in a "miserly" fashion (heuristic decision rules, categorization, stereotypes)
in Aronson & Carlsmith's study, why did children given the mild threat have more of a negative attitude toward the toy?
strong threats were sufficient justification for the behaviour, but milk threat was insufficient justification (so they needed to derogate the toy more to justify the behaviour)
What did Lepore and Brown (1997) and Fazio (1990; 1995) prove about stereotypes?
that automatic activation (application) of stereotypes does not occur the same for everyone, despite common culture, and even though individuals appear to possess similar semantic knowledge of the stereotypes!
heuristics can be effective. but why aren't they the best option a lot of the time?
the side effect of these mental shortcuts is bias
study testing if reception affects persuasion
the study manipulated the comprehensibility of a message by garbling parts of it results showed that attitude change decreased as the comprehensibility of the message decreased
internalization (attitude change)
the truest form of attitude change, involves message influence - in situations where the new attitude is intrinsically rewarding. - used when the attitude fits in with one's views, values, and principles (it's consistent)
elaboration likelihood model
theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route use both ways!
how do biases affect perception?
they affect our expectations & attention
social norms
they are powerful motivators and seem to outweigh personal attitudes when it comes to dominant reactions, especially in public situations
If people believe that there is a subliminal message, what happens?
they react to it Placebo effects
Devine stereotype study 2
they subliminally primed participants with both black category traits and black stereotypic traits Category primes = social categories that should activate the black stereotypic traits •Words like Blacks (African American, etc) Trait primes were words associated with the black category prime • Words like poor, lazy, and athletic • Prime condition: 80% Words were Stereotypical of African-Americans • Low Prime conditions : 20% of Words were Stereotypical • Read paragraph about "Donald" and formed judgments about him Results: the 80% primed group thought Donald was more hostile, 20% primed group thought Donald was less hostile
Reciprocity norm
they're doing you a favour by throwing something else in, when, of course, it was all part of the deal in the first place
who is source credibility salient for?
those unmotivated or unable to elaborate.
Fritz Heider on Gestalt Influence
balance/imbalance depends on 3 elements (triads): (POX) - A person (P), - An other person (O), - an attitude object (X). Two possible types of relationships between the elements: positive or negative: - Results in eight possible triads
what is the precondition/precursor of discrimination?
bias
what did Zajonc suggest about triads?
both attraction between the 2 people in the triad and attitude agreement are important
coercion
use of force to get someone to do something
Katz 4 functions of attitudes
utilitarian, knowledge, ego-defensive, value-expressive
(Hermans et al. 2001) study
varied the SOA (what's that?): the time between the onset of the prime and the onset of the target (0 ms, 150 ms, 350 ms, 450 ms) - the more time available, the more time for conscious/controlled processing
what does perception depend on?
what is out there, and how one processes it
when is one's private attitude most likely to be changed?
when a message is communicated in an atmosphere of free choice
sleeper effect
when a message that comes from a negative cue (e.g., noncredible source) increases in effectiveness over time.
when does faster speech enhance persuasion?
when the goal of the persuader is to capture attention (peripheral cue) • or when the goal is to be perceived as competent (they must know what they're talking about because it comes out of their mouth so easily) •Seen as more intelligent, credible, knowledgeable, or having expertise
when is triad imbalance more noticeable to us?
when the imbalance involves someone we like
when does the sleeper effect occur?
when the message alone has strong positive impact when the discounting cue is strong enough to suppress when the message and the cue become dissociated
when is a triad rated as pleasant?
when there is both attraction and agreement
when is attractiveness most persuasive?
when using the peripheral route, when attractiveness is relevant to the product (like makeup), or when it violates expectations (example: a model speaking out about unprotected sex)
blacks vs whites and drug use
white people use drugs more frequently than their minority counterparts, but are arrested, prosecuted, and punished far less frequently - Crack cocaine has much more severe penalties than the same chemical substance powder cocaine (crack is more available in black communities and powder cocaine in white communities)
does the ease of judgement influence judgement?
yes
are authority and credibility the same? explain
yes •trump vs Obama - same authority but Obama had more credibility
can we change our stereotypic beliefs?
yes, by consciously strengthening CORRECT automatic judgments and weakening INCORRECT automatic judgments (weakens the link)
viral marketing
you can use pre-existing social networks to increase brand awareness •Appeal to a segment of the population with a high probability of passing it on
disrupt then reframe
• 300 pennies versus 3 dollars • "the price of eight cards is 300 pennies" (disrupt) • "which is a bargain" (reframe)
inevitability of prejudice
• Activated automatically and inescapably from memory on the mere observation or mention of the attitude object • Can be activated without intent • Not necessarily at conscious awareness, but enough that it will influence perception
Devine stereotype study 1
(American) Participants were asked to list all the black stereotypes they knew of in North American culture, regardless of their own endorsement. Results revealed common semantic knowledge of black stereotypes, regardless of personal prejudice levels.
Persuasion definition
"A symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behaviour regarding an issue, through the transmission of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice."
implicit attitudes definition
"introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate feeling, thought, or action"
what do automatic attitudes do?
- Automatically evaluate the environment - Bias perception - Provide a filter on a complex world
Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) study (children & toys)
- Children were forbidden to play with a favorite toy with mild or severe threats. - Later, when the adult left, it was observed whether or not the child would play with the toy - Even the mild threat was sufficient to discourage all children from playing with the favorite toy. - Subsequent attitude ratings showed that mild threat produced a stronger negative change in attitudes towards the toy
Approach-Approach Conflict
- Choosing between desirable alternatives - can produce dissonance - After a choice, people may enhance the chosen alternative and/or derogate the rejected alternative to reduce dissonance
parallel-constraint models
- Connections don't only lead to activation, they can also lead to inhibition - When a concept is activated, activation spreads around along these links until a stable state emerges
name the degrees of attention
0% if you're not present, or present and not paying attention from there is a spectrum of 0% to 100%
William McGuire's Processing Stages (theory of attitude change)
According to McGuire, in order for a message to be persuasive, the audience must: 1. pay attention to the message 2. understand the message 3. yield to the message
that's not all technique study
Bake Sale I: •sold cupcake with two cookies together for 75 cents (control) •stated price of cupcake was 75 cents and added two cookies after stating price (That's not all) Bake Sale II: •sold cupcake for 75 cents (control) •stated price was 1 dollar and then reduced it to 75 cents (TNA)
example of an inconsistent pair of cognitions?
I care a lot about the environment but drive a gas guzzler car
Propaganda
Ideas (usually biased) spread to influence public opinion for or against a cause usually based on fears/worries and an us vs them mentality
when should we use one-sided vs 2 sides messages
If the audience is informed of both sides, use two-sided argument if not, don't confuse them
what is an imbalanced triad?
If the number of positive relationships in a triad is even or zero, then the triad is considered imbalanced.
what is a balanced triad?
If the number of positive relationships in a triad is odd, then the triad is considered balanced.
when should we use the primacy effect? when do we use the recency effect?
If there is little time between arguments and a large interval before decision If there is a large interval between arguments and a small interval between second argument and decision
Inoculation Theory (Biological Analogy)
If you give a mild form of a germ, you develop resistance to it It isn't enough to kill you, and you learn how to defeat it (by generating your own defense) • The attitude inoculation • Expose people to counterattitudinal information • Show people how to refute this information • Result is a stronger attitude
Fazio MODE model
Motivation and Opportunity are Determinants of the attitude-behaviour relationship both present: deliberative processing mode. the general attitude is activated and influences the definition of the situation, causing attitude consistent behaviour both not present: spontaneous processing mode. --> if there is a strong chronically accessible attitude, the same thing happens as deliberative processing mode --> if there is no strong chronically accessible attitude, the general attitude is not activated and behaviour is unrelated to attitude
Initiation lab study and attitudes
Participants received mild or strong electrical shock (IV1) - Told after that the shock was either part of an initiation ritual (to participate in a group discussion) or as a separate experiment (IV2) - some then participated in the group discussion, which was designed to be SUPER boring - then rated how much they liked the discussion - Severe initiation led to a more positive attitude for initiation - Severe shock unrelated to initiation led to a less positive attitude
•Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) original study on forced compliance
Participants were paid $1 or $20 to lie to another student about the desirability of a boring experiment that they just completed. - then, their attitude towards the experiment was assessed - Those who were given the $20 experienced no dissonance, because they essentially got paid for lying! - Insufficient reward leads to dissonance: The $1 group agreed to come back and do it again, and even rated the experiment as being more scientifically important - but interestingly, they also said they learned less from the experiment
compliance (attitude change)
Public yielding without private acceptance - uses communicator influence
"DONALD" STUDY (SRULL & WYER, 1979)
Step 1: included a scrambled sentences task, where words either related to hostility (e.g., "her he bit kicked") or not Conditions were: no hostility, a little (20%), or a lot (80%) Step 2: • to read paragraph about "Donald" and rank how much they liked him on a scale of 1-10 (either immediately, 12 hours after, or 24 hours after) ANYTHING ELSE????? for all time intervals, the order from lowest to highest negative ratings of Donald was: those with no hostility prime, those given 20% hostility, and those given 80% hostility (IS THIS RIGHT?)
prejudice
The affective or endorsed responses associated with stereotypes leads to bias
introspection
The process where people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
Bargh beliefs on stereotyypes/prejudice
Whether conscious or not, the mere activation of a stereotype inevitably affects thoughts and behaviour
how do the ABCs correspond to discrimination?
affects - emotions = prejudice cognitions - beliefs = stereotypes behaviour = discrimination precursor intention to behaviour = precursor bias
Cognitive Response Approach: Greenwald (1960s)
the approach involves focusing on what's going on in people's minds while they listen to a message. - the critical element for attitude change is a person's cognitive responses to the message (which can be positive or negative) the mix of thoughts leads to attitude change: • If the mix is primarily positive (approach), then there will be attitude change. • If the mix is primarily negative (avoid), then there will be no attitude change. • If the mix is primarily irrelevant, then the person is not paying attention (poor reception), which will reduce the likelihood of attitude change.
perception
the brain's interpretation of raw sensory data, then organization into meaningful concepts
negative consequences of categorization
the categorization of something can be incorrect, like a child thinking a lion is safe because they're like cats beliefs about members of a category can be wrong (like thinking all pitbulls are violent), causing people to treat all members of the category the same
what does the likelihood that a sensory input will be categorized in terms of a given category depend on?
the fit between sensory input and category specifications and the accessibility of a category
discrimination
the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based solely on their group membership
logos
the message itself (appeal to logic )
given a sensory input with equally good fit to two nonoverlapping categories, which category would 'capture' the input?
the more accessible of the two categories
relate accessibility to the non-dimensional model (fazio)
the more frequently a link is activated, the stronger the attitude
according to the connectionist model, what happens if you're not given enough input or enough time?
the output could be right, but you might not have enough information
scapegoating
the process of blaming innocent—and powerless—outgroups for our troubles social norms are crucial in this: they can incite civility or hostility.
in sequential priming studies, what happens to the response time when responding to the second stimulus?
the response time is shorter because of association
goodwill
•Perceived caring •Have the listeners interests at heart •Empathy
trustworthiness
•Perceived honesty, character, and safety
what is it important you do with 2-sided arguments?
•Provides reasons why the counter-arguments are wrong •Provide evidence •this enhances credibility
door in the face
•Start with a huge request •After they refuse, ask for something more reasonable •Will you donate blood every two months for three years? •Would you donate once, tomorrow?
expertise
•The knowledge or ability ascribed to the communicator
when does foot in the door work?
•Usually when it concerns a pro-social issue •When the second request is a logical step from the first •When the person actually did the first (and didn't just agree to it) •When you make the second request later
faster speech isn't always good for persuasion. give an example of when it's not
•When it's a sensitive or intimate issue, fast speech can mean that the person is too cold •Slow speech can convey goodwill, empathy, and concern
liking and tip size points
•Writing thank you on the back of the check •Drawing a happy face •Squatting down to the customer's table •Touching the diner's palm or shoulder •(only for female servers - guys: that's creepy) •Didn't work for male servers •These all increased tips on checks!!