PSYC 100 Final EXAM

Anti-Manic Drug

Any medication used to treat bipolar disorder and manic symptoms.

electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)

Applying small electrical shocks to different parts of the brain.

The rouge test: Recognition of self in infants

As early as four months of age, infants will begin to react differently to images of themselves than to images of another person.

Kohlberg : Stage 5: Social Contract

Aware that people hold a variety of opinions/values, recognize certain ideals (regardless of majority opinion) and obligation to the law. -postconventional

Kohlberg: Stage 2: Instrumental Morality (7-8 years)

Become more interested in fairness of exchanges in evaluations of moral action. -preconventional

Kohlberg: Stage 3: 'Good Child' (10-11 years)

Begin to see views of others as important and display concern about being seen as 'good'. -conventional

What therapy would you suggest: Alisha has a phobia of spiders. She becomes hysterical whenever she sees one and can't even stand seeing a picture of one. As her therapist, which approach would you use to help her?

Behavioural therapy - most commonly used to treat phobias, addictions, and specific problematic behaviours in individuals. Various approaches could be used to reduce Alisha's fear, using exposure or pairing the spider with more pleasant stimuli.

conjunction fallacy

Belief that multiple specific conditions are more likely than a single general one. -HOWEVER, the probability that she is one is much higher than the probability that she is both

self- schema

Beliefs people hold about themselves that guide how they process self-relevant information - how they categorize and store information about themselves.

What disorder is associated with creativity?

Bipolar Disorder

1) Preattachment

Birth to 6 weeks − Remain in close contact with caregiver, reliant on caregiver for food, protection and comfort − Don't display distress when left in care of someone besides primary caregiver

What perspective, theory, or framework would a researcher interested in how development varies across cultures be most likely to use?

Brofenbrenner's ecological system model This researcher may be drawn to like Bronfenbrenner's ecological system model because it provides a framework to ask questions about cultural influences in a way that Piaget's stage theory does not.

Result of authoritative parenting

Children are: socially competent, self-confident, BEST OVERALL OUTCOMES, do well in school, feel supported, adaptable

Kohlberg: Stage 4: 'Law and Order' (late adolescence)

Concern with the good of society. Laws are obeyed because they prevent a breakdown of society and protect us from others' immoral behaviour. -conventional

Addis is helping his mother bake for his birthday party. They are making cupcakes from one cake mix and a cake from another cake mix. Addis understands that even though the cupcakes are a different shape than the cake, they both have the same amount of cake mix. But he cannot yet imagine in his mind that one large cookie would contain the same amount of dough as two small cookies. What stage in Piaget's theory is Addis most likely in?

Concrete operational In the concrete operational stage, children are able to reason differences in concrete objects with conservation tasks, but are not yet able to work through hypothetical situations.

Is the baby more likely to move early or later on in development?

EARLY in development: - the foetus moves a great deal -these spontaneous movements have been shown to be crucial to the development of typical nerve and limb growth. LATE - At around 4 months the baby is large enough for its movements to be detected by the mother (though it was moving prior)

In China, parents tend to encourage skills associated with executive function more than Western parents do, and so these skills mature earlier in Chinese children than in Western children. Chinese children tend to outperform American children on tests of executive function at an earlier age, but they develop Theory of Mind at about the same age.

Executive function is a necessary, but not sufficient, precursor to Theory of Mind. -This study suggests that executive function is a precursor to ToM but is not sufficient in and of itself. Other experiences are likely also required for a child to develop this skill.

Executive function

Executive functioning includes the capacity to control impulses, plan complex actions, foresee consequences, and use working memory.

What is an early menarche associated with?

For girls, early menarche has been associated with the development of depression, substance abuse, and risky sexual behaviour.

psychoanalysis

Form of therapy aimed at providing the client with insight into his or her unconscious motivations and impulses.

Other Common Substances

Fuel, paint, and antifreeze are only considered to be psychoactive substances when they are intentionally consumed for the purpose of becoming intoxicated.

Phenomenological Reality

How each individual consciously understands and views his or her own world.

Kitten- Eye experiment

Hubel and Wiesel -shut kittens eyes shortly after birth - these kittens had a sharp decline in the number of cells responding to stimulation through the previously closes eyes -this only happened when they shut the eye during a specific (critical) time period -even if eyes had normal input for years after that the neurons never recovered fully

Non- regulatory drives

INDIRECTLY fulfil an evolutionary purpose - i.e reproduction, safety, or cooperation are not required for our immediate survival but do promote our long-term survival and the survival of our offspring.

Development of emotional regualtion

INFANCY: - ability is extremely limited, rely on others mainly to regulate their emotions − Ability to regulate comes with time as children learn to recognize emotion and reactions, and begin to understand the social rules that govern the expression AGES 3-6: - children grow more effective at regulation by employing strategies like distractions or reinterpreting events in a positive way ADOLESCENCE: − able to regulate in more complex ways - become aware of social consequences of public emotional displays thus start modifying expression of emotion depending on who they are with - reevaluate situations after seeing it from another side - recognize social norms and comply - re- evaluate situations in more positive light rather than suppressing emtoions

Well-organized groups avoid groupthink if they:

- Avoid group isolation by consulting with a variety of people outside of the group - Establish a group norm of critical evaluation. - Remind leaders to appear unbiased in their preference for a decision and actively reduce pressures of conformity. - Appoint a "devil's advocate" to come up with counterarguments

STEP FIVE: Recategorization: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- Based on new information gathered, we try to find a new social category that the individual fits in. - if you can't find a category and are motivated/able to do so, continue to process.

CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

- Based on the cognitive theory of mental illness (thoughts lead to behaviour) - The therapist teaches clients how to identify and challenge their *maladaptive thinking* behaviours and replace them with adaptive thinking and behaviours. - use a combination of cognitive and behavioural therapy techniques.

Cognitive - Behavioural contributions to depression

- Beck - proposed that your emotional response to a situation is determined by how you appraise or evaluate that situation

Self - persuasion

- Behaving in ways that conflict with one's beliefs or values leads to CHANGES in either behaviour or beliefs

What affects the Big Five traits?

- Big Five are strongly affected by GENETIC factors - as with intelligence, SHARED environment contributes less than UNIQUE environment SO: genetics> unique environments > shared environments

Stage 1) Trust vs. Mistrust

- Birth to 12 months - Infants at this age rely totally on others to look after their well-being. If their needs are met, infants learn to trust their caregivers, and if not, they learn mistrust.

Stage 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation

- Early Adulthood - People learn to share themselves with others. If they learn this successfully, they achieve feelings of intimacy and are able to form and keep meaningful relationships. Failure to learn this leads to a sense of isolation.

Stage 4) Industry vs. Inferiority

- 5-6 years old until onset of adolescence - Marked by a transition to a more structured lifestyle, beginning school and perhaps getting new chores or becoming involved in organized sports. - Children will either learn to adapt to this structure and feel a sense of accomplishment in succeeding, or through their inability to do so, gain a feeling of inferiority.

psychoactive substance

- A chemical substance that acts on the CNS, where it affects brain function - results in changes to a person's emotions, perceptions, and thought - use of these can lead to many substance related disorders

Stereotype threat

- A fear among members of a group that they may confirm a negative stereotype when they are in situations relevant to that stereotype. - fear and anxiety can lead to hindering skills relevant to this performance

Informational Influence

- A form of social influence that leads a person to conform because he or she believes OTHERS ARE CREDIBLE and have more information. - produces private conformity

Normative Influence

- A form of social influence that leads a person to conform because he or she fears the consequences of deviating from group norms. - individuals who stray from group norm are often disliked or ridiculed - produces public conformity

Antipsychotic Drug

- A medication used primarily to treat psychotic disorders. - mostly only treat positive symptoms

Diathesis-stress model

- A model that attributes the emergence of a mental disorder to an existing VULNERABILITY (genetic predisposition and/or early life experience) precipitated by STRESS (acute or chronic). - * "Diathesis"* refers to the vulnerability. Example: - Many people have traumatic experiences, but not everyone has the same response. - Some can go through a terrible traumatic event without developing a stress disorder, while others can become deeply disturbed after mildly traumatic events. - Neither the biological make-up nor the environmental circumstances alone dictate the entire situation.

Prejudice

- A negative FEELING toward people based on their membership in certain groups. - incredibly easy to develop

Reciprocal Determinism

- A person's behaviour is both influenced by and influences his or her attitudes and behaviours and the environment. - Not only does the children's environment influence them, but they also exert an influence on the environment

The Bradley Effect

- A phenomenon in U.S. elections characterized by the tendency of non-white political candidates to perform better in opinion polls than they do in actual elections when they are running against white candidates. - Stereotypes and racial prejudices often manifest as IMPLICIT attitudes and can lead people to answer polls one way and vote another.

Attitudes

- A positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an attitude object (i.e., a person, place, event, idea, or thing) expressed at some level of intensity. - linked to cognitive appraisal and self- efficacy

What could interfere with the child's observations and subsequent learning?

- A room full of bright colors and moving displays -In order to learn, children need to be paying attention. - Anything that detracts from their ability to pay attention will have a negative effect on observational learning.

Self-Report Questionnaires

- A series of questions asking DIRECTLY about symptoms or behaviours. - Often use a *rating scale* on which clients' endorse the degree (Mild - Severe) or frequency (Never - Always) to which they are experiencing symptoms or have engaged in behaviours in a set period of time. - They measure typical behaviour and are usually transparent. - The client or people around the client answer questions about the client's symptoms.

Zygote

- A single new cell formed at conception. - Contains half genetic information from mom and other half from dad - Diploid, full genetic load (not haploid)

Message Learning Theory

- A theory that proposes that an individual must attend to, comprehend, yield to, and retain a message in order to be persuaded. - If the process stops at any stage, persuasion will not occur.

Persuasive Techniques: That's-Not-All Technique

- A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer makes an initial request and, before the person can respond, increases the attractiveness of the request by offering an additional benefit or decreasing its apparent size. - creates perceptual contrast - Effective b/c of RECIPROCITY (improved request)

Persuasive Techniques: Foot in the Door Technique

- A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer prefaces the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request. - Effective b/c of CONSISTENCY

Persuasive Techniques: Low-Balling Technique

- A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs. - Effective b/c of COMMITMENT Once people commit to a decision, they justify their choice by reflecting on all of the positive aspects about it. When hidden cost is revealed, people have all these additional reasons for why they agreed to the decision in the first place and are even more committed to the course of action

James Lange Theory

- ANS activation comes before the emotion is experienced. - each emotion has a specific ANS arousal pattern - environment triggers behavioural, autonomic (HR and BP) , and endocrine (hormones) responses - "Peripheral" theory : peripheral nervous system is supposed to determine emotional state.

Cognitive Therapy

- Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis - based on thoughts and feelings - uses therapeutic techniques to *help clients identify their thoughts and examine the logic behind thoughts.* - Once clients begin to realize that their thoughts are not accurate, they can begin to form more accurate, rational thoughts. - originally for those with depression but now adapted for anxiety disorders, eating disorders, schizophrenia, etc.

Emotional Self Regulation

- Ability to initiate, suppress or modulate the components of emotion − Develops slowly w experience

Effortful Control

- Ability to perform an action OTHER THAN the initially desired action − Aspect of executive functioning − By adolescence, individuals are able to regulate their emotions in more complex ways, like modifying expression of emotion depending on who they are with, reevaluate situations after seeing it from another side

Stage 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion

- Adolescence to early adulthood - Erikson recognized adolescence as a period of important changes that are crucial to the formation of the adult self. - People either form opinions about what they believe themselves to be and develop a concrete sense of identity or they fail to do so and remain confused about their role in life.

Does aggression change throughout the lifespan?

- Aggression is remarkably stable across the lifespan - the behaviours themselves may change, but the aggression levels tend not to

10 classes of drugs part of substance related disorders in DSM- 5

- Alcohol - Caffeine - Cannabis - Hallucinogens - Inhalants - Opioids - Sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics - Stimulants (i.e, amphetamine and cocaine) - Tobacco - Other (or unknown )

Are personalities single dimensional or multidimensional?

- All four perspectives are MULTI - dimensional - personality is much complex, and different theories propose different numbers of fundamental personality factors. - Each of those factors is more like a point on a continuum or a range around a bell curve.

Virus as a teratogen

- Although the placenta acts as a barrier to prevent most viruses from affecting the foetus, several virus-caused diseases can have serious effects on development if the mother is afflicted while pregnant. - If contracted in the first three months of pregnancy, rubella, a disease that causes a rash, low fever, and swollen lymph nodes in adults, can have devastating consequences for the developing organism, including congenital heart disease, deafness, blindness, and mental retardation. - If caught during early to mid-pregnancy, the influenza virus has been correlated with the development of schizophrenia later in the child's life.

Minimal Groups Phenomenon

- An experimental method in which people are assigned to arbitrary groups - then participants make judgements based on these arbitrary group memberships. - homogeneity effects bw group members

Self-Efficacy

- An individual's belief about his or her ability to perform a specific task (your confidence level) - a good predictor of task performance as ppl w high levels will spend more time and effort trying to solve problems - proposed by ALBERT BANDURA

Self- efficacy

- An individual's belief about his or her ability to perform a specific task. - The more self-efficacy that we have for a particular task, the more likely we are to try it, persist at it, and then succeed. - the first step to taking action

How does compliance work in groups?

- As the group becomes more cohesive, members feel they owe it to other members to repay their loyalty by being loyal and agreeable themselves. - As this bond grows, we tend to follow the lead of others we have bonded with, and because we like them, we are more inclined to agree with them, especially if we are all under a clear, strong authority.

Implicit Measures, Indirect Methods

- Assess attitudes without people knowing their attitudes are being measured. - Researchers use indirect measurements for two main reasons: 1) People are not actually aware of some attitudes that they hold. 2) People may deliberately misreport their attitudes if they have social desirability concerns

Norepinephrine

- Associated with alertness, arousal, and the "fight-or-flight" response.

Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing)

- Associating with others who are successful to increasing one's self-esteem.

Value - Expressive Function of Attitude

- Attitudes show who we are and what we stand for. - For example, someone who highly values education may have a positive attitude toward teachers.

Physical Attractiveness

- Attractive people are pleasant to look at and generally possess better social skills than their unattractive peers. - the "beautiful-is-good" stereotype demonstrates that we tend to automatically associate a whole bunch of pleasant traits with physically attractiveness

Give an example of factor analysis:

- Having a list of statements about a person's personality and having them rank each statement as to which explains them best. - looking into the answers and seeing which questions can be clustered together (example if they all relate to be and extrovert) and which show no correlation

Authoritative

- Highly demanding and responsive, explain reasons for their rules, physical discipline unlikely, high degree of freedom in set boundaries

Authoritarian

- Highly demanding, inflexible, less responsive, discipline with threats, physical discipline more likely, praise obedience and expect children to follow rules without explanation

Using the equation Outcomes - Comparison Level = Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction, how do you predict a person's comparison level influence his or her decision to stay in or leave a relationship in comparison to outcomes?

- If outcome is more positive than comparison level, the person is likely to be satisfied with the relationship. - If comparison level is higher outcomes, the person is likely to be dissatisfied. If a person believes that more valuable rewards are available with someone else, they may choose to leave the relationship. However, if his or her comparison level for alternatives is low, this person may stay in an unsatisfying relationship, believing it is as good as it gets.

Schizophreniform disorder

- If the symptoms of schizophrenia only last from one to six months - i.e., a shorter duration than is required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia

What should ppl using anti- anxiety drugs also do?

- Important for people who are taking anti-anxiety medications to receive *cognitive behaviour therapy*, as well, which has shown to be the most effective treatment for the anxiety disorders. - benzodiazepines can also be habit forming so they should not be taken for long periods and require *physician supervision*

How does placement of authority figure affect obedience?

- In Miligram experiment obeyed person in room and refused orders on the phone

STEP SIX: Piecemeal Integration: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- Instead of categorization, you can combine specific information you've learned about the individual into an overall assessment.

Why is mylenation critical to the proper development of the brain?

- Insulates and increases speed of electrical transmission

Investment

- Investments are resources put into a relationship that you CANNOT RETRIEVE if it ends. i.e, time, kids, lost opportunities, and networks of friends. Greater investment size is associated with stronger commitment — the more you put into a relationship, the more likely you are to stick with it.

Dopamine

- Involved in motor control, memory, attention, and problem solving - the *reward system of the brain*, which attaches emotional value to external events and motivates individuals to perform certain activities.

Blue eyes/ brown eyes experiment

- Jane Elliot in Iowa made an experiment - one day in class she announced that blue eyed children were superior to brown eyed children (had more recess time, more lunch, received less harsh punishment) - blue-eyed children became arrogant and bossy to their "inferior" classmates. - The brown-eyed students became timid and subservient.

Stage 8) Integrity vs. Despair

- Late adulthood to death - After positive resolutions to the earlier stages, a person feels a sense of completion and wholeness, able to understand truths about their life and share wisdom with others. Those who have not felt positive resolutions to earlier crises may experience a sense of despair or a lack of meaning in their lives, as their lives draw to a close.

social comparison theory

- Leon Festinger - The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.

Depression symptoms

- Less pleasure in usual activities, - more sleep -less happy and irritable

How do you break the cycle of distrust?

- MAJORITY members can become aware of discrepancy bw actions and behaviour, become comfy w diversity - MINORITY members can become aware of bias to see majority members behaviours in a negative light

Client compliance and antimanic drugs

- Many people with bipolar disorder enjoy the initial phases of a manic episode, and thus they may stop taking their medication because they want to feel the experience of a manic episode. - Using psychotherapy along with medication has been shown to greatly improve compliance.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in emotion?

- To interact with the structures in the limbic system to cognitively appraise stressful situations - medial prefrontal cortex

What are the four different personality perspectives/ theories?

- Trait - Psychodynamic - Humanistic - Social-cognitive

EMBRYONIC PERIOD: After implantation of the blastocyst into the uterine wall, what happens to the trophoblast?

- Transforms into 2 parts 1) AMNIOTIC SAC: this is where the developing embryo is 2) PLACENTA: -attaches to the inside of the amniotic sac and the umbilical cord of the embryo - filter and protective barrier -prevents the blood of the mother and the fetus from mixing transfers nutrients and oxygen from mom blood to fetus -transfers fetus' waste to the mother's blood for elimination.

Symptoms of PTSD

- Trouble sleeping - Flashbacks - Triggered by specific events - Difficulty concentrating - Feel like they live in a dangerous world

What is an example of the ABC's in action:

- Two straight-A students write articles for the school newspaper. Both articles are rejected. This is the external event, or A. THOUGHTS - One student believes that while things won't always go as well as she hopes, that doesn't mean she is a bad person or that she is not smart. - The other student believes that if she is not perfect, she is not a good person. The two students' different beliefs represent the B in Ellis's theory. RESPONSE - the student who accepts that things will go wrong in life may be a bit upset about her article not being published, but it will not have a significant, long-term effect on her mood or her opinion about herself. - The student who believes that she must be perfect to be a good person likely will interpret her rejection as evidence that she is not a good person. - *It is not the situation, but it is how a person thinks about the situation that leads to the response*

Malnutrition while pregnant can cause:

- Underweight babies - Small heads - Serious physical malformations

Behavioural Therapy

- Use techniques based on *operant and classical conditioning and modeling* to help clients cope with their mental disorders. - part of the disorder results from learned associations and reinforcement of unwanted behaviours. - the emphasis is much more on the problem than on the client

Perceptual Contrast

- Used in "That's not all technique" - If we see two things in sequence that are different from one another, we will tend to see the second one as more different from the first than it actually is

Is systemic desensitization effective?

- Very effective type of exposure therapy, especially for phobias.

Behaviour Modification

- Therapy designed to alter behaviour using *operant conditioning* techniques and *reinforcement* - Reinforcement of adaptive behaviours - Token economies - Modelling - Assertiveness therapy - Extinction of maladaptive behaviours - Punishment of maladaptive behaviours

Clinical Interviews

- Thorough interviews conducted by trained professionals designed to elicit information on the client's history and presenting symptoms. - Can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured questions - vary in length and amount of detail

The arcuate nucleus

- apart of hypothalamus - the appetite control center - two types of neurons which have opposite effects on eating" one stimulates the other represses - these neurons are the target sites for hormones regulating food consumption

What bias is self-report questionnaires vulnerable to?

- clients or their family members may try to present themselves in a socially desirable light (social desirability) - malingering

Amygdala

- cluster of nuclei under the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe - part of limbic system

When are gender roles first placed on young children?

- commonly by parents - i,e gender appropriate toys, positive and negative responses for gender appropriate and innapropriate play - as children age they are continually treated in subtle ways in line with gender stereotypes

Why is Freud's theory wrong?

- conclusions were biased by Freud's own interpretations - largely untestable bc factors are products of unconscious thought - lacks parsimony (simplicity)

STEP ONE: Initial Categorization: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- first step, occurs immediately upon perceiving a person. - An individual makes automatic judgments based on physical characteristics and obvious social categories.

IAT: Congruent Trial

- flower/pleasant share the same response key and insect/unpleasant share the same response key.

IAT: Incongruent Trial

- flower/unpleasant items share the same response key and insect/pleasant items share the same response key.

Gestalt

- focus on the *present* moment and aim to help clients recognize what they are thinking, feeling, and doing currently - a form of MINDFULNESS training. - if people are more aware of their feelings and thoughts at every moment, it might be easier to *gain control* of them.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

- form of depression that occurs during winter months or periods in which daylight is strongly limited. - occurs due to dysregulation in biological clock, serotonin is likely involved

Bertrand Forer

- gave personality tests to students and then gave them ALL the same results which had vague answers - students said they were RIGHT - shows that people will accept vague answers as being unique to them especially when the descriptions are positive - called the FORER EFFECT

Reducing likelihood of ppl exhibiting in group bias

- get rid of in-groups and out-groups. i.e, human-level categorization led to more forgiveness than group-level categorization in Jewish - German study

Dissociative Disorders

- group of mental disorders that are characterized by *"a disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception".* - Dissociative Amnesia - Dissociative Identity Disorder - Depersonalization Disorder

GAS: Exhaustion

- happens if exposure to stressor continues for a long enough time - organism loses ability to adapt - resistance falls dramatically, leaving the organism susceptible to illness and even death

What problems can happen from using heuristics?

- heuristics can introduce biases into the decision-making process and decrease accuracy

Inductive Discipline/ Learning

- highlighting to the child the consquences of their actions for others while disciplining them - Guiding behaviours, introducing appropriate limits, and setting up reasonable consequences while also explaining why − Increases feelings of empathy, guilt and prosocial behaviour − Way parents interact with children has powerful developmental consequences

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

- holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce. - Leon Festinger

Leptin

- hormone secreted by fat cells - used to monitor fat stores

Positive Illusions

- idealized perception of your partner, overlooking faults. Leads to greater satisfaction - Unrealistically favourable attitudes that people have towards themselves or towards people who are close to them.

Gordon Allport

- identified 18, 00 english adjectives which could be used to describe personality - Raymond Cattell narrowed this list down to 16 using FACTOR ANALYSIS

Myers- Briggs Type Indicator

- identifies personality types and cognitive styles

Subjective norms influence

- if ppl think a behaviour is normal they are more influenced to do it - social pressure acts i.e, think about smoking

Fundamental Attribution error in individualistic cultures

- in individualistic cultures, it becomes stronger and more common as people get older - These cultures tend to emphasize the idea that people are autonomous entities in charge of their own destinies, so people may learn to attribute behaviour more to the person than to the situation.

Groupthink leads to ineffective decision making, including:

- incomplete understanding of final objectives - failure to thoroughly research alternative courses of action and to re-evaluate initially rejected alternatives - A bias in gathering information that confirms the favoured course of action - A failure to devise contingency plans

What two kinds of culture are there?

- individualistic - collectivist

How do cultural factors affect self concept?

- individualistic or collectivist cultures changes how we view ourselves - using personal or group memberships to describe yourself

Can infants understand gender roles and stereotypes?

- infants in first year of life can distinguish between pictures of males and female faces - are surprised when the face is presented with a voice of the opposite sex - begin to understand gender roles and stereotypes

What type of information does an assessment gather?

- information on a client's psychological and medical history, family and social interactions, cultural expectations and norms, and history of substance use, and the extent to which the client's symptoms are clinically significant.

Heuristics

- information proccessing rule of thumb - make thinks happen more quickly, a short - cut - Unfortunately, heuristics can introduce biases into the decision-making process and decrease accuracy

Psychological Tests

- instrument designed to measure *unobserved or underlying constructs* (i.e, intelligence or personality traits.) - can be made up of pen and paper or verbal questions asking an individual to respond to statements or pictures or to solve a series of tasks or problems (arranging blocks or recalling numbers). - Less transparent and therefore less susceptible to faking - tests often include items to identify bias

Interactionism: Social Process

- interactionist theorists emphasize language as a social process. -the function of language is to communicate, which makes it a social process by nature

Developmental precursors of Theory of Mind

- intersubjectivity

Intermediate Defence Mechanism

- involve less distortion of reality - lead to somewhat more effective behaviour - (e.g., repression, reaction formation, sublimation).

Panic Attacks

- involve the sudden onset of intense fear and various physiological symptoms related to anxiety i.e, pounding heart, trembling, chest pain, a feeling of choking, nausea, and shortness of breath.

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorfer

- irritability and severe recurrent outbursts of temper that are not consistent with the child's age or situation - children aged 7-18

Availability characteristic

- judging the likelihood or frequency of events based on information available in memory - bc memories are easier to conjure up

Obstacle to supporting those with mental health issues

- lack of funding and appropriate resources

How does language change self concept?

- language is more than a string of words. - We define ourselves and our culture through language. - i.e, in the experiment when the Chinese students used a different language, it is likely they adopted some of the meaning associated with that language.

Diathesis- Stress Model

- leading explanation of many psychological disorders - psychological disorders result from a combination of biological *PREDISPOSITIONS* and specific *ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS* that may lead to the ONSET of the disorder

Mature Defence Mechanism

- least reality distortion - associated with the most adaptive coping (e.g., humour and suppression). - A longitudinal study demonstrated that participants who used the most mature defences experienced richer friendships, more harmonious marriages, greater job satisfaction, and greater general happiness than participants who used immature defences.

the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale

- lists 43 stressful life events, each of which is *assigned a value* depending on how traumatic that event was felt to be by a large sample of participants. - total value for stressful life events can be worked out by adding up the scores for each event experienced over a 12-month period.

How has agricultural diet changed?

- little to change basic food imperatives but the resources today give us many more was to satisfy them - ancestors ate way more unprocessed food - ancestors much more physically active - ancestors constantly seeking anything fatty, salty, sweet

Antipsychotic medicatios

- mainly work to alleviate positive symptoms

Pursuit of Relative Advantage

- maintaining a relative advantage was more important than overall success - creates a cycle of distrust

Abstinence Violation Effect (AVE)

- make a slip up into a full blown collapse when it comes to a source of action - i.e, dieting

Anger behaviour differences bw sexes

- males engage in more direct and physical aggression than females do across cultures. - Females have been found to engage more frequently in indirect aggression

Which sex values which traits more more?

- males value physical attractiveness more - females value social status, successfulness more

suppression

- mature defence mechanism - With SUPPRESSION , negative information is available to the conscious mind but doesn't overrun it, and the person can think about it when he or she chooses.

How does gender influence mental disorders?

- men and women often respond differently to the STRESSORS that trigger a psychological disorder. - Not only do males and females differ biologically, *they typically differ systematically in how they are treated by others and in their environment* i.e, males are socialized to keep emotion in and be more self-reliant. Females are socialized to show emotion and be nurturing

Anchoring heuristic

- mental short- cut used to estimate value or size based on a suggested starting point - i.e, what a person is asking for on their house biases you to choose a number close to that price even if the retail value is less (making it a bad investment)

lithium carbonate

- most popular antimanic drugs - lithium is very toxic in overdose, client's blood levels of lithium must be carefully monitored

Mental Health Care

- most ppl are able to seek treatment in a *private practive or community agency clinic( (depending on insurance/ financial resources) - *Group homes or half way houses* for ppl with serious mental disorders - *Nursing homes* for older adults - *Psychiatric hospitals* provide both in- patient and out - patient care for ppl with severe mental disorders, depending on severity

Is PTSD an anxiety disorder?

- moved out of the Anxiety Disorder category and into a category of Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders in the new DSM-5 - Move is due to the fact that a diagnostic criterion of this is the presence of a traumatic or stressful event.

The best approach to psychological care is:

- no single type of therapy is best - to assess the client carefully and then provide the knowledge, skills, support, and medication necessary to reduce or remove the symptoms that prevent or interfere with his or her quality of life.

Insecure/ Avoidant

- no solid or positive relationship with caregiver - easily comforted by strangers, less solid relationship with caregiver, - may ignore or avoid them

Disorganized/ disoriented

- no standard reaction, - many scream when caregiver is gone but avoid them when they return - seem to want to approach the caregiver but also fear the caregiver's reactions

During an assessment what are some common ways to gather measurements?

- observation, interviews, questionnaires, paper and pencil tests, medical imaging, blood studies - The DSM-5 gives objective definitions for the various disorders, and good scientific practice helps keep measurements reliable and valid.

Onset and Development of Schizophrenia

- onset earlier in males (early 20s) than females (late 20s) - onset may be SUDDEN or more STEALTHY (symptoms begin slowly and can be hard to recognize)

GAS: Alarm

- organism first encounters stressor - responses center around the autonomic nervous system - resistance to stressor drops below normal - shock may be experienced (impairs normal physiological functioning)

Theory of planned behaviour: Perceived Behavioural Control

- our confidence that we can achieve the desired behaviour. - This concept is the same as Bandura's concept of self-efficacy.

Quality of Alternatives

- outcomes a person expects from ALTERNATIVE situations to the current relationship. - Higher quality of alternatives is associated with weaker commitment to the current relationship

Attachment theory

- outlines ppls different global orientations toward relationships due to childhood attachments. - early attachments influence our tendencies to develop and maintain interpersonal relationships throughout life.

Solomon Asch

- participants had line matching task - only one man in group was participant - first few trials everyone said correct response but as trials continued the confederates have clearly incorrect responses - participants went along with incorrect majorities 37% of the time and 76% conformed at least once

Positive Implicit Associations

- participants respond faster when flowers and pleasant items share the same response than when flowers and unpleasant items share the same response,

Negative Implicit Associations

- participants respond faster when flowers and unpleasant items share the same response than when flowers and pleasant items share the same response

Free Association

- patient says whatever comes to mind - can be a clue to unconscious motivators

Social exchange theory

- people are motivated to maximize the benefits and minimize the costs associated with their relationships. - explains why we stay in some relationships over others - economic perspective JOHN THIABAUT and HAROLD KELLY

Collectivist culture

- people give priority to GROUP GOALS over personal goals - ppl define their identities based on RELATIONAL ROLES within the group and group memberships

Individualistic culture

- people give priority to THEIR OWN GOALS over group goals - ppl define their personal identities in terms of PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES rather than group attributes.

ideal self

- people's beliefs regarding what they and important others would like them to be (e.g., athletic, a great singer).

How did evolution influence us in terms of food?

- people's bodies learned to store energy as efficiently as possible in case of a future shortage, which probably happened fairly often.

Major Depressive Disorder

- period of intense depressed mood and/or loss of interest in activities - persists for at least TWO WEEKS and is accompanied by at least four additional symptoms - e.g., sleep disturbance, appetite disturbance, loss of energy, worthlessness, loss of concentration, suicidality

Menopause

- permanent end of menstruation and a woman's fertility. -characterized by changes in hormones resulting in "hot flashes", mood swings, difficulty sleeping, and disruption of the sex drive.

How does the self fulfilling prophecy work?

- person w expectations acts different towards a person - this changes the persons self concept and performance - can be negative or positive

How stable is personality?

- personality is quite stable throughout adulthood and - may become INCREASINGLY STABLE with increasing age - although, some change can happen due to a major life event of some form of learning

Motivation

- phenomena that affect the nature, strength, and persistence of an individual's behaviour. - desires (internal and external), needs, and interests that arouse and activate an organism

Components of emotion

- physiological: hr, bp - cognitive: interpretation - motivational: drives - behavioural: body language, facial expression

Securely Attached

- secure base (freely exploring using cargiver as base) - react positively to stranger when caregiver is present - unhappy when caregiver leaves - unlikely to be comforted by stranger

Sociometer Theory

- self-esteem evolved as a way to measure interpersonal (getting along with other people) relationships. (accepted, disliked, or rejected) - more widely accepted - an evolutionary theory bc other's acceptance and willingness to cooperate was essential to survival

Hypothalamus

- serves as a central drive system - senses internal stats such as glucose, hydration - Lesions in the hypothalamus lead to dysregulation in drives such as feeding

Substance induced mental disorders

- share characteristics of mental disorders (psychosis, amnesia, sleep problems) but are associated mostly with substance use - most prevalent type of mental disorder worldwide

Muzafer Sherif

- showed how group norms develop in small groups - put in groups and stated light movement - light did not move but depending on other group members thoughts a group norm developed

How do people cope with stress?

- sometimes ppl engage in unhealthy behaviours to cope with original stress i.e, alcohol, sex, drugs

How were people with mental disorders treated in Ancient and Medieval times?

- sometimes revered as prophets, most often believed to be possessed by evil spirits - treatments focused on removing evil spearits and such treatments were b painful i.e, trphining (drilling hole in skull for spirits to escape), exorcisms, starvation)

Catherine Genovese

- stalked, stabbed, and sexually assaulted, murdered very close to apartment building - she fought and screamed, lights went on in neighbourhood and ppl watched an attack that went over 30 min - no one called the police - this could have happened bc there were so many witnesses everyone assumed someone else would call the police

What makes a good personality test?

- standardization, reliability, validity - the type a particular psychologist chooses typically depends on his or her field of interest.

Insecure/ resistant

- stay close to caregiver -throughout, appear nervous - very upset when caregiver leaves but are not comforted when they return. Do not resume play but cry and seek contact, struggle against being held tho

Are substance use disorders common?

- still common in general population but less so than they used to be - men and young adults are likely to use alcohol and other substances

How does stress change our vulnerability to illness?

- stress can make people MORE vulnerable to illness - the impact of stress on vulnerability to illness is stronger for chronic stress (getting stuck in resistance and exhaustion) -

When is group think most likely to occur?

- stressful situations that often require important decisions to be made quickly - highly cohesive groups — common vision and group identity - group members share similar attitudes and values (a homogeneous group) - isolation from outside influence - When under directive leadership, where members may hesitate to express an opinion that disagrees with the leader's stance - No systematic procedures in place for effective decision making

Kohlberg

- studied moral development by performing longitudinal studies

Bickman

- studied obediance using uniform signifying authority

fight or flight response

- survival reaction to a threat - adrenaline flows more quickly - body goes on alert and all our senses quickly gather information - once the threat is removed our body goes back to baseline state

How do we know that the treatment reduced or removed symptoms?

- symptoms must be measured in a *reliable and verifiable* way before and after treatment. - this can be tricky if symptoms are only self- reported

Withdrawal

- symptoms such as tremors, vomiting, agitation, seizures, etc., occur whenever the substance starts to leave the tissues and blood stream

Bipolar I Disorder SYmptoms

- talk very rapidly, - sleep less than normal, - take on more tasks than they can actually handle - They describe their thoughts as racing and often feel that they are very important or more capable than other people. Impulsivity is common

Rosenthal and Jacobson pygmalion in the classroom experiment

- teachers were told a randomly selected child in class was on the verge of dramatic intellectual growth spurt - When all of the students were tested several months later, the selected students showed significantly greater gains in IQ and academic performance than the rest of their classmates.

standardization

- test and testing conditions are the same for everyone

The peripheral route

- used when people do not think critically about the contents of a message - influenced by superficial cues relating to the communication, such as the attractiveness of the communicator.

What are behavioural therapies effective for?

- very effective in treating easily definable problems like phobias or addictions.

Attitude- behaviour specificity matching model

- very specific attitudes predict a corresponding specific behaviour very well, but do not predict general patterns of responding across many behaviours - general attitudes predict general patterns of responding across many different behaviours, but do not predict a specific behaviour very well

How does one overcome realistic conflict theory?

- was overcome in the Robbers Cave Experiment by having the boys work towards a goal that would benefit both groups (super - ordinate goals)

No Drive- Reduction Benefit

- we also see people paint beautiful pictures or take a drive in the country just for pleasure. - There is no survival or drive-reduction benefit from these behaviours.

primacy effect

- we are more influenced by information that is presented earlier than information that is presented later.

trait negativity bias

- we tend to be more influenced by negative information than positive information.

How does uniform signifying authority influence ppl?

- when the man was wearing a security uniform, nine out of every ten people did what he said vs when he was wearing street clothes. - A uniform signifying authority is a powerful influence. Unfortunately, blindly following the orders of some people in positions of authority may lead to disastrous consequences.

STEP SEVEN: Public Expression and Further Assessment: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- you engage in behaviour with the individual based on the impression you've formed - continue to process more information if needed.

STEP THREE: Attention and Interpretation: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- you pay attention to and interpret behaviour the person displays and make trait judgments. - For example, if the "jock" starts talking about books that he has read relevant to the assignment and seems very knowledgeable about class material, you think he is intelligent.

STEP FOUR: Confirmatory Categorization: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- you try to preserve the initial categorization however, if attributes do not coincide with it and you are motivated to do so, you ditch the initial categorization and continue to process information - For example, the trait of intelligence and an interest in books do not really fit with your stereotype of "dumb jock", so you ditch your initial categorization and continue to pay attention.

When does play happen?

- ~6 months infants start having signs of peer interaction - 12-18 months infants enter reciprocal interactions - 14 months can imitate each other, display better memory for peer interactions

Research in support of the sociometer theory?

1. There is a strong correlation between self-esteem and experiencing acceptance/rejection from others. - self-esteem increases after praise and decreases after social rejection. 2. Things that increase your self-esteem would also improve other's opinions of you. 3. PUBLIC feedback affects a person's level of self-esteem but PRIVATE feedback does not.

Kanzi the chimp

-Kanzi was trained to respond to spoken language -fulfill semanticity -partially demonstrate geertativity -Kanzi is believed to have a greater comprehension of language than he is able to produce

Beginning at about 7 months after conception, the foetus will begin to grow at a rate of approximately ____ grams per week.

250g / wk It will continue to grow at this rate until it is born, (~ nine months after conception.)

Bronfenbrenner's model: The exosystem

3. THE EXOSYSTEM (level 3) - refers to those settings that you might not directly experience but remain influenced by.

At the beginning of the foetal stage, how big is the baby?

30 grams and is approximately 4 cm long.

Bronfenbrenner's model: The macrosystem

4. THE MACROSYSTEM (level 4) - refers to the larger social constructs that shape your environment in less-direct ways.

What are the 3 qualifications of teaching?

1. The teacher must engage in behaviour that provides benefit to the learner (but not the teacher) 2. Must engage in the behaviour only in the presence of the naive individuals 3. Observer must gain mastery of the skill being modeled faster than would otherwise happen

Bronfenbrenner's model: The chronosystem

5. THE CHRONOSYSTEM (level 5) - encompasses those HISTORICAL changes that influence development and those systems that surround us. -also refers to the way in which you take a greater role in the course of your development as you age.

3) Clear cut attachment

8 months to 18 months − Actively seek comfort from caregiver − Caregivers become truly secure base for infants − May display separation anxiety

2) Attachment in the making

6 weeks to 8 months − Infant treats people differently, showing preferential treatment to familiar people − Wary or nervous around unfamiliar people, animals, objects − Form expectations about parent-child relationship

Bystander Apathy

The effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping. Example: you see someone fall down but the other people in the room don't go to help them. Do you go? Would you be more willing to go if you were alone? - as number of participants in a room increases the reaction time decreases

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group's initial attitude through discussion within the group.

priming account

The process by which different moods activate different information.

neurogenesis

The process by which neurons are generated. -6-7 wks after conception

confirmation bias

The process by which people interpret, seek, and create information that confirms already held beliefs. i.e, researchers are prone to conducting studies to confirm their hypothesis

Neural Migration

The process through which neurons move, grow, and connect as the basic neural tube develops into a more mature brain.

semantics

The relationship between words and their meanings. -semantic rules can be crucial for comprehension

Would a researcher studying effective types of education be more likely to use Vygotsky or Erikson's model to plan his or her research?

Vygotsky

Social Proof

We are inclined to follow the lead of others. If we witness others doing something, we are more likely to do it as well.

Which modern approach is not very concerned with stages, but rather views development as a more continuous process?

Theory Theory -Theory theorists are not very concerned with stages (the way Piaget was); instead, they view development as a more continuous process.

Children who are taught to think about others or who are trained to understand deception do better at tests of Theory of Mind. Which of the following conclusions best fits this observation?

Theory of Mind is influenced by the environment. - If children improve with training, then ToM is partly learned. Culture, brain function, and genetic differences are also important, but they are not related to the observation in the prompt.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Therapeutic approach that a person's worth as a human being does not depend on anything that he or she does, says, feels, or thinks. - ppl need this in order to become their TRUE SELVES bc otherwise ppl were distracted by the judgement and demands others placed on them

What did Mary Ainsworth say about attachment?

There are actually four different kinds of attachment, not two: 1) Securely attached 2) Disorganized/disoriented attached 3) Insecure-resistant attached 4) Insecure-avoidant attached

Does being hard to get work?

To an extent - Because people like to be liked, pretending to be aloof and disinterested ("hard to get") is not a great way to attract someone. - However, being SELECTIVELY hard to get is a good way to attract someone.

True or False Attachement tends to change to a more secure pattern over time

True

True or False Group therapy is an efficient, cost-effective treatment method that likely will continue to increase in popularity as funding and resources for mental health become more limited

True

True or False Male hearts and lungs will grow larger, leading to a generally higher level of endurance.

True

True or False People who expect to get better approach treatment positively; they are more open and willing to work

True

True or False Despite the efforts to increase objectivity, some subjectivity likely will always exist when diagnosing mental disorders.

True

True or False For Freud, what makes you be you is an interaction of both conscious and unconscious processes of the mind that can conflict with each other.

True

True or False Freud believed personality develops through a series of childhood stages, during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on distinct erogenous zones on the body. Each stage presents a different challenge we must work through.

True

True or False If the psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues or conflicts are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur.

True

True or False If the therapist is hoping for and expecting success, this translates into how he or she works to develop the therapeutic relationship.

True

True or False Locus of control is part of personality. It can be changed; therefore, personality can change. Operant conditioning affects neural pathways, which suggests that personality can be changed through learning or actions that also create neurological changes.

True

True or False People who feel supported are more likely to continue to attend treatment for the rewarding feeling it provides.

True

True or False People who have hope that they will get better tend to stick with treatment, anticipating a positive outcome.

True

True or False Sex is a biological given, but it is not clear whether gender is biologically determined, environmentally determined, or an interaction of the two

True

True or False Strong supporting friendship can prevent children from experiencing the negative effects on self-perception that normally accompany problems with parents

True

True or False Those with secure attachments enjoy a higher quality of RELATIONSHIPS from preschool to middle school and display higher capacity of EMOTIONAL VULNERABILITY and longer romantic relationships in adolescence

True

True or False When the client feels the therapist's support and positive energy, it enhances the relationship and increases chances of success

True

True or False : Many people with panic disorder also have agoraphobia.

True

True or False: Cognitive behavioural treatments are frequently offered in group settings.

True

True or False: Gender differences are found in most mental disorders

True

True or False: You can't diagnose an individual with a mental disorder if the sole cause of his distress or impairment is EXTERNAL

True

True or False: Only after a person notices a problem, identifies it as an emergency, and takes responsibility will he or she offer assistance.

True

True or False: Before making a diagnosis you must look to see if symptoms cause a person distress or impair their ability to function in daily life

True

True or False: Children without friends are more prone to experience feelings of loneliness and depression

True

True or False: When other people are around, we are less likely to interpret an event as an emergency. We use others' behaviour to gauge our own actions. If nobody acts, then we conclude that no one else interprets the event as an emergency. This is called "pluralistic ignorance" and is a strong contributor to bystander apathy.

True

True or False: When other people are around, we are less likely to notice the event. The presence of others can be distracting or can lead us to become inward focused. This effect is modest

True

True or False: When others are around, we exhibit diffusion of responsibility . If everyone thinks this way, no one provides assistance. (strong explanation for bystander apathy.)

True

True or False: When we are born, we already possess most of the neurons we ever will have

True - Because of neurogenesis - This means we can rule out the accumulation of neurons as an explanation for our brain's increasing complexity as we age.

True or False: Skills used more tend to develop earlier, and typical patterns of motor development vary among cultures

True -Toddlers who are required to use their legs more develop stronger leg muscles and walk earlier. -Undertaking physical tasks can alter the brain's structure and functions as neurons reorganize themselves according to necessary motor development.

True or False During the embryonic period the embryo will also grow a heart and begin to pump blood

True Blood is pumped to develop most of its organs, to grow arms and legs, and to sense and respond in a limited way to sensory stimulation.

True or False Tasks that require executive functions tend to be the last ones humans master in development.

True Even when fully mature, most people find executive tasks difficult to accomplish

True or False Gametes are the only haploid cell in your body?

True Haploid = 1 set of chromosomes not 2

True or False: All of the cells that will make up the central nervous system will grow inside this neural tube.

True New neurons are created via neurogenesis

True or False: Assessment of a client will be done both before and after treatment?

True This helps us see if the treatment is working

True or False Temperament can be defined using scores on 9 traits by Thomas and Chess?

True − Activity level − Rythmicity − Approach/withdrawal − Threshold of responsiveness − Intensity of reaction − Attention span − Distractibility − Adaptability − Quality of mood

True or False: Individuals cannot be diagnosed with a mental disorder if their behaviour is VOLUNTARY

True, example if they are volunteering to do a hunger strike they do not have anorexia

Pathway to learned helplessness

Uncontrollable bad events -> perceived lack of control -> generalized helpless behaviour

conservation

Understanding that specific properties of objects remain the same despite apparent changes in the shape or arrangement of those objects.

Subsongs

Unstructured, often rambling vocalization at low intensity heard mainly in young birds. -similar to babbling in humans -eventually develop into more mature, structured complex songs

Substance induced psychotic disorder symptoms

Use of marijuana affecting attendance, participation in usual activities.

Sigmund Freud

Viennese physician who proposed that all human behaviour is motivated by instinctual drives triggered by events in a person's life.

social learning theory

View of psychologists who emphasize behaviour, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.

Reciprocity

We treat others as they have treated us. - We feel obligated to repay favours, gifts, and acts of kindness, even when they are unsolicited.

What happens during months 7-9?

While in the womb, the growing foetus will also experience taste. In one experiment, it was shown that when infants begin to eat solid food, they show a preference for foods that their mother ate while pregnant and breastfeeding.

Do cultures have variety in secondary emotions and emotional signals?

YES

Can locus of control be changed?

YES - It can be changed; therefore, personality can change. -Operant conditioning affects neural pathways, which suggests that personality can be changed through learning which create neurological changes.

Is personality affected by interactions bw genetics and environment?

YES - genetics x environment = personality

Do we have all of the big five traits?

YES - you may score low on some but everyone still have some measurement of each trait

Is major depression recurrent?

YES - highly recurrent 50-60% of people who have one episode will have a second, and 90% of those who have two episodes will have many more throughout their lives

Can myelination be used to determine relative maturity of the brain?

YES! - Although the first signs of myelination occur prior to birth, the process continues as we develop, not finishing until early adulthood.

Can a change in facial expression lead to an actual change in emotion?

Yes

Can having friends protect children from being victimized?

Yes

Imagine you use a psychoactive substance, such as cocaine or alcohol. When you don't have it, you suffer withdrawal. You have a hard time controlling how much you consume. You give up daily activities (work or socializing) and you spend a lot of time getting, consuming, or recovering from it. Are you likely to have a substance-use disorder?

Yes - if you cannot control your use, are developing a tolerance, and it is affecting your life you meet the criteria

Is there a 'best' way to treat mental illness?

Yes - Think about all the different psychological disorders you learned about during the last two weeks. Can you imagine any single treatment treating all of them more effectively than any possible alternative? No - If there is no one best way, then does that mean that all methods are identical? How might we compare methods of treatment?

Does aggresion promote survival?

Yes - in some conditions

Is there variability in children reaching motor milestones?

Yes, a large amount of variability - motor milestones only represent the typical development of a child born in North America -i.e, tribe of Ache in Paraguay children are carried for the first 3 yrs of their life, they learn to walk later on

Representative heuristic

a mental shortcut to judge membership in a group based on a typical example of that group i.e, if someones a doctor you may decide theyre wealthy

Manic Episode

a period of abnormally elevated mood that persists for at least one week and is accompanied by at least three of seven additional symptoms (e.g decreased need for sleep, grandiosity, pressured speech, racing thoughts)

Mere Presence Theory

The mere presence of others is sufficient to induce arousal. - Research shows that a computer interface designed to look like another person can induce social facilitation. - suggested that this connection between arousal and others is a hard-wired response in almost, if not all, species.

Liking

The more we like someone, the more inclined we are to comply with his or her request.

Looking - glass self

The notion that other people serve as mirrors in which we see ourselves.

NEO Personality Inventory

Instrument used to measure the elements described in the five-factor model.

Why is it called a projective test?

It's called a projective test because the person may project his or her personality onto the test (i.e, the inkblot in rorschach)

underextend

Limit context for generalized words to a certain specific meaning

Cyclothymic Disorfer

Long-term (minimum TWO YEARS) cycling of moods that alternate between mild depressed (but not severe enough to be a major depressive episode) and mild hypomanic (not severe enough to be a hypomanic episode) states

introspection

Looking inward to one's own thoughts and feelings. - some researchers argue that we ourselves however are not the best at explaining our own behaviour

Differences in male and female puberty

MALE -testosterone promotes pubic hair growth -more muscle mass than females FEMALE - estrogen promote growth of breasts, hips, maturation of uterus and vagina -female testosterone will induce physical growth and pubic hair development

Better than average effect

Most people rate themselves on most dimensions as better than the average person - a statistical impossibility.

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs

Motivation for different activities passes through several levels of need, with entrance to subsequent levels dependent on first satisfying the needs of previous levels.

Catelles 16 PF Questionnaire

Multiple-choice personality questionnaire developed by Cattell to measure 16 normal adult personality dimensions. - this one has too many redundant traits - ppl generally now use a new measure with a few distinct traits (big 5)

Semi - structured

a predetermined set of questions that the clinician expands on, depending on the client's responses.

When the perceived costs outweigh the rewards, a _____________ outcome exists

NEGATIVE - we are likely to be dissatisfied with the relationship.

Is diagnosing these substance induced mental disorders easy?

NO

Does every psychoactive substance create a disorder?

NO - some just change emotions, perceptions, thought (i.e, caffeine)

Eating healthy food while pregnant, as well as supplementing one's diet with vitamins and minerals (i.e, folic acid, vitamin B-12, calcium, and iron) has been shown to:

aid brain development and prevent some birth defects.

What role to phonemes play in language?

allow people to differentiate words based on basic sounds

Problems w ratio IQ

although a person's mental age eventually stops, their chronological age increases until death. -This changes the denominator, so the ratio IQ decreases with age

actual / ideal discrepancy

an absence of positive outcomes - i cant become a famous singer - could lead to depression

Scarcity

People are more sensitive to losses than they are to gains, so if something seems rare or less available, we tend to value it more.

vocabulary spurt

Period of strong language growth in children in which they are able to learn and use a large number of words. ~18 months

equilibration

Process within Piaget's theory that reorganizes schemata. -the process that occurs when we accommodate information to the point where the original schema no longer holds true and we must form entirely new schemata. After equilibration, a person will hold a more advanced schema that, by virtue of having incorporated more sophisticated data than the previous schema, is more stable than the last and less vulnerable to contradiction.

Self- awareness

The ability to recognize oneself as a distinct entity. - important in developing a self - concept - psychologist use the mirror test to test this

Comparison Level

The average outcome (in terms of rewards and costs) people expect from any relationship. - will use this to compare a relationship to expectations

phonemes

The basic distinctive speech sounds in a language that distinguish one word (e.g., rice) from another (lice). -Phonological rules govern how phonemes can be combined in a given language.

contact comfort

The comfort that primate babies derive from close physical contact with something soft and warm.

What area of the body is still being mylenated even at your 20s?

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex - important for controlling impulses, planning complex actions, and foreseeing consequences, and for working memory - Critical for Executive functioning

framing effect

The effect of wording on judgment and decision making. i.e, the way drug effectiveness if phrased, organ donors based on opt out or opt in

What did Maslow and Rogers believe a person's behaviour stems from?

behaviour stems from a motivation to reach his or her full potential. - however Maslow believed that first ppl must satisfy a lower level of needs before focusing on higher level needs of fulfillment

gender stereotypes

beliefs about the supposedly different skills, cognitions, and behaviours of males and females

Brief Psychotic Disorder

an episode of psychotic symptoms that lasts between one day and one month.

self esteem vs self concept

self concept = cognitive evaluation self esteem = emotional evaluation

An elaborate flower arrangement where each flower has its own meaning

semanticity

Gender Identity:

sense of being male or female, consists primarily of the acceptance of membership into either male or female groups - identified ages 2-3

Antonio Damasio

separates feelings from emotions EMOTIONS:internal reactions that occur automatically and unconsciously in response to certain stimuli. AFFECTIVE component FEELINGS: occur when neural reactions become conscious. COGNITIVE component

gender roles

culturally specific expectations as to the types of activities each gender should engage in

repression

defence mechanism keep anxiety-producing motives and desires from our conscious awareness.

What mental disorder is attributed to too little NE?

depression

Satisfaction

determined by subtracting the costs from the rewards and then subtracting one's comparison level. - Greater satisfaction is associated with stronger commitment.

James Olds and Peter Milner

discovered that rats would quickly learn to press a lever for electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB), - responded at very high rates for long periods to receive ESB. = - Even very hungry rats would choose ESB over food! - The power of ESB to drive behaviour shows that animals can be motivated by rewards that have NO OBVIOUS VALUE or survival and drive reduction

What are emotions usually accompanied by?

distinct, recognizable facial expressions and body motions.

What mental disorder is attributed to excess NE?

excess has been associated with schizophrenia.

Actual/ ought discrepancy

existence of negative outcomes - i am a bad person - could lead to anxiety

Genetic predisposition

expressed in terms of psychological traits that heighten sensitivity to stress.

True or False Studies found that having trust in friends was NOT a strong predictor of self esteem?

false WAS A STRONG PREDICTOR

What vitamins and minerals aid a healthy baby?

folic acid, vitamin B-12, calcium, and iron

Identical twins

formed when the morula splits in two

Factors influencing migration

genetic instructions, the timing and location of neurogenesis; interaction with glial cells; and a combination of genetic, chemical, and environmental signals.

Fill in the blank One famous ______ therapy is to have clients talk to an empty chair as if a person were sitting in it, as a way to explore relationships with self and others.

gestalt

Clinical Psychologists

have a *doctoral degree* (PhD) in clinical psychology with training in the assessment and treatment of mental disorders, as well as training in statistics and research methods.

Psychological Associates

have a *master's degree in clinical psychology and four years of supervised practice.* They may practice independently and carry out the same activities as a clinical psychologist.

Psychiatrist

have a *medical degree* with an additional specialization in psychiatry and are the only mental health professionals who can prescribe medication.

Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix

helped to treat those with mental illness more humanely

infant- directed talk (IDT)

high-pitched and emotionally expressive voice, speaking more slowly and with a less-complex vocabulary, and often with a facial expression showing exaggerated emotion

Pressure sensors

keep you from eating until you burst

SAD Symptoms

lethargy and sleep disturbances, along with a craving for carbohydrates and potential weight gain.

Regulatory drives

maintain homeostasis and needed for IMMEDIATE survival i.e, hunger, thirst, sleep

diathesis

medical term for a predisposition, vulnerability, or tendency.

Blood glucose

monitored by the body

Neural sensors

signal the nutritive value of food and influence the sense of satiety

Bird songs

songs of songbirds are both highly structured and communicative to other members of that species. -used to attract mates, challenge rivals, communicate about danger -can be as many as 1000 different songs -birdsong has several similar to human language (convergent evolution)

What is a likely outcome for a person with a low comparison level and a relationship that is associated with many costs and few rewards?

negative outcome

Strong Attitudes and Behaviour

strong attitudes can cause change in behaviour more than weak attitudes

Michael Meaney

studied the genetic, neural, hormonal, and behavioural aspects of maternal care in multiple generations of rats. - discovered that maternal styles were passed across generations

Substance Withdrawal

occurs when a person suffers *clinically significant* negative or harmful BEHAVIOURAL changes or PSYCHOLOGICAL effects because they RECENTLY STOPPED prolonged use of a psychoactive substance

Substance Induced Disorders

substance intoxication, substance withdrawal, other substance induced mental disorders

Effort justification

people choosing between similarly valued alternatives will elevate the value of the chosen alternative and devalue the unchosen alternative to reduce dissonance. - You don't want to feel that your efforts were wasted, so you convince yourself that they were actually worthwhile and the second dish was good.

actual self

people's beliefs regarding their actual attributes.

ought self

people's beliefs regarding what they and important others think they should or ought to be (i.e, nice, generous)

Mixed Episodes

periods in which mood rapidly alternates between sadness and euphoria.

Serotonin

plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder Symptoms

related to mood (depression, anxiety, irritability, and liability/mood swings) as well as lethargy; sleep disturbances; loss of interest; difficulty concentrating; feeling overwhelmed; overeating or food cravings; and bloating, tender breasts, and joint pain.

vestibular system

required for a sense of balance

Schachter's two factor theory

the brain interprets ANS arousal and, depending on context, labels emotion. - label emotion associated w arousal according to current situation EXPERIMENT - people were given a drug that resulted in arousal and then placed in different situations. -The individual's reported emotional state was related to the situation he or she was in

Structured

the clinician asks a specific series of predetermined questions that map. onto accepted diagnostic criteria.

Unstructured

the clinician asks whatever questions he or she considers relevant to the specific client

Sleep hygiene

the elements and behaviours associated with getting to sleep

Does language reflect a fundamental difference in the way our brains work?

the human development of language does not reflect a fundamental, profound difference in the way that human brains work.

What did Freud think interacted to influence our thoughts and actions?

the id, the ego, and the superego

representativeness heuristic

the tendency to ignore base rates and judge the likelihood of an event by the extent to which it RESEMBLES THE TYPICAL case.

Commitment

the tendency to maintain a relationship and feel psychologically attached to it — is determined by satisfaction, quality of alternatives, investment - High levels of commitment are associated with greater fidelity and greater willingness to make sacrifices

Self- serving attributions

the tendency to take personal credit for successes and provide external excuses for failure.

What is the purpose of psychological therapy?

to reduce or remove the symptoms of psychological disorders.

Psychiatric Social Workers

typically have a *master's degree in social work* with a specialization in psychiatric issues.

Psychiatric Nurses

typically have a *nursing degree* with specialized training in psychiatric issues.

Substance induced psychotic disorder assessmnet

use a self-report measure to determine the patient's drug and alcohol use.

How do we usually make decisions?

using mental short cuts, also called cognitive heuristics

When does the ability to reason about the mental states of others arise?

usually arises in its most basic form in children around the age of four.

Aesthetic pursuits

vicarious means to satisfy other drives (for example, reproductive and social).

Reading by sight

whole word reading

To interact and make moral decisions about others, what must we do?

you must be able to recognize that they exist as SEPARATE people, with knowledge, interests, and desires that differ from your own.

Pragmatics

- Social rules - Allow us to understand different purposes of language and the different situations to use language - Example: using different voices, or hearing someone with an accent

categorical perception

- Tendency of perceivers to disregard physical differences between stimuli and perceive them as the same such that a continuous change in a physical attribute is perceived NOT AS CONTINOUS, but as a DISCRETE CHANGE change at a category boundary. - Allows us to perceive sounds as one phoneme or another, when in reality the sound might be quite ambiguous

Bilingual children

- raised in bilingual environments appear to learn both languages effortlessly and simultaneously. -able to distinguish between their two languages from very early on - as early as it can be measured.

Speech perception "system"

-Highlights the phonemic contrasts that are used in the language(s) you speak and minimizes contrasts that aren't meaningful. -That allows your perceptual system to dismiss or ignore meaningless variability in speech

How do infants understand language?

-IDT -phonemes

What does intelligence have to do with work outcomes?

-IQ tests commonly used for personnel selection -Personnel selection is important because the hiring process is very expensive and workers exhibit large differences in productivity or effectiveness. -intelligence is 3x more predictive than job experience

What helps reading?

-Knowledge in morphology (helps to break down words) -readers vocabulary (part of semantics) -knowledge of the world (context)

coarticulation

-Speech sounds for words are not produced in a discrete sequence. -articulators are effectively shaping multiple sounds at any moment in time, so that different instances of a particular phoneme (e.g., "b") are acoustically different, depending on the sounds preceding and following them. -means that the sound associated with any phoneme varies depending on its context

Norming

-The process of gathering data concerning comparison groups that permit an individual's score to be assessed relative to his or her peers. -determining people's typical performance on the test

Wechsler and verbal abilities

-Wechsler worked in a mental hospital -noticed disparities bw verbal IQ and intelligence in other areas -thus he invented a test that gave scores on a NUMBER of subcategories of intelligence

What is language?

-a socially agreed-upon, rule-governed system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined in different ways to communicate ideas and feelings about both the present time and place and other times and places, real or imagined -semanticity, generativity, displacement

Written language

-a visual symbol system that is imposed on top of an auditory symbol system (that is, oral language). -the linguistic knowledge and analytic skills that assist in speech comprehension and production help for comprehending and producing written language.

auditory categorical perception

-depends on ability to ignore irrelevent acoustic variability irelevent to language while making use of meaningful variability to distinguish phonemes

Variability in spoken language How do we deal with this?

-difference voices, prounciation, accents, -we use pragmatics to disambiguate

Validity

The degree to which the instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure.

Communicative function of IDT

The heavy use of tone in IDT plays a large role in its communicative function and may help infants distinguish encouragement from discouragement before they actually understand the words.

Morphemes

The smallest unit of meaning in language.

Displacement

the ability to use language to convey messages that are NOT TIED TO THE IMMEDIATE context (time and place) but instead communicate information about events in the PAST or FUTURE, or at some other location.

Phonology

the rule of linguistics that govern the patterns of sounds that are used in a language - which sounds are used, and how they're combined

What two problems are associated with group thinking?

1) Group polarization 2) Group think

The central route

- used when people are motivated and able to think carefully (systematically) about a message. - influenced by the quality of the argument.

Phonetic reading

"sounding out words"

In general what does 'best' mean

"most suited to its purpose"

What is the equation for the investment model

(Satisfaction — Quality of Alternatives) + Investment = Commitment

Are mental disorders are caused primarily by GENETIC or ENVIRONMENTAL risk factors?

*GENETIC* - commonly accepted that most mental disorders have a genetic BASIS *ENVIRONMENTAL* - can affect significantly whether, to what degree, and how this genetic disposition is manifested. - in utero environment and growing up

Psychoanalytic

- *Freudian* psychodynamic theory - our behaviour ultimately can be explained in terms of unconscious forces or desires. - Psychological problem, are the result of these INTERNAL CONFLICTS, and we have to become aware of them to be cured. - Process can take years, and effects and outcomes are hard to measure.

Why is it so difficult to be healthy and easier to be unhealthy?

- *Unhealthy behaviours* are highly rewarding immediately. (also becomes a LEARNED behaviour) - *Healthy behaviours* predict long-term benefits but may be more aversive in the short term. i.e, getting up early to go for a run in the rain; enduring an unsatisfied craving for something sweet

When is the majority of organ growth complete?

- 1 Month after the foetus period starts, the majority of organ growth is complete - As early as 10 weeks of age, the foetus begins making breathing-like motions. - This helps the fetus with muscle and nerve development so it can breathe after birth

Stage 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Self-Doubt

- 1 to 3 years old - Children's ability to interact with and understand the world increases dramatically. - Children will gain either a sense of autonomy during this time, or, if their exploration is too often met with punishment or excessive scrutiny by overbearing parents, a sense of shame and doubt in themselves.

STAGE 2: Preoperational stage

- 2 to 6 or 7 yo - child has an inability to perform operations or reversible mental processes -substantial cognitive development, primarily in symbolic representation and the beginnings of logical reasoning. -kids are EGOCENTRIC -have trouble with the concept of CONSERVATION

Stage 3) Initiative vs. Guilt

- 3-4 to 5-6 years old - Now that children have begun to achieve control over their actions, they begin to set goals for themselves. - A positive resolution to the setting of goals is learning a feeling of confidence about their ability to meet their own goals, while a negative outcome leads to feelings of guilt and an inability to control one's future.

Emotions

- Brief displays of feelings made in response to environmental events having motivational significance or in response to memory of such events (physiological, cognitive or behavioral response) − Feelings affected by EMOTIONAL CUES from others and sensitivity to emotional cues play huge role in social relationships

What is Brongenbrenner's ecological system model?

- Bronfenbrenner viewed the developing person as existing within a number of overlapping systems - the person participates in or is influenced by the systems - These systems make up our ecological system - all we interact with

Stem Cells

- Cells that have the same DNA as every other cell but have not yet undergone any epigenetic modification - All cells in the morula are stem cells. - Undifferentiated cells that can divide and produce any one of a variety of differentiated cells.

Result of Authoritarian parenting

- Children are unhappy, lack social competence, conform well to standards, lack social confidence - look for guidance of authority figures when faced with moral issues, - physical discipline increases anxiety and aggression

Persistent Depressive Disorder

- Chronic depressed mood that persists for at least TWO YEARS and is accompanied by at least two of: - poor appetite, - sleep disturbance, - fatigue, - low self-esteem, - poor concentration - feelings of hopelessness.

Tobacco as a teratogen

- Cigarettes are another legal drug that can cause problems with prenatal development. - Nicotine causes ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLACENTA which is responsible for nourishing the foetus, helping it breathe, and protecting it from external influences. - Babies born to cigarette smokers generally weigh less than those born to non-smokers. - They are also at higher risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, lower IQ, and behavioural problems.

Obedience

- Compliant behaviour produced by the commands of authority. - evolutionarily successful

Compulsions

- Compulsions are specific rituals or acts that are completed with the goal of reducing anxiety (often anxiety brought on by obsessions)

downward social comparisons

- Defensive tendencies to compare oneself with others who are worse off than oneself - we can experience an increase in mood and a positive outlook for the future. Knowing that our situation could be worse seems to be helpful.

Factitious Disorder

- Deliberately create and/or exaggerate symptoms of an illness to gain attention. Can be imposed on self and/or others.

What are some cognitive disorders that increase with age

- Dementia (Alzheimer's) - Stroke - Parkinson's Disease

Is depression genetic?

- Depression *runs in families*, and it is estimated that first-degree relatives of people with unipolar depression are two to five times more likely to develop depression than individuals in the general population. - No single "depression gene" has been identified, but a number of promising candidate genes have been examined.

Assessment

- Designed to elicit *personal history and presenting symptoms* so the mental health professional can arrive at a diagnosis and construct a treatment plan. - determine nature and severity of symptoms - Once diagnosis and treatment plan are complete, treatment begins.

Psychoeducational groups

- Designed to help individuals work on issues that do not require intensive treatment or in-patient care. - Self-help groups, such as parenting or weight-loss groups, provide members with education and the support and encouragement of others with similar situations and goals.

Embryonic development pattern: Cephalocaudal

- Development occurs most intensely at the head and proceeds downward toward the body.

Embryonic development pattern: Proximodistal

- Development proceeding from the center of the organism outward.

Rejecting/Neglectful

- Disengages, no demands or responsiveness, set no limits, may actively discourage child - parents more engaged in meeting their own needs than those of the children

Diagnosis of no mental illness

- Doesn't meet the three-prong test; - his impairment is not that severe, has cause - ask patient's parents to wait and watch and return if any further distressing symptoms appear

What neurotransmitter is involved with schizophrenia?

- Dopamine: used to communicate among brain cells - theory that too much dopamine results in schizophrenia symptoms

Internal Factors

- Driven from within - A sense of pride, satisfaction in a job well done, or the need to overcome a challenge. - compulsions to do something - feelings of hopelessness.

Premenstraul Dysphoric Disorder

- Dysphoria that begins the week prior to menses, improves in the days just after menses begins, and is absent in the week post menses. - At least 5 of 11 symptoms must be present and must have occurred during most menstrual cycles during the past 12 months.

Why do we have the fight or flight response?

- ancestors experiences fight or flee from danger - in modern times we experience this when undergoing stress like studying for an upcoming exam

Discrete Emotions Theory

- Emotions are innate and accompanied by discrete bodily and facial signals − Emotions are a product of evolution by increasing survival from birth i.e, infant cries alert caregiver to distress − Between 4 of 10 basic emotions may be present and distinct at birth

What is fixation?

- Energies remain focused on a particular stage or activity without progress. - certain issues or conflicts are not resolved at a particular stage Example: a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be overly dependent on others and seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, eating, or chewing gum.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD

- Excessive and uncontrollable worry, often about *common concerns* for an extended period of time. - Characterized by various physiological symptoms, as well, such as restlessness, muscle tension, and difficulty sleeping. - Some studies suggest that GAD begins with a genetic predisposition to anxiety or an early traumatic experience (the diathesis) and then develops following the experience of a stressful life event or transition.

Bipolar I Disorder

- Experience of at least ONE MANIC EPISODE which typically alternates with at least ONE MAJOR DEPRESSIVE episode. - In some cases, people with Bipolar I Disorder can have MIXED EPISODES

Explaining Bystander Apathy: Pluralistic Ignorance

- FALSE IMPRESSION of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding. - occurs when people mistakenly think that their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviours are different from those around them.

Temperament

- Factor in attachment referring to each infant's individual pattern of behaviours and emotional reactions − Evident from early on and remains relatively stable across development, especially those with extremes

Permissive

- Few demands, lots of freedom, highly responsive, believe children learn best on own without structure

What happens during the 6th month of development?

- Foetus weighs around 700 grams and measures nearly 30 cm long. - At this stage of development, with the intervention of doctors, nurses, and new drugs, the foetus can survive premature birth. - Two weeks later, the foetus's heartbeat will change in response to light stimulation through the mother's abdomen.

Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET)

- Form of cognitive behavioural therapy - proposes the driving force behind psychological problems is the *thought process* behind them. - Our thoughts determine our mood. - Based on Ellis's ABC theory of emotions - RET works to *identify and change a person's inaccurate beliefs*, many of which are grounded in emotion.

Internal Working Model

- Formed in early attachment to a caregiver − Representation based on the child's experiences with his caregivers and used to make sense of the other relationships the child will participate in throughout life − Specifies whether the infant will expect others to react him sensitively and lovingly − Also specifies whether the individual feels if they are worthy of love and acceptance

dream analysis

- Freud saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious - what we recall from a dream is a symbol of the dream's true meaning

Psychoanalytic Theory

- Freud's theory of personality based on conflict between the CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS mind and on DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES tied to various bodily functions. - His theory was one of the first to suggest a structural framework for the unconscious and thus was important at the time of its publication.

Executive Functioning

- Functions involved in goal-directed behaviour, planning, and problem solving. - functions that control and regulate our behaviour - the last ones humans master - even when fully mature most ppl find difficult

Synaptic Plasticity

- Further reductions in the number of synapses occur at the level of the neuron, which can both grow and shed connections to other neurons in response to its own activity levels. - Occurs throughout life in response to which connections neurons are using or not using.

Self-Help Groups

- Groups offer hope, expectations, and support that can lead people to change their thinking and develop new behaviours or abandon maladaptive behaviours - Example: AA (alcoholics anonymous)

General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)

- Hans Selye - useful framework for understanding an animal's physiological response to stressors - universal response made up of three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion

Kelley's Covariation Principle

- Harold Kelley - An attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why they and other people behave in a certain way. - for something to be the cause of someone's behaviour, it must be present when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not.

How are disorders best understood?

- an interaction - framed in diathesis -stress model: - Even in disorders with a strong genetic component, genetic predisposition is only fully expressed when triggered by environmental stress.

Prescription drugs as a teratogen

- Many prescription drugs also pose a risk to the developing organism. - The most famous example is the case of the drug THALIDOMIDE, which doctors prescribed to pregnant women in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a remedy for morning sickness. - Thalidomide is said to have worked well at preventing nausea and caused no harm to the women who took it, but the children born of those pregnancies were often missing arms or legs, or born with extremely stunted limbs. - Some other drugs that are prescribed today, such as certain anti-anxiety medications, antibiotics, and acne medications, also have teratogenic effects, and doctors strictly warn against their use during pregnancy.

What would you use to assess someone with a possible brain injury?

- Medical imaging techniques also may help to locate the specific damaged area. - EEG (electroencephalogram), CAT scan (computerized axial tomography), MRI or fMRI scan (functional magnetic resonance imaging), or PET scan (positron emission tomography).

Stage 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation

- Middle Adulthood - Middle adulthood is the longest stage of a typical life. - - People may develop meaningful relationships and contribute valuable work, leaving them with a sense of having built a meaningful life and contributing to the next generation. Others may isolate themselves, leading to a feeling of boredom and meaninglessness.

Substance Use Disorder Classifications

- Mild (2-3 criteria) - Moderate (4-5 criteria) - Severe (6+ criteria) - criteria used are those in each section of diagnosis

External Factors

- More tangible - Material reward, good grades, or praise—and that come from someone else - might be orders given by a supervisor or rules in a competition.

Blastocyst

- Morula turns to blastocyst when the trophoblast layer send in nutrients to it and differentiation signals - The stage a fertilized egg reaches five to six days after fertilization. - Blastocyst is implanted in the uterine wall

Unrealistic Optimism

- Most people are unrealistically optimistic about their future outlook. - One reason for this unrealistic optimism is that people tend to create theories that link their personal attributes to desirable outcomes.

Somatic Symptom Disorder

- Multiple, current, somatic symptoms that are distressing or result in significant disruption of daily life. - Preoccupation with illness and frequent medical care utilization.

The NEO Personality Inventory

- N, E, and O stand for neuroticism, extroversion, and openness to experience) is also an objective test that measures personality factors. - The NEO provides a series of statements that a person agrees or disagrees with on a five-point scale. - The most recent version, the NEO-PI-3, measures five factors and is based on the five-factor model, which we will discuss later.

What causes hunger and satiety?

- NOT your stomach 1) stomach pressure sensors 2) neural sensors 3) blood glucose 4) fat stores (leptin)

Discrimination

- Negative BEHAVIOUR directed against people because of their group membership. - can be caused by stereotypes and prejudice - Discriminatory behaviour reinforces one's negative beliefs (stereotypes) and feelings (prejudices)

Aschematic

- Not having a schema for a particular categorization or situation. - When a self-schema is not very important to a person, that person is said to be aschematic on that attribute.

Optimism and illness

- OPTIMISTIC attitudes is correlated with *lower likelihood* of future cardiovascular disease, quicker recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery, and a greater likelihood of completing an alcoholic rehabilitation program - implies optimism keeps our stress levels down and give us motivation to succeed

Amblyopia

- Often caused by strabismus and lazy eye - The loss or lack of development of central vision in one eye that is unrelated to any eye health problem and is not correctable with lenses. - Much of this loss takes place when the visual system learns to ignore information from the lazy eye. RECOVERY? -Full vision usually can be recovered if the condition is treated before age five, usually by simply patching or covering the good eye, thereby forcing the brain and the eye muscles of the lazy eye to work together. - If amblyopia is not treated until after age ten, the person can only recover partial vision.

Cognitive differences in elderly and young

- Older adults are better at vocabulary and analogies because of their richer schema development and experience in solving problems. - They may have more efficient neural connections. - Younger folks' faster reaction times could be explained in terms of more numerous connections.

Trait personality theory

- Raymond Cattell - composite of 16 personality dimensions, each is a continuum. Where each person falls on each trait produces their personality - researchers have now made the BIG FIVE which are thought to be most important traits - criticized for describing rather than explaining personality

How do you facilitate behaviour change?

- Recognize that behaviours (even habitual ones are facilitated by the ppl around u): CHANGE SOCIAL GROUP - make the immediate reward of unhealthy behaviours less rewarding - make long-term advantages more salient - emphasize risks of unhealthy behaviours - changes in one area of your life can lead to changes in another!

Alcohol as a teratogen

- One of the most common teratogens that developing organisms are exposed to is alcohol. - Recent work has shown that at least 15-20% of women in the United States continue to drink alcohol during pregnancy. - Alcohol crosses the placenta, exposing the foetus directly when it consumes the amniotic fluid. - Prenatal exposure to alcohol is responsible for the development of FOETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD), which is the most common known cause of mental retardation. - FASD's effects range from subtle behavioural disturbances to very severe facial deformities, attentional difficulties, mental retardation, congenital heart disease, and hyperactivity. - Although the details on timing, amount, and regularity of alcohol exposure, as well as the genetics of the mother and foetus, are not definite, it generally is recommended that pregnant women avoid alcohol completely during pregnancy.

Dissociative Amnesia

- One or more period of time where an individual can't remember important personal information. - Often this information is related to a traumatic or stressful experience. The loss of memory goes beyond normal forgetting.

stereotypes

- Organized sets of knowledge or BELIEFS about any group of people. - Stereotypes can include positive or negative information, but they are overgeneralized beliefs and, thus, may not always be accurate.

self- discrepancy theory

- Our self-esteem and emotional states are determined by the match or mismatch between HOW WE SEE OURSELVES and HOW WE WANT TO see ourselves.

DSM-5

- Outlines the various mental disorders recognized in North America and the specific criteria required for each disorder's diagnosis. - complex scheme of diagnostic categories using standard terminology - justified on the basis that ACCURATE classification leads to better treatment and more fruitful research.

Self- esteem

- Overall feelings of approval and acceptance of the self. - generally stable, but people can feel positively about certain aspects of themselves, or self-schemas, and negatively about others - an affective, or emotionally related, component of the self

7 basic emotions

- Paul Ekman 1) Happiness 2) Sadness 3) Surprise 4) Fear 5) Disgust 6) Anger 7) Contempt - universality of these suggest they are genetic

How do ppl engage in behaviours to enhance self esteem?

- People buffer their self-esteem against failure. - Self-handicapping, basking in reflected glory (BIRGing), downward social comparisons, and self-serving cognitions all raise self-esteem.

Knowledge - Across - Situations Hypothesis

- People usually judge the behaviour of those whom they know well to be more flexible and more dependent on the situation than the behaviour of those they know less well. -i.e, the actor - observer discrepancy (actor answers situational cause to ones own actions, observer answers personal cause to actors actions)

Locus Of Control

- People's beliefs about whether the outcomes of their actions depend on what they do (INTERNAL) or on events outside their personal control (EXTERNAL) - Julian Rotter developed

affective forecasting

- Predicting how one would feel about a future emotional event. - demonstrates ppls lack of self knowledge as people generally overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions.

How does prejudice affect self esteem

- Prejudice is an example of downward social comparisons and self-serving cognition. - Therefore, prejudice raises self-esteem.

Prejudice, stereotype, and discrimination components

- Prejudice: Emotional Component - Stereotype: Cognitive Component - Discrimination: Behavioural component

What effects does a stressed out mother have on the fetus?

- Premature delivery and low birth weight - Signs of anxious and depressive-like behaviour after birth, as well as signs of increased aggression.

Illness Anxiety Disorder

- Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness. - High level of anxiety about health and excessive health-related behaviours (repeated checks for signs of illness in the absence of any symptoms)

Community psychology

- Prevention and identifying at-risk individuals in the community who have not sought help. - done through various methods, such as the use of assertive community treatment (ACT) teams.

Drive reduction theory

- Proposes that a drive produces an unpleasant state that causes an organism to engage in motivated behaviours. - Reduction of drive is reinforcing.

Humanistic

- Psychological problems result from individuals being thwarted in their ability to *realize their full potential*, to develop as far as their capacities permit. - The therapist's job is to help the client understand *what his or her real desires are* and how to deal with the perceived judgments of others that might be blocking these wishes and desires.

Functional Emotional Theory

- Purpose of emotion is to motivate accomplishment of GOALS − Emotions are NOT FULLY INNATE, they are flexible, influenced by social factors and assembled in the moment − Functional emotions evolve with the developing persons goals and concerns, so these emotions CHANGE w development

The Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI-2)

- an objective personality test that asks people to answer over 500 true/false questions about themselves. - most common

Behavioural monitoring

- Recording specific behaviours and the circumstances around these behaviours. - Recording typically performed by the client (via a diary), or sometimes by staff if the client is in an in-client setting (or by a teacher or parent). - Purpose is to learn about the frequency of target behaviours, precursor or antecedent circumstances that trigger the behaviours, and the reinforcers that help maintain the behaviours.

According to Bandura's social learning theory. which of the following elements has to come third in order for children to learn through observation?

- Reinforcement the child should be motivated to imitate the behaviour that he or she observed and practiced.

According to Bandura's social learning theory. which of the following elements has to come second in order for children to learn through observation?

- Reproduction Practice leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Drives or motivational states

- Reversible internal conditions that affect the nature, strength, and persistence of an individual's behaviour. - reward- seeking states - reinforced by rewards

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

- Richard Petty and John Cacioppo - States that there are two routes through which persuasive messages are processed: the central route and the peripheral route.

Humanistic Personality Theories

- Rogers and Maslow - rejecting determinism of psycho- dynamic and behavioural - emphasized role of FREE WILL and SELF DEVELOPMENT and IMPEDIMENTS TO SELF ACTUALIZATION (can distort our true personality) to make personality - drive towards self actualization is an important force in personality development - this theory lacks empirical support

How is secure attachment fostered?

- Secure attachment will be produced if the care giver is warm and RESPONSIVE - response is contingent to the baby's PROXIMITY PROMOTING SIGNALS like cries, smiles, coos

What causes panic?

- Several possible causes, and a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors likely contributes to its onset . - Most people with panic disorder score high on a personality trait called *'anxiety sensitivity'*. This is the tendency to be hypersensitive to physiological changes in their body (for example, an increase in heart rate) and to interpret such changes as being dangerous. - The fear response to these normal fluctuations in physical sensations then triggers the physiological fight-flight system, which intensifies their physical symptoms, propagating a cycle of panic.

Psychodynamic personality theory

- Sigmund Freud - 3 components of personality: id, ego, super ego - components develop over 5 psychosexual stages - personality arises from conflicts bw Id and super ego and mediated by ego and kept from conscious awareness using defence mechanisms - internal drives and forces

Schizophrenia symptoms

- Social isolation, - burst of anger/laughter in response to doctor - irritability - preoccupation with character (possible delusion), - auditory hallucinations

What is factor analysis and what is it used for?

- Statistical analysis that examines all of the correlations between the items and determines if any of them are highly correlated with each other. CREATES CLUSTERS OF RELATED ITEMS - Clusters indicate a common underlying factor or trait.

Core Knowledge Theory

- Susan Carey, Elizabeth Spelke, Noam Chomsky -suggests that infants and young children have a MUCH MORE SOPHISTICATED COGNITION than the older theories acknowledge. - Core Knowledge Theorists speculate that FROM BIRTYH, the brain has mechanisms that predispose humans to learn specific skills very quickly i.e, reflexes

Conversion Disorder

- Symptoms that affect motor or sensory functioning that appear to be related to a neurological disorder or medical condition but do not actually have an identifiable cause. - The symptoms must relate to a psychological factor (onset of symptoms immediately following a psychological trauma).

Social Identity Theory

- Tajfel and Turner - self concept is made up of both personal identity and social identity

Drug Therapy/Pharmacotherapy

- The use of medication to treat psychological disorders - most drug therapies for psychological disorders focus on medications that affect the *neurotransmitters* that convey information between nerve cells in the brain and body.

What is the ego?

- The EGO is LARGELY CONSCIOUS, mediating the conflicting demands of the id, the superego, and reality. - It strives to satisfy the id's desires in appropriate ways that bring pleasure rather than pain. - It operates on a REALITY PRINCIPLE

What is the id?

- The ID is a COMPLETELY UNCONSCIOUS reservoir of psychic energy. - strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on a PLEASURE PRINCIPLE and demanding immediate gratification.

Projective Tests

- The RORSCHACH test is undoubtedly the best-known projective test. - A series of ink blots is presented, and the person describes what he or she sees in the ink plot - personality is projected in description - Researchers have worked hard to develop a valid and reliable scoring system for this test, although it remains controversial.

What is the superego?

- The SUPEREGO is a PARTLY CONSCIOUS, partly unconscious structure that strives to live up to our internalized ideals and desires to follow the rules and restrictions society places on us. - The superego PUNISHES THE EGO, for example, by creating feelings of guilt and shame.

What happens in the 5th month of development?

- The VESTIBULAR SYSTEM begins to develop - Foetus becomes responsive to sound - Foetal heartbeat changes in response to the sound of its mother's voice, and the foetus already has learned to recognize her voice and will respond to it more than to strangers' voices.

Explaining Bystander Apathy: Diffusion Of Responsibility

- The belief that other people will or should take responsibility for helping someone in need.

Trophoblast

- The cells that form the outer layer of a blastocyst. - Protects the inner cell mass and transports nutrients to it

Neural Tube

- The embryo's precursor to the central nervous system. - Small tube of ectoderm inside the embryo - Neural tube will form into the spinal cord and brain through a process called NEURULATION

What are some problems with classification systems such as DSM?

- The extent to which specific symptoms or disorders should be included. - We create bias when we begin to label people with disorders. One problem with a categorical system is, for example, that someone with a mild form of a disorder is lumped in with people with a more severe form. - Males and females may manifest symptoms differently and are diagnosed more often with certain illnesses.

What is the Germinal Period and how long does it last?

- The first two weeks after the sperm and egg unite. - Lasts until developing cells have attached to uterine wall (8-10 days after conception)

Apoptosis

- The genetically programmed process of cell death as part of normal development or the normal functioning of cells and organs. - Vital to development - Example: Your hand starts off looking like a fin, but through programmed cell death, cells bw fingers die and you develop fingers

What are groupthink symptoms

- The group overestimates its ability to make a good decision and feels invulnerable to wrongdoing. - The group is closed-minded and members look for information that confirms their beliefs. "- Mindguards" reprimand people who counter-argue, increasing the pressure toward uniformity. - Members engage in self-censorship by keeping any doubts they may have to themselves. - An illusion of unanimity exists because members do not offer any opposing opinions.

Inner cell mass

- The mass of cells inside the morula that eventually will form the embryo.

Evidence in support of social identity theory

- The more strongly people identify with a group, the greater the in-group bias they display. - Group identification increases when one's group is successful in some way (BIRGing). - If people suffer from a drop in self-esteem, they derogate (put down or disrespect) other groups more. - Derogating out-groups increases people's self-esteem.

Evaluation Apprehension Theory

- The presence of others causes arousal because they are in a position to EVALUATE our performance and we are concerned about this evaluation. i.e, participants to perform a certain task in front of two seeing people or in front of two blindfolded people. Participants w two seeing confederates were more likely to demonstrate better performance - Mere presence wasn't sufficient to increase arousal; the threat of evaluation was needed.

What is SYNAPTOGENESIS and when is it most frequent?

- The process by which new synapses are formed. - Synaptogenesis happens at an extremely rapid pace both prenatally and in the first year after birth. - By the time we are 12 months old, we have more synapses than we ever will have again in our lives.

fundamental attribution error

- The tendency to OVERESTIMATE the impact of PERSONAL factors and UNDERESTIMATE the impact of SITUATIONAL factors when attributing the causes of another's behaviour. - For example, social roles come with a set of expectations about how we behave but these actions do not necessarily reflect our personal attributes. (overestimating personal underestimating demands of role or situational)

Mood stablizers

- antimanic drug - used to treat epilepsy but also work as anti-manic inhibit neural activity especially GABA

What is Brongenbrenner's model?

- Viewed the developing person as existing within a number of overlapping systems, all of which the person participates in or is influenced by in some way. - These systems make up our ecological system, encompassing all of the individuals we interact with and the constructs that make up our social habitat (government, corporations, religions, etc.).

Consistency and Commitment

- We have a strong desire for our attitudes to be consistent with our behaviours. - Each time we comply with a request, it modifies our attitudes and self-concept so we are motivated to act consistently in the future. - Once a person has made a commitment, he or she usually feels inclined to follow through with it.

Proximity

- We often develop relationships with those who are physically close to us. - more likely to get to know the people sitting next to you than people seated anywhere else in the classroom.

Self perception theory

- When internal cues are difficult to interpret, people sometimes determine their attitudes and feelings by observing their own behaviour. - Daryl Bem - people do not always look to their actions to gauge how they are feeling; this process is most likely to occur when one's internal state is weak or difficult to interpret.

How has evolution selected for group think?

- When the answer is CLEAR and you need cooperation to carry out an action, it is always good to fall into line and do what you need to do. - When the answer is NOT CLEAR and you need to reach consensus, disagreement is helpful. - Behaviours that led to success for ancestral humans — close cooperation, following a leader, and working in unison — are terrific for solving simple tasks and carrying out clear plans of action. - These same behaviours can lead to poor, and even dangerous, decisions or to stereotyping other groups of people when the task involves selecting the best action among complex alternatives.

Asylum

- Where people with mental illness used to be sent - often chained to the walls in dark damp cells - Received little mental or physical care, malnourished - Were used to *protect general public from those with mental illness*

Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs

- While these drugs reduced delusional hallucinatory symptoms for many clients, few experienced full recovery in academic, work, or social settings

Explain how cell division occurs during the germinal period:

- Zygotic cell divides multiple times, creating numerous identical copies that hold together in a spherical shape. - After a few instances of cleavage, the resulting spherical mass of cells is known as a morula.

Schizoaffective disorder

- a person experiences a MOOD episode, such as depression or mania, and at the same time is exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations.

Group therapy

- a therapist sees two or more clients at the same time. (3-20+) - Typically, these clients do not know one another outside of the therapy setting. - efficient, cost-effective treatment

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

- a widely used indirect measure of attitudes based on the assumption that people possess attitudes they are not aware of - measures strength of association bw target objects and evaluative attributes

Negative symptoms

- absence - normally reflect a diminution or loss of normal brain function. i.e, slowed speech or movement, flatttened effect

Emotion focused coping

- aims to reduce our *emotional reaction* to a stressful situation. - strategies include regular aerobic exercise, progressive muscle relaxation, and cognitive appraisal

Emotion- focused coping

- aims to reduce our emotional reaction to a stressful situation - strategies include regular aerobic exercise, progressive muscle relaxation, and cognitive appraisal-the process of adjusting perceptions of existing stressors as being less threatening.

Connection bw categorization, heuristics, and stereotypes

- all cognitive mechanisms for processing and storing information efficiently. - Memory and perception are created by the brain assembling partial information (storage or sensory input) - categorization helps the brain organize information. - A stereotype is an overgeneralized category that may or may not be correct.

Terror Management Theory

- all human behaviour is motivated by the fear of our own mortality. - somewhat controversial - JEFF GREENBERG - people are motivated to pursue positive self-evaluations because higher self-esteem provides a buffer against this potential fear and anxiety. - The more salient mortality is in their lives, the more they struggle to improve their self-esteem

Dodo Bird

- all therapies are equally effective. Assessment: accurate assessment isn't very important

Lazarus and Folkman: Primary Appraisal

- allows us to perceive a new or changing environment as beneficial, neutral, or negative

Long-term stress stages

- also puts us through the stages of GAS - can lead us to break downs in body functioning i.e, high bp, lower immune functioning

Ellis' ABC theory of emotions

- an external event (A) results in a specific emotion or consequence (C) because of the person's *belief* system or thoughts about the event (B), *not because of the actual event itself*

Tolerance

- an increased dose is needed to achieve the desired effect

Babinski Reflex

If you stroke the underside of an infant's foot, he or she will automatically fan and then curl the toes.

Ppl who tend to believe they have an internal locus of control

- associated w POSITIVE outcomes compared to those with an external locus of control: - More likely to take preventative health-care measures, such as exercising, eating well, and taking preventive medication - More likely to succeed in weight-loss programs - More likely to resist group pressure in laboratory tests of conformity - More likely to achieve strong academic goals - More fond of games of skill than games of chance - Less anxious and more content with life

GAS: Resistance

- autonomic system returns to normal functioning - resistance to the stressor increases to above normal levels

Token Economies

- behaviour modification in which socially desired behaviours are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for some form of reward. - An increase in desirable behaviours typically leads to a decrease in undesirable behaviours.

What is usually used in junction with cognitive therapy?

- behavioural techniques typically are used in conjunction with the cognitive techniques in this therapy. - This combination is referred to as CBT, or *cognitive behavioural therapy*

Ppl who tend to believe they have an external locus of control

- being unable to control repeated adverse external events eventually causes loss of internal locus of control. - learn that HOPELESSNESS AND PASSIVE RESIGNATION are the only possible response to an adverse external environment.

Most common anti anxiety drug

- benzodiazepines

The Big Five (from trait theory)

- best trait model - Five personality dimensions derived from analyses of the natural-language terms people use to describe themselves and others.

The investment model

- builds on the social exchange theory - commitment is the single best predictor of relationship longevity.

Actions to fulfil drives

- can get complicated - homeostasis can predict drives but not what we use to quench it

Chronic stress health effects

- can increase risk for coronary heart disease, cancer, impaired immune system, high bp

External or intrinsic nonregulatory motivators

- can override apparent homeostatic mechanisms - incentives result from gaining a REWARD or avoiding an unpleasant consequence - sometimes these can actually reduce motivation

Cognitive Factors

- can override these survival drives—anyone who eats a meal for pleasure, or conviction, or because they have decided it's healthier to plan their food than to simply respond to their body's urges is doing so.

Somatic Symptom And Related Disorders

- category of mental disorder that involve physical symptoms similar to a medical illness but for which no medical cause can be found. - Somatic Symptom Disorder - Illness Anxiety Disorder - Conversion Disorder - Factitious Disorder

Problem focused coping

- changes an existing stressful situation by *reducing or eliminating* it. - This method is only possible in circumstances when the stressor can be controlled.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

- characterized by *obsessions and compulsions*, - occasionally people with OCD experience only obsessions or compulsions, not both.

Result of rejecting parenting style

- children have low self-perception, less competent, antisocial, substance abuse, - internalize problems - depression, social difficulties, risky sexual behaviour

Aversion Therapy

- classical conditioning - Involves pairing a pleasant but *undesirable behaviour and an aversive stimulus* - the individual will develop a less favourable emotional association between the undesirable behaviour and aversive stimulus (e.g., drinking alcohol) - reward value will decrease i.e, nail biting tasting bad

Imaginal Exposure

- classical conditioning, exposure therapy - the client imagines the feared stimulus rather than actually experiencing exposure.

What did Robert Cialdini say underlied influence?

- consistency and commitment - reciprocity - social proof - liking - authority - scarcity

Hunger Pangs

- contractions of the stomach - hypothesized that these might be a hungar signal - there was a correlation but no causation

What mental disorder is attributed to too little serotonin?

- depression and some anxiety disorders, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder. - Some antidepressant medications increase the availability of serotonin at the brain's receptor sites.

Continuum Model of Impression Formation

- describes the range of ways in which people form impressions of other people - 7 stages of impression formation

Support groups and group therapy

- designed to help individuals that do no require intensive treatment or in-patient care

Shared psychotic disorder (AKA *folie à deux*)

- development of a delusion that is similar to a delusion already held by someone close to the individual.

PTSD

- develops after someone experiences an extremely traumatic event - i.e, a life-threatening car accident, witnessing the violent death of a loved one, or going through a serious natural disaster, such as an earthquake or a violent personal assault

Visual- Orientation Hypothesis

- differences in visual perception bw observer and actor - We attribute behaviour to personality differently for others than we do ourselves - OURSELVES: We see the ENVIRONMENT ONLY through our own eyes - OTHER PPL: we focus on PPLS PERSONALITIES and ignore the environment.

Result of permissive parenting

- difficulty controlling impulses and acting responsible, - high confidence but don't do well in school, likely to have substance abuse problems - may react more intensely than other children to conflict

Immature Defence Mechanism

- distort reality the most - lead to the most ineffective behaviour - (e.g., projection, regression, displacement).

Deferred functions (not present at birth but come later):

- embarrassment and shame - occur in response to violations of social norms we internalize through interaction with others - depend on presence and identity of others

Humanistic Perspective

- emphasize people's conscious understanding of themselves and their capacity to choose their own paths to self-fulfillment. - to understand how people react to others and the situations around them, we must have some insight into their interpretation of reality - CARL ROGERS and ABRAHAM MASLOW

Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality

- emphasize the role of SOCIAL EXPERIENCE in the development of personality. - Individuals have their own unique social environments, and thus their own unique personalities. - our personalities affect how we interact with our environment, and thus, how environmental factors influence us is affected by our personalities.

Polydipsia

- excessive drinking

Personality Disorders

- exhibit patterns of thought, feelings, interpersonal interactions, and impulse control that are considered * inappropriate* or discordant with their culture. - syptoms must be stable over time and across many situations - more pervasive and persistent than other mental disorders - difficult to diagnose bc personality characteristics are on a continuum

Are there social factors that make us feel hungry?

- expectation of when and where to eat are both cultural—a form of conditioned response - i.e, 3 meals a day - internal and external factors at work

Theory of Planned Behaviour

- explains our actions in terms of *attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control* - Depending on the IMPORTANCE we attach to each of these three components, our actual decision to change might vary

Systematic Desensitization

- exposure therapy - gradually exposing clients to feared stimulus to *habituate* and eventually extinguish fear reaction. - Clients are first taught *relaxation techniques*, then exposed to a very mild version of their phobia. - As long as they are able to return to a relaxed state, they are gradually exposed to more and more frightening examples of their phobia.

Flooding

- exposure therapy, classical conditioning - the client is exposed to the object of fear *directly and fully*, but without actual harm - kept there until panic reactions go away.

The Facial Feedback hypothesis

- expressing a facial emotion leads to physiologically feeling that emotion. - i.e, smile to be happy

Malingering

- faking bad, exaggerating symptoms

What part does the amygdala play in emotions

- fear and anger

Marin Seligman's research on classical conditioning

- placed dogs in an inescapable harness and repeatedly gave them small electric shocks. Later, these dogs and other dogs that had not experienced the shocks were placed in a situation in which they were inflicted with shocks but could easily escape from them. - previously harnessed dogs fails to escape laid down and whimpered. Other dogs escaped - shows LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

Psychological Resistance

- ppl who are good at overcoming challenges - maybe think more positively or the problem is temporary - optimistic person is much more likely to try again than someone who is not

Immune function and self- efficacy

- ppl who have been shown to have stronger self effficacy have stronger immune functioning

In one study, participants were asked to keep their hands in ice cold water for as long as they could bear it—a pretty painful experience. Half of the participants were instructed to suppress thoughts of the pain, whereas the other half were told to think about a pleasant experience, such as lying on the beach. Can you predict which group was able to keep their hands in the water longer?

- ppl who though about pleaseant experiences

Stress inoculation training (SIT)

- prepares people for the negative effects of stressful events and gives them skills to reduce their susceptibility to those effects. - SIT exposes you to mild doses of stressors to prepare you to deal with greater stressors in the future.

Positive symptoms

- presence - usually reflect an excess or distortion of a normal brain function. i.e, delusions or hallucinations, grossly disorganized behaviour

Humanistic therapy

- provide unconditional positive regard so a person can become their TRUE SELVES without the distraction of pleasing others

reliable

- provides consistent results across time

What are the major influences that shape our attraction to others?

- proximity - familiarity - physical attractivnes

Schizophrenia

- psychological disorder that lasts at least six months Includes at least one month of active phase symptoms include *minimum 2* of: -delusions, - hallucinations, - disorganized speech, - grossly disorganized catatonic behaviour, - negative symptoms.

dissonance

- psychologically uncomfortable state which occurs when two cognitive elements are inconsistent with one another

Thematic Apperception Test (TET)

- psychologist gives a bunch of pictures on cards to the client - psychologist asks client whats going on in these pictures - the client will have to project their personality into this story - no formal scoring system

Delusional disorder

- psychotic disorder where delusions occur that are completely not bizarre i.e, delusions about being following and not delusions about being Jesus Christ

How can we manage our stressors more effectively?

- recognizing what our stressors are - some things are very stressful for some ppl but not a problem for others (almost any aspect of the environment can be perceived as a stressor)

Obsession

- recurrent, unwanted thoughts or images that the individual recognizes as being irrational, yet they are uncontrollable - Most commonly about contamination or germs

How do relationships influence stress?

- relationship troubles can increase stress - Strong relationships with others can help us manage or reduce stress and can have a great impact on how stress influences our health.

Kluver and Bucy

- removed amygdala portions of rhesus monkeys - procedure appeared to interfere with the monkeys' ability to process the psychological significance of stimuli

Substance use disorders

- repeated pattern of use of drug in 10 classes stated results in *tolerance, withdrawal, cravings, difficulty cutting down* DIAGNOSIS - when use results in *impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and meets pharmacological criteria*

How do you help insomniacs?

- replace unhelpful bedtime 'habits' with healthy bedtime habits—ones that help your body to feel sleepy at the right time. - helps to have a ritual before bed

The rouge test: Mirror fighting

- researchers placed a mirror inside an enclosure with a pair of chimpanzees. -INITIALLY treated their own reflections in the mirror as they would treat an unfamiliar chimp, by vocalizing, threatening it, or even inviting it to play. -LATER after extended exposure, the chimps began to recognize themselves in the mirror and used the perspective for tasks like grooming parts of their bodies they could not otherwise see.

Hypomanic Episode

- same general symptoms as manic episodes but less severe; they do not lead to significant life impairment - do not include psychotic symptoms - period of abnormally elevated mood that persists for at least four days and is accompanied by at least three of seven additional manic symptoms.

Stanley Milgram

- tested obedience using fake electric shocks - participant was ordered to shock a learner when they made a mistake - switches for higher shock levels with warnings of danger or potential harm - lab experiment encouraged the person to continue shocks - most participants delivered lethal shocks (65%) - today this study would not be approved by an ethics board

Harry harlow

- tested out attachment theory vs drive reduction theory in monkeys

Gordon Gallup

- tested self- awareness with a mirror and the rouge test

Taylorite

- that there is one therapy that is best at treating disorders. Assessment: all treatment should begin with assessment

Lazarus and Folkman: Secondary Appraisal

- the *assessment* of our coping abilities and resources, - our *judgement* as to whether the will be enough to meet the threat of a new challenging evebt

Cannon - Bard Theory

- the BRAIN controls emotion - the ANS response is merely coincidental to the emotional state- most physiological changes occur too slowly to trigger an emotional reaction. Also we are not aware to these responses - "central" theory of emotion

Evaluating group therapy

- the best way to measure the success of these therapies is through long-term statistical studies and surveys: is there reduction?

Fundamental Attribution error in collectivist cultures

- the fundamental attribution error remains low in collectivist cultures - Collectivist cultures tend to emphasize the role of fate or uncontrollable circumstances in determining one's destiny, so people may learn to attribute behaviour more to the situation than to the person.

How does self- efficacy influence stress?

- the more you feel in control of environmental stressors, the less stress you expereince

Groupthink

- the need for agreement becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternatives

HVAC

- the particular choice of therapy is less important than the relationship between the client and the service provider. Assessment: different forms of assessment are appropriate for different therapists or disorders

A study of gay men recently infected with HIV evaluated the outcomes for people who were still in the closet about their sexuality (that is, they were keeping it secret from family and friends) and those who had come out. Can you predict which group had the better health outcome?

- the people who were out about their sexuality

Why is treatment most effective if clients believe that it will be effective

- the placebo effect and inspiring clients to work to improve their own confisitions

Dissociative Identity Disorder

- the presence of *2 or more* distinct personalities within an individual. The person's behaviour is guided by different personalities at different times.

How does social support affect stress?

- the quality of the social support system around individuals is associated with their physiological stress response. - this is a CORRELATION not a clear cut cause (might be another variable involved)

self-concept

- the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves -an individual's perception of self, including knowledge, feelings, and ideas about oneself - used as a basis for how we describe ourselves - comprised of many self- schemas

validity

- the test measures what its supposed to measure

Family therapy

- therapist meets with all family members at the same time. - therapist can observe the maladaptive interactions and communication patterns among family members - help them implement more adaptive methods of functioning

Couples Therapy

- therapist meets with both members of an intimate couple at the same time. - The focus is on issues in the couple's relationship (for example communication, incompatible values, sexual issues, etc.).

Does attachment orientation change?

- they are long lasting - BUT our adult experiences continue to influence how we see the world and the people around us

Why do ppl conform?

- they believe that several ppl are more knowledgable than one - fear being seen as deviant

STEP TWO: Personal Relevance: Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

- to determine if the other individual is personally relevant; - IF NOT, maintain initial category-based impression; - IF YES, continue to process.

Stress appraisal: Lazarus and Folkman

- two interacting components: primary appraisal and secondary appraisal

Defense Mechanisms

- used to handle fixations or other unwanted thoughts and desires - help hide a these elements from ego's awareness - Mental systems that become active whenever unconscious instinctual drives of the id come into conflict with the internalized prohibitions of the superego.

Proactive coping

- used up front to reduce the occurrence of stressful events or prevent them from occurring. For example, taking notes and reviewing them regularly will reduce the stress of taking an exam and prevent the stress of being unprepared.

What would you use to assess clients with brain injuries, learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, dementia, or various other conditions?

-*Cognitive or neuropsychological tests* - examine various aspects of *cognitive functioning* (intelligence, academic ability, memory, processing speed, language functions, and executive functioning (the ability to plan and reason) ]

Deinstitutionalization Movement

-1950s in the US - shidten towards the belief that ppl with mental disorders should be supported and live in regular homes, work in the community like everyone else - made possible by antipsychotic medications

intersubjectivity

-An understanding between two individuals of the topic they are discussing. -includes concepts of joint attention and social referencing

intersubjectivity

-An understanding between two individuals of the topic they are discussing. -the ability to share a focus of attention with others

Influences on Self-concept

-CULTURE: different cultures place higher levels of importance on the individual (individualistic) and others on the group (collectivist) i.e, individualistic: I am smart, honest collectivist: I am a daughter, a Muslime

deviation IQ

-David WECHSLER -A procedure for computing the intelligence quotient- compares an individual's score with those received by other individuals of the same chronological age. -the IQ is no longer a ratio quotient

Experience-Expectant Plasticity

-Development that will not happen unless a particular experience occurs during its critical period - Example: organizing the visual system but the person is born blind

Theory of Mind (ToM)

-Expectations concerning how experience affects mental states, especially those of another. -reasoning process that attempts to PREDICT HOW OTHERS MIGHT THINK OR BEHAVE based on their motives, needs, and goals.

factor analysis

-Charles SPEARMAN invented this -Statistical analysis that examines all of the correlations between all of the items and determines if any of them are highly correlated with each other. -underlying dimensions are determined by calculating how well the observed variables can be explained in terms of a smaller number of variables, called factors.

Sucking Reflex

-If something enters an infant's mouth while it is open, the infant begins to suck (sucking reflex). Like the rooting reflex, the sucking reflex is crucial to early feeding but is soon replaced by voluntary behaviours.

What does maturation for boys linked with in terms of timing?

-LATE maturation has been linked to lower performance in school than boys AVERAGE age -EARLY maturation has been linked with higher performance.

Identity achievement obstacles during teen years

-many adolescents do not reach the status of identity achievement before young adulthood. - It has been suggested that this may be because the right environments are not present for these teens, and that teens require an environment that both challenges their assumptions and supports their identity explorations

How is the progression through Piaget's stages marked?

-marked by building and rebuilding of schema through cyclic process of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration

Limitations of Piaget's Theory

-Piaget's stage theory does not account for VARIABILITY in child development -the COGNITIVE CAPACITY of infants is much greater than Piaget theorized. -For example, Renée Baillargeon demonstrated object permanence in infants as young as 3.5 months old, almost five months earlier than Piaget predicted. -the VAGUENESS of the mechanisms for change.

When does puberty begin and what happens?

-Puberty begins when the hypothalamus starts secreting hormones - Hormones stimulate the gonads to mature further and SEX HORMONES to be produced. -Maturation and hormone secretion cause rapid development of sex organs

What do theorists propose children w ASD lack?

-Some theorists propose that autism is what occurs when a child lacks Theory of Mind. -This belief is supported not only because of the social difficulties encountered by people with ASD, but also because people with ASD typically perform poorly on false-belief tasks

Learned Helplessness

-belief system in which an animal or human learns hopelessness and passive resignation when UNABLE to avoid repeated aversive events. - related to perception of control

STAGE 1: The sensorimotor stage

-birth to two yrs -infants build an understanding of their environment primarily through their sensory and motor abilities. Many reflexes fade and are replaced by voluntary behaviour, and babies begin to actively explore and experiment with objects - object permanence

Experience-Dependent Plasticity

-The ability of the nervous system to wire and rewire itself IN RESPONSE TO lasting changes in EXPERIENCE (learning) Example: people who play instruments have a larger representation of their dominant hand in their cortex

joint attention

-The ability to share attention with another towards the same object or event.

myelination

-The development of the myelin sheath around the axons of neurons. -This sheath insulates neurons from each other and INCREASES SPEED at which neurons transmit information.

Schematicity

-The importance of particular self-schemas to a person's self-concept -When a self-schema is central to a person's self-concept, that person is said to be schematic with respect to that attribute. - influences how we behave and also how we remember past events

infant habituation

-The simplest form of learning in which a given stimulus is presented repeatedly. -The child learns not to respond to an unimportant event that occurs repeatedly.

social referencing

-The tendency of a person to look to another in an ambiguous situation to obtain clarifying information -the way that people take cues from others when dealing with unfamiliar circumstances.

socio-cultural theory

-The theory of cognitive development that places emphasis on environmental factors, including cultural influences. -Vygotsky was the first proponent -intersubjectivity is an important element

Prodromal phase

-schizophrenia phase - before the active phase or first episode SYMPTOMS - the individual may display some odd beliefs, vague speech and mumbling, and just generally withdraw and take less care of themselves. - may start to experience mild hallucinations or delusions but not let others know about it because it is confusing to them too

Rooting Reflex

-When infants feel something on one of their cheeks, they turn their head toward the touch and open their mouth (the rooting reflex). -This reflex is crucial to feeding but is soon replaced by voluntary behaviours.

Synaptic Pruning

-selective elimination of neural synapses - Facilitates a change in neural structure by selectively reducing synapses, leaving more efficient synaptic configurations. - Helps impose order on the brain and increases efficiency - Occurs throughout life- all development

Empathy

-allows us to feel a sense of regret when we wrong others, which in turn allows us to develop a moral conscience. -some theorize ToM developed to be able to empathize w others -we need a moral conscience bc it promotes survival

Development of self age 2: language skills

-children can now refer to themselves verbally and describe their observable traits, abilities, preferences, psychological states -self descriptions tend to be overwhelmingly positive in nature

STAGE 3: Concrete Operational Stage

-children come to understand CONSERVATION, perspective taking, and other concepts, such as categorization. -they will comprehend more complicated cause-and-effect relations and begin to understand logical problem solving.

Theory Theory

-children learn and develop knowledge like scientists: form coherent and abstract systems of rules and then actively experiment to test and revise their models. i.e, babies are surprised when an unsupported object does not fall

Washoe the chimp

-chimp that learned sign language (chimps do not have articulators for language) -consensus was that Washoe's signalling did not show full generativity

Why is it difficult to study fetal development and teratogen effects?

-confounding variables -hard to isolate variables -cannot have an experimental group and cause chidlren to grow w teratogens, this is unethical

How does our social environment influence our development?

-contain a wealth of knowledge about the nature of the world, and of successful ways to exist within it as embodied in the people around us. - Someone with more knowledge or experience probably helped you reach a higher level of thought or ability than you might have reached on your own.

Critique on Kohlberg

-critics argue that Kohlberg's stages are not discrete categories, but that the changes he observed in moral reasoning over time simply reflect the growing brain's capacity to consider more sides to issues -people do not always reason in the stage at which they might be able to reason, -Kohlberg's early research focused only on males. Critics have suggested that males and females have different moral concerns. -he did not account for cultural differences from western culture

Do executive functioning and theory of mind develop together or independently?

-cross-cultural comparison suggests that ToM and executive function develop independently - however, in both cultures, the development of executive functioning always precedes ToM.

purpose of group therapy

-designed to prevent problems or reduce stressors before they lead to full-blown psychological disorders

When is the development of ToM stronger?

-development of ToM appears to be facilitated if a child has older siblings. -Three-year-olds with at least two older siblings perform on false-belief tasks at a level similar to typical four-year-olds.

Development of self: Adolescence

-early adolescence, children often become quite concerned with how they are perceived by others; concern drops off later in adolescence as they gain a stronger concept of who they are -imaginary audience -aware that different behaviours are appropriate in different contexts, but sometimes act in different, contradictory ways

Development of lying

-experimenter told children not to look when they left -most children couldn't resist so they checked and looked -most old kids then lied - only about 1/2 of 3 yos lied

Alfred Benet

-first true assessment intelligence -believed that intelligence is a collection of higher order mental abilities -interaction w the ENVIRONMENT is an important factor -created test called the BINET-SIMON SCALE

Is self esteem a stable trait?

-generally viewed as a STABLE trait from childhood onward - life experiences such as successes and failures can alter our state of mind, resulting in temporary or even permanent shifts in self-esteem. In addition, people can feel positively about certain aspects of their lives, or self-schemas, and negatively about others.

What impacts intelligence?

-genetic effects = 50% (40% in childhood and increase to 70% in adulthood) -unique environment impacts more than shared environment 1) genetics 2) unique environment 3) shared environment

What affects our aggression levels?

-genetics - early family environment also plays a role; the conditions in which we develop can change how our genes are expressed -the environments we seek out as adults will shape how aggressive we become.

Parenting and development

-higher levels of prosocial behaviours in young children are associated with a supportive style of parenting, while lower levels of prosociality are associated with inconsistent parenting styles (physical discipline or threats). -individuality tends to be highly regarded in Western cultures, while many non-Western cultures place more value on group cohesion and respect for authority

STAGE 4: Formal Operational Stage

-individuals first become capable of more formal kinds of abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning in a logical and scientific fashion - reaching this stage is not universal, development for many ends at the concrete operational stage -people who did reach this stage would not be able to apply these forms of reasoning across all domains, but would be limited to areas in which they had expertise

Moro Reflex

-infants throw out their arms and grasp if they feel themselves dropping unexpectedly. This reflex is thought to be of little use now but perhaps was useful to our apelike ancestors, who may have allowed their offspring to cling to them as they walked.

Tonic Neck Reflex

-infants turn their head to one side, extend the arm on the same side as their gaze, and flex the arm and knee on the opposite side of the body.

Evolutionary advantages of theory of mind

-knowing what others are thinking and seeing would help with social connections, in cooperative ventures like big-game hunting, gathering plants, and caring for children -help maintain reciprocity, sharing, and a collective conscience that would restrain would-be bullies, cheaters, and others who go too far in promoting their personal welfare at the expense of the group's overall welfare - MORAL CONSCIENCE

How did the Allies invade the island of Sicily?

-left a trap for the Germans -left a drifting body w a briefcase w info about a false invasion -told Spain (Axis sympathies but not fighting) they needed it but not too urgently so as they were not suspicious -Spain told Germany and Germany found out -In result, the Germans fortified the wrong base

Development of self: 8 and up

-more likely to use knowledge of themselves, evaluate and modify behaviour -add in memories to self description -begin more concerned with how others perceive them

Rene Descartes

-philosopher that to convince himself everything he knew was false, and then came to the conclusion that he himself must exist

antisocial behaviour

-physical aggression -peaks at 2.5 yrs -first few years of life, most aggression exhibited toward others is over objects. -elementary school, their physical aggression becomes more defensive , a way of lashing out against perceived harm.

What is the purpose of effective psychological treatment?

-reducing or removing clinically significant symptoms.

Written language basic rules

-spaces break up words - syntax rules -read left to right (in contrast Hebrew is read right to left) -

What happens to the foetus movement in month 6-8?

-spontaneous movement of the foetus decreases -thought to be necessary for the growth of inhibitory neural pathways throughout the body.

False Belief in Chimpanzees

-the dominant chimps get to take first selection of food, unless a less-dominant chimp thinks he can get away with sneaking some. -the chimp subjects were consistently keen on food that they knew the dominant chimp did not know about (bc of it hidden)

Judgement

-the evaluation that occurs during decision making HOWEVER, judgement can occur without decision making

Neuroticism

-the extent to which one is ANXIOUS and tense. -being high on this factor tends to exhibit anxiety.

Executive function: Perseveration

-the inability to disengage from an activity, the initial activity might work bc new info is presented, but when a change is called for, the strategy remains the same - is common in people with frontal lobe damage and in young children

Jean Piaget

-theorized that humans' intellectual or reasoning abilities develop through a series of four stages that roughly map onto key ages - children must become capable at each stage in order to progress to the next stage

"Flynn Effect"

-there is a continuous worldwide rise in intelligence test performance (3-4 IQ points per decade) -most striking evidence for environmental factors

Spermarche

-time of first ejaculation in males -Sign of sexual maturity in boys marked by the production of viable sperm and first ejaculation

Vygotsky

-viewed language as one of the driving forces behind development - language is where he different from Piaget who saw language as a product of development

Why does children's undesirable behaviour continue to occur according to Skinner?

-we reinforce unwanted behaviour in children by giving in to their demands, even occasionally because we want the undesirable behaviour to stop. -we are providing intermittent reinforcement of their demanding behaviour, thus making it unlikely to stop.

What determines attitude strength?

1) ACCESSIBILITY The easier or faster an attitude can be retrieved from memory, the more likely it is to predict behaviour. 2) KNOWLEDGE: more information a person has concerning his or her attitude, the more likely this attitude will predict behaviour 3) AMBIVALENCE: The greater the amount of evaluative conflict associated with an attitude (e.g., feeling positively and negatively toward attitude object), the less likely this attitude will predict behaviour 4) CERTAINTY: The more subjective confidence a person has in the correctness of his or her attitude, the more likely this attitude will predict behaviour. 5) IMPORTANCE: The greater the personal significance of an attitude, the more likely this attitude will predict behaviour.

What are the 4 possible identity crisis' found in teens according to Erikson?

1) Achievement 2) Moratorium 3) Foreclosure 4) Identity Diffusion

What are the 3 Phobic Disorders we study?

1) Agoraphobia 2) Social phobia 3) Specific phobia - the key is whether the person is having a predictable (expected and culturally sanctioned) reaction to his or her environment or whether the response is not commensurate with the actual risk.

List in order the 4 steps of diagnosing and treating someone with a mental disorder

1) Assessment (evaluate the patients symptoms) 2) Treatment Plan (what to do) 3) Treatment (choose a provider and location, ensure patient undergoes treatment) 4) Evaluation (re-evaluate the patients symptoms)

What are the three main theories explain how we develop and maintain relationships:

1) Attachment theory 2) Social exchange theory 3) The investment model

What are the 4 Types of parenting styles?

1) Authoritative 2) Authoritarian 3) Permissive 4) Rejecting/neglectful

Four features that make someone an attractive mate

1) Averageness : genetic diversity and thus health 2) Face symmetry : symmetry signals health 3) Facial features : women with baby shaped feature. men with masculine faces 4) Body shape: women have waists narrower than hips. Men's bodies which are tall and high shoulder to hip ratio

What are the 2 types of psychological therapies that are best used in the West today?

1) Behavioural therapy 2) Cognitive behavioural therapy/rational-emotive therapy

What are the 3 main things to look at when diagnosing a patient?

1) Behaviours *interfered* with normal daily life 2) Behaviours were NOT *predictable* (expected and culturally sanctioned) reactions to their environment (for example, being sad while grieving) 3) Actions were NOT *voluntary*, they were manifestation of a dysfunction

What are the 2 key factors of SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

1) COGNITIVE: some differences between genders that are biological in nature 2) BEHAVIOUR males and females produce different hormones that affect behaviour and cognition

What qualifies a person's symptoms as a mental disorder

1) Cause a clinically significant impairment in an individual's ability to function 2) Are NOT a predictable (expected and culturally sanctioned) reaction to an external event 3) Are NOT the result of an individual's voluntary choice.

What are the 2 patterns in which embryonic development proceeds?

1) Cephalocaudal 2) Proximodistal

How do you reduce Cognitive dissonance?

1) Change a cognition (attitude) 2) Add consonant cognitions (aka bolstering) - engage in behaviours to make up for "bad" behaviour 3) Reduce the importance of dissonant cognitions (disagreeing) or enhance the importance of consonant cognitions (agreeing) 4) Deny the relation bw inconsistent cognitions - i.e, vegetarian eats fish saying fish isnt meat

Types of psychological tests

1) Clinical Interviews 2) Self- report questionnaires 3) Psychological Tests 4) Neuropsychological Assessmnet 5) Behavioural Monitoring

What three things are used to determine the cause of someones behaviour?

1) Consistency 2) Consensus (is everyone acting this way or just one person) 3) Distinctiveness (is it the situation which is causing this reaction or is this reaction present without the situation)

DSM-5 psychotic disorder domains

1) Delusions 2) Hallucination 3) Disorganized thinking (Speech) 4) Grossly disorganized abnormal motor behaviour (Catatonia) 5) Negative symptoms

If you were a psychiatrist, what questions would you ask the person who brought your patients in (aka a loved one of the patient)?

1) Do any of your relatives have mental health problems? - Looking for *genetic predisposition* 2) How long has this been going on/when did you first notice it? - Assessing *clinical significance* in terms of DURATION.

What are the 3 basic types of temperament?

1) EASY baby: playful, exhibits regular biological rhythms, calm and adaptable 2) DIFFICULT baby: irregular biological rhythms, slow to adjust to new situations, can react intensely negative to stimuli 3) SLOW -TO- WARM baby: low activity level, seems difficult at first but warms up to people and situations it initially reacted mildly to

Steps of the scientific method

1) Formulate a hypothesis 2) Design a Study 3) Collect the data 4) Analyze the data and obtain the results 5) Draw conclusions, use them to develop new hypothesis, share findings with others

What are the 3 periods of prenatal development?

1) GERMINAL (first 2 weeks after sperm and egg unite) 2) EMBRYONIC (implantation of the blastocyte into the uterine wall - 8th week) 3) FOETUS (9th week after conception until birth)

If you were a psychiatrist, what questions would you ask your patient?

1) How do you spend your days? - Attempting to confirm love ones report that patient has no friends, no job, and no life. 2) Why have you been eating less and sleeping more? - Assessing if this is *voluntary action.* 3)Have you made any changes in what you eat or the medicines you are taking? - Ruling out *external causes* 4) Have these problems affected your work or relationships? - Assessing *clinical significance* in terms of SEVERITY

What are the 2 layers of cells in the morula?

1) INNER CELL MASS 2) TROPHOBLAST

What are the 3 categories of defence mechanisms?

1) Immature 2) Intermediate 3) Mature

Continuum Model of Impression Formation Stages

1) Initial Categorization 2) Personal Relevance 3) Attention and Interpretation 4) Confirmatory Categorization 5) Recategorization 6) Piecemeal Integration 7) Public Expression and Further Assessment

What are 2 other common classification systems of mental disorder (other than DSM)? How do they differ?

1) International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) 2) The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD) Differ in both the diagnostic criteria and labels, as a function of the culture in which they were developed and primarily are applied.

What types of motivation are there?

1) Intrinsic 2) Extrinsic

Theories of emotion

1) James Lange 2) Cannon - Bard 3) Schachter's two factor theory 4) The Facial Feedback hypothesis

Cycle of Distrust

1) Majority: acts uncomfortable, anxious and behaves self consciously - interpreted as hostility by minority 2) Minority responds w aloofness or anger - interpreted as mysterious or unreasonable 3) Majority reciprocates w hostility or withdrawal - interpreted as confirmation of prejuddice 4) Minority acts distrustful of majority - this makes majority uncomfortable, anxious (back to #1)

Two theories that explain why being around other people increases our arousal:

1) Mere Presence Theory 2) Evaluation Apprehension Theory

What are the two types of emotions?

1) Obligate (Universal) such as basic emotions 2) Facultative (differing as a function of environment

What are the traits in the Big 5?

1) Openness To Experience 2) Conscientiousness 3) Extraversion 4) Agreeableness 5) Neuroticism Think OCEAN

What are the 5 needs according to Maslow?

1) PHYSIOLOGICAL needs (minimum essentials of life, such as water and food) 2) SAFETY needs (protection from dangers in the environment, shelter) 3) BELONGING needs (experiencing close relationships with others) 4) ESTEEM needs (competence, self-respect) 5) SELF - ACTUALIZATION (discovering and fully enjoying the true meaning of life)

What are the 4 stages of attachment bond forms?

1) Preattachment 2) Attachment in the making 3) Clear cut attachment 4) Reciprocal relationship phase

Ways to cope with stress

1) Problem focused coping 2) Emotion focused coping 3) Proactive coping 4) Stress inoculation training (SIT)

Social Impariment

1) Repeated FAILURE TO FULFILL important OBLIGATIONS as a result of the substance 2) Continued use of the substance despite it causing PROBLEMS IN RELATIONSHIPS 3) Important social, occupational, or recreational activities GIVEN UP OR REDUCED because of substance use

Risky Use

1) Repeated use of the substance in a situation that is dangerous 2) Continued use despite knowing that you have a significant psychological or physical problem due to the substance use

Piaget's stages

1) Sensorimotor stage 2) Preoperational stage 3) Concrete operational stage 4) Formal Operational Stage

Childhood Development: Reflexes. What are the two types of reflexes?

1) Some reflexes are highly useful behaviours that LAST throughout our lives. 2) Other reflexes are useful at birth but eventually DISAPPEAR or are REPLACED by voluntary behaviours.

DsM-5 substance related disorders types

1) Substance *use* disorder 2) Substance *Induced* disorders

Objective Tests

1) The Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI-2) 2) The NEO Personality Inventory

Pharmacological Issues

1) Tolerance 2) Withdrawal

Erikson's Psychological Stages:

1) Trust vs Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs Shame and self doubt 3) Initiative vs guilt 4) Industry vs Inferiority 5) Identity vs Role Confusion 6) Intimacy vs Isolation 7) Generativity vs Stagnation

Five Main Functions of Attitudes

1) Utilitarian 2) Social - Adjustive 3) Value - Expressive 4) Ego - Defensive 5) Knowledge

Common measure of life stressors

1) the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SSRS) 2) the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale

What are the 5 important qualities of friendship?

1. Common ground activity: find activities children can share 2. Clear communication: children enjoy others who speak and listen in meaningful way 3. Exchange information: about themselves and others 4. Ability to become a friend: able to resolve conflicts quickly 5. Reciprocity in interactions: if one does something positive, other responds appropriately

What do you do if you need emergency help but nobody is initiating care?

1. Disambiguate the situation. ("I need help!") 2. Place the responsibility on one person. ("You! In the blue shirt! Please call 911!!")

What causes differences in intelligence at the brain imaging level?

1. Efficient use of neural resources -Individuals with higher cognitive abilities show more efficient neural processing and thus lower levels of activation in areas of the brain used to perform a particular task. 2. High synchronization between cortical centres -Individuals with higher skill levels show a greater degree of synchronization between cortical regions than do individuals with lower skill levels. Also, synchronization within an individual increases with learning. 3. Adaptation of cortical networks in the face of changing demands -Individuals with higher cognitive abilities show greater neural adaptation when faced with changing demands compared to individuals with lower intellectual abilities.

What are the 2 styles of parental interaction? Explain these.

1. Parental demandingness: extent of caregivers behavioral expectations of child 2. Parental responsiveness: amount of support the caregiver provides for the child and the extent to which they meet the child's needs

Brongenbrenner's model: The microsystem

1. THE MICROSYSTEM (level 1) - consists of you and your relationships with those in your immediate surroundings, such as family, teachers, and peers.

Impaired control

1. Taking the substance in increasingly larger doses or for longer than intended 2. Difficulty cutting down 3. A lot of time focused on obtaining, using, and recovering from the drug 4. Cravings

schema

Mental framework or body of knowledge that organizes and synthesizes information about a person, place, or thing.

Goal understanding at 12 and 18 months

12 MONTHS -infants expand their understanding of goals by considering the situation of the other person when deducing their goals. -take into account the goal, actions, and situations of other people when trying to make sense of their actions 18 MONTHS -if infants see an actor unsuccessfully attempt to perform an action on an object, they will replicate the intended action rather than the actual, failed action

4) Reciprocal relationship phase

18 months - 24 months − As child grows more mobile and active, become more comfortable spending increased time separated from caregiver − Relationship becomes reciprocal, so all parties have to take an active role in maintaining

Brongenbrenner's model: The mesosystem

2. THE MESOSYSTEM (level 2) - made up of connections between different relationships you have within your microsystem.

Social Interference

A DECLINE in a person's performance of a task because of the presence of others. - things you do not know well

Compliance

A change in behaviour elicited by a direct request from another individual who is not an authority figure. i.e, agreeing to feed a friends cat for a week when they are away

Anti-Anxiety Drugs

A class of drugs used to treat symptoms of anxiety. - effective for reducing anxiety, but not a long-term solution or cure

Antidepressant Drugs

A class of drugs used to treat symptoms of depression: 1) Tricyclics 2) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) 3) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

comparative perspective

A comparative perspective focuses on non-human animals to better understand the evolution of behaviour and mental processes.

Cognitive Constructs

A general belief system that affects how a person understands events and selects appropriate behaviours. - our personality is a result of the cognitive constructs we make in an ongoing learning process. In this way our personality is never fixed

Gamete

A mature male or female cell used for reproduction.

altruism

A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests. - often done bc of hunter - gatherer mentality as self interest had to balance w group interest

reciprocity

A mutual exchange of some sort; repaying, in kind, what someone else has given to, or done for, you. -evolutionary linked to survival

Kohlberg: Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Abide by a personally chosen set of ethical principles believed to reflect universal tenets of justice. -postconventional

Phobic Disorder

A panic-like reaction that clearly occurs in response to specific stimulus or situations.

Personality

A particular pattern of behaviour and thinking that prevails across time and situations and differentiates one person from another. -describes stable differences in ppl

Reciprocal Determinism

A person's behaviour is both influenced by and influences his or her attitudes and behaviours and the environment.

attitude

A positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an attitude object (i.e., a person, place, event, idea, or thing) expressed at some level of intensity. - help us function efficiently and foster social cohesion, give us a concrete way to express core values

Morula

A solid spherical mass of blastomeres resulting from a number of cleavages of a zygote.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

A therapeutic method used to treat resistant mental health disorders by passing an electric current through electrodes placed on a client's head in an effort to prompt a seizure and release additional * GABA.*

Persuasive Techniques: Door-In-The-Face Technique

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer prefaces the real request with a request so large that it is likely to be rejected and make the real request seem more reasonable. - Effective for two reasons: RECIPROCITY (2nd smaller request appears he is giving something up) and PERCEPTUAL CONTRAST (comparison)

Would you expect someone who solves problems quickly or well to show activation across the entire brain or only in one specialized part of his or her cortex?

ACTIVATION ACROSS THE ENTIRE BRAIN Synchronization can be measured as the degree to which the activation levels of two regions vary together. As such, it is a property of a distributed cortical network rather than a particular cortical area. Synchronization increases with learning (within an individual), and individuals with higher skill levels show more synchronization than individuals with lower skill levels. Therefore, you would expect to see activation across the entire brain or across many regions, as opposed to one particular cortical area.

Interactionism: Complexity

According to cognitive interactionists, grammar is a property that emerges from the complexity of a growing vocabulary rather than the biologically endowed universal grammar supported by nativists.

Conformity

Adjusting one's attitudes and behaviours to coincide with a group norm. - some is needed in society to function safely and effectively

imaginary audience

Adolescent thought process in which they believe they are constantly on a stage and everyone is watching them, attending to their every move and mistake.

Social Facilitation

An INCREASE in a person's performance of a task because of the presence of others. - for things you know well

self- concept

An individual's perception of self, including knowledge, feelings, and ideas about oneself. It is used as a basis for how we describe ourselves.

Psychosurgery

An invasive form of treatment in which *brain surgery* is used to treat the symptoms of a disorder - this last-resort procedure removes or permanently alters some part of the brain. - controverisal

Anxiety Disorders

An irrational fear of situations or stimuli that are not actually dangerous.

Who made a large impact in defence mechanisms?

Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud's daughter

What are the two different dimensions of attachment orientation?

Attachment anxiety and avoidance - more likely to change to secure from these rather than from secure to these

Social - Adjustive Function of Attitude

Attitudes can foster social cohesion with others. - For example, sharing similar attitudes can bring people together and provide a sense of group identity.

Ego - Defensive Function of Attitude

Attitudes help us feel good about ourselves and enhance self-esteem.

Knowledge Function of Attitude

Attitudes simplify our understanding of the world and allow us to use heuristics.

Behaviour Behavioural Theory and Social Cognitive theory

BEHAVIOURAL - B. F Skinner -group of learned habits and responses from operant and classical conditioning - thoughts and cognition do not play a part SOCIAL COGNITIVE - in 1960s social learning theorists rejected skinners view and argued that observational and learning processes influences personality - emphasized thoughts and cognition to produce the SOCIAL COGNITIVE thory

Explain some benefits and costs associated with social exchange theory

BENEFITS: love, companionship, emotional support, and physical intimacy. COSTS: having less time to spend with friends, a loss of independence, and greater interpersonal conflict. However, perceptions of what constitutes a reward or a cost in a relationship vary from person to person.

Grasping Reflex (birth- 7months old)

BIRTH to 3 months: - Infants will automatically close their hands on anything that presses against their palms. - pre-reaching: make awkward and poorly guided arm movements toward interesting stimuli. - movements are initiated by visual stimuli but are ineffective in actually reaching and grasping the objects of interest. 3 MONTHS: - Grasping reflex is replaced by intentional grasping. - Infants gain the ability to guide their movements more accurately, using visual feedback to - change in behaviour is associated both with maturational changes in the visual and motor cortices of the brain and with increased muscle in the neck, shoulders, and arms, leading to increased balance and control of the torso. 7 MONTHS: - Infants begin to make smooth and accurate reaches toward the targets they intend to reach. - They gain the ability to understand the reaching actions of another person as being goal oriented.

Will you always be the same person you are?

BOTH personality is composed of multiple traits, each of which lies on a continuum, not within a set of categories or absolutes.

Kohlberg: Stage 1: Heteronymous Morality (pre-school)

Base reasoning on self-interest and avoidance of punishment. -preconventional

What is one of the first ways we learn about appropriate and inappropriate behaviour?

Caregivers model and teach us. (later in life closer to adolescence we learn more from our peers)

For the following scenario complete the 3 prong test: According to the DSM-5 is this a mental disorder? Imagine yourself walking alone down an isolated street late at night. A large man steps out of the shadows and starts to follow you. You notice that he is dressed all in black, and his hat is pulled low. You decide to cross to the other side of the street, and the man continues to follow you. You experience a fight-or-flight response: your heart rate increases, your muscles become tense, you breathe heavily, and you start to sweat. Consider the three-prong test:

Clinically significant? No External cause? Yes Voluntary decision? No Mental Disorder? No

Street drugs

Common street drugs such as cocaine, heroin, and amphetamines are ALL psychoactive substances.

Read this scenario and evaluate a phobia situation using the 3 prong test. Do they have a phobia? We all have something we are afraid of—for example, clowns, spiders, or falling. Sally lives in Ontario and has an intense fear of sharks. There are no sharks in the Great Lakes, and she has no occasion to travel to places that have sharks.

Clinically significant? No External cause? No Voluntary decision? No Phobia? No

Repeat for this scenario: Imagine yourself riding in an elevator, perhaps one of the glass elevators in a fancy hotel or a simple elevator in a multi-storey building. Partway through the ride, you begin to feel intense fear. Your heart pounds; you tremble; you feel some chest pain, choking, nausea, and shortness of breath. You are still shaky when you get off the elevator at the end of your ride, but the symptoms go away in about 10 minutes, and you continue to take elevators when needed.

Clinically significant? Yes External cause? No Voluntary decision? No Mental Disorder? No

Repeat: Imagine now that you feel those same panic or fight-or-flight symptoms at any time. There is no pattern—no dogs attacking or even approaching, no elevator ride, nothing you can identify. As a result, you feel that you could have an attack anytime in any place, and you may even become anxious about the possibility of having future panic attacks and the consequences of these attacks. You change your behaviour to try to prevent these attacks or stay out of situations where having an attack could lead to danger or embarrassment.

Clinically significant? Yes External cause? No Voluntary decision? No Mental Disorder? Yes

Repeat: William avoids many important places, activities, or situations for fear of running into spiders. He also shows strong physiological signs of distress when confronted with spiders—even if he just sees a spider web.

Clinically significant? Yes External cause? Yes Voluntary decision? No Phobia? Yes

What therapy would you suggest: Tanis is thinking about trying out for the football team but is sure he won't make it. He has been working out and can run faster than most of the people on the team, yet he's sure he's not good enough. As his therapist, which approach would you use to help him?

Cognitive Therapy Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is based on the cognitive theory of mental illness that proposes that psychological problems are the result of maladaptive ways of thinking, which in turn lead to maladaptive behaviours. The therapist uses techniques to challenge these maladaptive ways of thinking and maladaptive behaviours and replace them with adaptive ways of thinking and adaptive behaviours. Cognitive therapy uses a variety of therapeutic techniques to help clients identify their thoughts and examine the logic behind those thoughts. Once clients begin to realize that their thoughts are not accurate, they can begin to form more accurate, rational thoughts.

What therapy would you suggest: Sally has been having trouble in school lately. She received her first grade under 90 and can't believe this has happened. She feels worthless and is very angry with herself. She has begun avoiding this class, thinking that if she doesn't try, then it isn't a reflection on her abilities when she fails. As her therapist, which approach would you use to help her?

Cognitive therapy Cognitive therapy uses a variety of therapeutic techniques to help clients identify their thoughts and examine the logic behind those thoughts. Once clients begin to realize that their thoughts are not accurate, they can begin to form more accurate, rational thoughts.

In which culture is a person's motivation more likely to increase after he or she fails in a first attempt at accomplishing a goal?

Collectivist

Indirect communication techniques are an indicator of which culture?

Collectivist

Which culture's people are more likely to adapt to the environment rather than change a situation to better suit their needs?

Collectivist

Private Conformity

Conformity that occurs when an individual changes BEHAVIOURS and BELIEFS to conform to a group.

Public Conformity

Conformity that occurs when an individual changes BEHAVIOURS but NOT BELIEFS to conform to a group.

Selective Mutism

Consistent failure to speak in social situations when there is an expectation to speak, even though the individual speaks in other situations

4 main symptoms of GAD (generalized anxiety disorder)?

Constant Worrying Sleep Disorders Difficulty Concentrating Triggered by everyday events

Which modern approach would be most likely to argue that the brain is hard-wired to respond to specific stimuli or information and ignore others?

Core Knowledge - Core Knowledge Theory acknowledges both the innate mechanisms with which we are born as well as the role of the environment with which we interact.

Which of the following changes has not been going on in industrialized nations over the last century?

Decrease in avg height -Average height also has gone up, not down, over the last century. All of these changes are probably related to a conjunction of epigenetic and environmental factors.

Cleavage

Division of cells in the early embryo to form blastomeres. -begins roughly 24 hours after conception

EMBRYONIC PERIOD: What are the 3 layers that the embryo splits into?

Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm

self- handicapping

Engaging in behaviours designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.

social comparisons

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others. We compare ourselves to others and consider how we differ.

Bipolar II Disorder

Experience of at least ONE MAJOR DEPRESSIVE episode and at least one HYPOMANIC EPISODE

Separation anxiety

Experience of fear or anxiety about separation from an attachment figure or harm befalling an attachment figure, usually develops in childhood but can be expressed through adulthood

Panic Disorder

Experience of reoccurring, unexpected panic attacks

Social Phobia/Social Anxiety Disorder

Experience of significant anxiety in response to social situations or situations in which the individual is being evaluated

Agoraphobia

Experience of significant fear and anxiety about being in* public or open spaces,* using public transportation, standing in line or being in a crowd. - Intense anxiety about being in situations where they *might not be able to escape *if they need to, or they might not be able to get help if they experience an attack

Specific Phobia

Experience of specific anxiety in response to specific situation or object that does not pose any real danger

attributions

Explanations for the causes of one's own and others' behaviour. - Frits Heider said these could be grouped into personal (internal) and situational (external)

Explicit Measures, Direct Methods

Explicit measures, also called direct methods, ask people to directly report their attitudes (e.g., "Using the following scale, indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement: Chocolate is delicious.").

Identity Crisis Resolution: Moratorium

Exploring options, crisis unresolved

Teratogens

External compounds that can cause extreme deviations from typical development if introduced to the developing organism. Examples: Alcohol, nicotine, prescription drugs, viruses

Authority

Extremely influential on someone being compliant

T or F Categorical perception is unaffected by context (what comes before or after).

F

T or F Teratogens affect all developing organisms equally.

F

True or False: the idea that the more severe disorders are 'endogenous' and occur out of the blue with no environmental trigger while other, less severe disorders are simply a reaction (severe = no trigger, less severe = triggered)

FALSE the brain changes in important ways when it interacts with the environment. Even the expression of genes can change as a result of trauma and stress.

T or F there is simple mapping bw a sounds and a speech phoneme

FALSE this is difficult many different sounds can map to a single phoneme and many sounds can correspond to more than one phoneme (K and C"

True or False: OCD is classified as an anxiety disorder

FALSE - OCD is separate according to the DSM-5

True or False According to psychological studies, opposites attract is a valid explanation for how mates tend to choose one another.

FALSE - people who are the same like each other more than opposites

True or False In a study securely attached infants were not surprised if a large oval and a small oval continued to separate after initially being together. Insecurely attached infants shared the opposite reaction

FALSE In a study securely attached infants were surprised if a large oval and a small oval continued to separate after initially being together. Insecurely attached infants shared the opposite reaction

True or False: Parenting styles are the only influencer on type of attachment in children

FALSE although parenting style affects attachment, there are other factors in creating it and parents show a mixture of styles but child's TEMPERMENT, house/cultural ENVIRONMENT, other environmental factors also affect how child behaves

True or False Typically, group therapy will try to incorporate people with several different mental disorders

FALSE group therapy targets a group of individuals who *share certain characteristics*—either they have the same type of mental disorder or they have a similar shared life experience (for example, they all were abused during childhood).

Where does conception occur?

Fallopian tube -from there the organism travels down the tube into the uterus

True or False: Nursing home staff are trained to treat those with mental disorders.

False

True or False During the embryonic period, the embryos sex is determined

False Toward the end of this period, the gonads begin to develop and sexual differentiation begins.

True or False: People with depression likely attribute negative feelings to external factors

False attribute negative events to *internal causes* (that is, they blame themselves when something goes wrong) and they attribute *positive events to external causes* (that is, if something goes well, it was because of something or someone else, not because of them).

displacement test

False-belief task like the Sally Anne task that explores how children reason through a change in location from two different perspectives. -puppet comes in and puts object in cupboard and leaves. puppet 2 comes in and moves object. children asked where puppet 1 will look for the object

object permanence

Feature of Piaget's sensorimotor period marked by the understanding that objects do not disappear when they are out of sight

When do sleep and wake patterns start to emerge?

Foetus Period At the end of the 4th month

What is the longest period of prenatal development?

Foetus period

self serving cognition

General beliefs about the self that serve to enhance self-esteem. i.e, better than average effect, unrealistic optimism, self- serving attributions

overextend

Generalize known words to a wider variety of contexts than is appropriate for those words.

Musical notes combined in different phrases

Generativity

ability to produce new sentences

Generativity

Syntax or syntactical rules

Grammatical rules of a particular language for combining words to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Kohlberg: Stage 7: Cosmic Orientation (not in Kohlberg's original work)

Grapple with questions of why moral behaviour is important, construct a 'natural theology' based on experience, and have mystical or spiritual experiences. -postconventional

What therapy would you suggest: Darnell recently lost his father and has been having trouble with the grief process. He feels all alone and doesn't know what he should do to cope with his sadness. He wants to talk to someone, but he's not really a candidate for intensive one-on-one therapy. As his therapist, which approach would you use to help him?

Group Therapy Although not organized or led by trained psychologists, self-help support groups offer hope, expectations, and support that can lead people to change their thinking and develop new behaviours or abandon maladaptive behaviours. One of the most successful of the self-help groups is Alcoholics Anonymous, or AA.

Realistic conflict theory

Groups tend to have more friction with each other when they compete for resources and will be more cooperative with each other if they feel solidarity or have unified goals.

Habituation trials: stick vs hand

HAND -infants formed a goal-related expectation for the hands movements STICK -infant looked longer at trials in which the stick reached the same object in a different spatial location -indicates that the infants attribute goals to animate but not inanimate objects.

Knowing that adaptation means that more of the brain activates when it is needed, which of them would you expect to show the highest increase in brain glucose metabolism when faced with a series of progressively harder logical problems?

HIGH REASONING In imaging studies, individuals with high reasoning ability showed increased glucose metabolism rates when the reasoning demands of a task increased, but individuals with low reasoning ability did not.

How did Harlow's experiments change animal ethical standards?

Harlow's experiments demonstrated the existence of animal emotions, as well as the importance of the sense of touch and contact comfort in developing animals.

Utilitarian Function of Attitude

Having attitudes helps us function efficiently. If we know what we think is "good" or "bad", we can pursue the good things and avoid the bad things.

Edison is trying to help his friend feel better while a doctor sets her broken wrist. Which of the following would be most helpful? - Have her analyze her reaction to the pain. - Have her think about something else. - Have her suppress her thoughts about the pain. - Have her accept that she will feel pain.

Having her think about something else would be the most helpful. - Distraction has been shown to be effective in reducing the pain an individual feels

Haploid

Having one set of chromosomes instead of the usual complement of two.

Identity Crisis Resolution: Foreclosure

Identity achieved without exploration of alternatives

Identity Crisis Resolution: Achievement

Identity achievement after consideration of alternatives

Failure of emotional regulation to develop

If emotional regulation does not develop normally, emotional stress could become the trigger for anxiety, depression, and conduct disorders

When do extrinsic rewards not decrease your motivation?

If rewards are presented as "no strings attached", they can serve to motivate or intensify a desire to do well again (like winning a medal at the Olympic Games).

Illusion Of Unanimity

Illusion created by self-censorship and pressure not to counter the consensus.

Explain what happens in a study where a subject is being commanded to give shocks to another person IF that other person is in the room with the subject.

In the original setup, the confederate being shocked and the participant were in different rooms. In one variation, the confederate was in the same room as the participant. The results showed that distance from the victim also affects obedience. When the confederate was in the same room as the participant, or when the participant had to force the confederate's hand onto a metal shock plate, obedience dropped.

You have been experiencing conflict with a family member and have to see her over the holidays. You resolve to exercise every morning during the holidays and to focus on any happy memories involving this relative when you meet her. What strategy are you using? - Cognitive appraisal - Emotion-based coping - General adaptation - Proactive coping

In this scenario, you are using the emotion-based coping strategy. Emotion-based coping is the process of reducing the emotional impact of potential stressors.

Perceived Self-Efficacy

Individual's perception of his or her ability to master a situation and produce favourable outcomes.

Which culture's people are more highly motivated to be unique?

Individualistic

Drive Reduction Theory

Infants cry for their caregivers because their physiological drives need to be satisfied

Would you define Erikson's stage theory as an actual "theory"? Or is it better defined as a "framework"?

It would most likely be considered a framework because it is not possible to test or disprove. -theory is a formal guess

Imprinting

KONRAD LORENZ - Rapid learning where newborn forms powerful and rapid bond with mother − Advantageous for mobile species because it ensures baby will stay close to its main source of safety and nourishment - newborn chicks will imprint upon the first moving object they see that meets certain criteria − Immediate bond is long lasting and has consequences − Result of evolution

morphology

Knowledge about how morphemes can be used and combined

Brongenbrenner's ecological system model: What are the 5 systems?

LEVEL ONE: The microsystem LEVEL TWO: The mesosystem LEVEL THREE: The exosystem LEVEL FOUR: The macrosystem LEVEL FIVE: The chronosystem

Would you expect someone who does well on verbal tests to show a lot of activation or little activation in Broca's area when solving verbal problems?

LITTLE ACTIVATION Higher processing efficiency is often reflected as LOWER LEVELS OF ACTIVATION in areas of the brain used to perform a particular task. Generally, people with greater ability in a certain domain show more efficient neural processing in the cortical region that supports that domain. For example, individuals with higher verbal abilities show lower activation in typical language regions, such as Broca's area, when performing verbal tasks.

What else affected obedience?

LOWER OBEDIENCE - other confederates acting as participants refused to continue - responsibility for victims welfare HIGHER OBEDIENCE - incrementally increased shocks

Strabismus

Lack of coordination between the eyes due to poorly developed ocular muscles

What can late mylenation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex cause?

Late myelination can affect the behaviour and experiences of an adolescent and an adult. -This may explain why adolescents, and even young adults, have trouble with planning, risky behaviour, inhibition, and attention.

directive leadership

Leadership with clear authority and decision-making power.

Which of the following do you think does the most to encourage students to drink less? Would your answer change if you were thinking long term or short term? - Being told average students rarely drink - Learning the actual average drinking rate -Hearing stories about people drinking heavily

Learning the actual average drinking rate This would have an effect on drinking rates, because students are more likely to believe a statement if there are data to support it. - Correcting misperceptions of others' acceptance of alcohol use actually has been shown to reduce alcohol consumption.

false-consensus effect

Lee ROSS defined this -The tendency for a person to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and behaviours.

How did experimenter dress affect obedience results?

Legitimacy of the authority figure is important. - Obedience was highest when the authority figure had high status. - if the experimenter was described as another participant or if he issued commands indirectly (i.e, on the phone), obedience dropped. - obedience fell somewhat when the experiment was moved away from Yale University to a rundown office building.

Mindguards

Members who protect the group from information that would call into question the effectiveness of a decision.

autobiographical memory

Memory for the specific experiences that make up a person's life story; influences development of self-concept.

Explicit Attitudes

Memory that can be fully described verbally, and of which a person is consciously aware.

Implicit Attitudes

Memory that cannot be fully described verbally, and of which a person may be completely or partially unaware.

cognitive heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on experience.

Who is at increased risk of developing PTSD?

Military personnel and individuals who live in combat zones are at increased risk of developing PTSD.

Suppose you are solving two problems. They are very similar, except that one is much harder than the other. How might your brain adapt to the harder problem?

More parts of the brain could activate

Do human infants undergo imprinting? (Bowlby's Theory)

NO − Human infants DON'T imprint immediately at birth like other species, they form evolutionary specified and important bond with caregiver called ATTACHMENT

Needs and motivation

Need - Motivation Safety - safety self- actualization- education/ creative Physiological - regulatory Belonging - social

Commonly ingested substances

Nicotine, alcohol, caffeine, and prescription medications are common substances considered psychoactive.

Is self awareness reliable?

No it can be affected by bodily actions (like a forced smile) or the language we use to think

Can all primates identify themselves? Pass the rouge test?

No -i.e, macaque monkeys never made connection - in chimpanzees ~75% pass test -humans pass bw 15-24 months -only few species besides chimpanzees and humans can pass the rouge test (dolphins, elephants, orangutans)

Do all forms of human communication qualify as language?

No For example, the key of music, arrangement of flowers

Is there a male equivalent to menopause?

No though as men age, they will produce fewer sperm and may have more difficulty becoming physically aroused.

Identity Crisis Resolution: Identity Diffusion

No identity commitment, no exploration

According to Bandura's social learning theory, before children can learn, which element has to come first?

Observation! -Children are very impressionable and learn through observation. The child must first observe a behaviour before he or she can learn it.

When we perceive the rewards to outweigh the costs, a ___________ outcome results

POSITIVE - we are likely to experience satisfaction.

Kohlberg's Stages

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY Stage 1: Heteronymous Morality (pre-school) Stage 2: Instrumental Morality (7-8 years) CONVENTIONAL MORALITY Stage 3: 'Good Child' (10-11 years) Stage 4: 'Law and Order' (late adolescence) POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY (very few people enter these stages) Stage 5: Social Contract Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Stage 7: Cosmic Orientation (not in Kohlberg's original work)

Why is playing important?

Part of development, important in cognitive, physical and social development

What does synaptogenesis help to tell us?

Partially explains our increase in cognitive skills as we develop.

Which modern approach would be uncomfortable with the idea of innate cognitive predispositions?

Piaget -Theory theorists are more comfortable with the idea of some innate cognitive predispositions than Piaget was, but believe that these innate predispositions may be flexible and subject to radical revision over time.

A- not - B error

Piaget task that indicates preservative error as, for example, an infant continues to look for an object where he last found it, despite seeing the object placed elsewhere.

What is the most effective way of teaching children which behaviours they should choose so they will behave appropriately in the long run?

Positive reinforcement (e.g., praise or a food treat) for acting appropriately - positive punishment may cause immediate change but is much less effective in the long run

Prosocial behaviour

Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour that is beneficial to others that are usually at cost to oneself. -often done bc of empathy

Jane, who has a sister, is asked, "Do you have a sister?" She responds, "Yes." When Jane is asked, "Does your sister have a sister?" she will answer, "No!" What stage in Piaget's theory is Jane most likely in?

Preoperational In the preoperational stage, children lack operations, or reversible mental processes. To understand that her sister has a sister, Jane must be able to reverse the concept of "having a sister".

When you want to work on eliminating a problem you have been having with a co-worker with whom you are able to communicate, which of the following approaches would be most helpful? - Emotion-focused coping - Proactive coping - Stress inoculation training - Problem-focused coping

Problem-focused coping would be most helpful. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing a stressful situation by reducing it or eliminating it.

accomodation

Process by which existing schemata are modified or changed by new experiences. -process through which we incorporate information into a schema even though it's not entirely explainable by that schema. As a result, we must either slightly adjust the parameters of that schema or believe that the new information is an exception to the rule.

assimilation

Process by which new information about the world is incorporated into existing schemata.

What marks the beginning of the adolescent phase?

Puberty

How similar do you think language development will be between monolingual and bilingual children?

Quite similar - Bilingual children meet their language milestones around the same time or slightly later than monolingual children but will have more native-like accents than people who learn languages later.

Certified Canadian Counsellors

Registered counsellors have a *master's degree in counselling*, which is similar to clinical psychology but with less focus on statistics and research methods and more focus on clinical practice.

Familiarity

Repeated contact with someone generally increases liking.

Children who grow up with siblings close in age or whose parents ask their children to consider the consequences of their actions on others develop Theory of Mind at a younger age than average. Which of the following statements best supports this observation?

Richer social environments promote Theory of Mind development -This observation suggests but does not prove that a richer social environment is important for the development of Theory of Mind.

egocentric

Self-centeredness; preoperational children can see the world only from their own perspective.

Jamie has a favourite teddy bear. His mom holds the bear in front of him, and he reaches out and smiles. Then, Jamie's mom hides the toy behind her back. Jamie cries, thinking his favourite toy has disappeared, gone forever. What stage in Piaget's theory is Jamie most likely in?

Sensorimotor In the sensorimotor stage, children lack object permanence until about eight months of age. Jamie has not gained the understanding that objects continue to exist even when he can't see them. For him, out of sight is actually out of existence!

What are some examples of anxiety disorders?

Seperation Anxiety Selective Mutism Panic Disorder Specific Phobia Social Phobia/Social Anxiety Disorder Agoraphobia Generalized Anxiety Disorder

false-belief problem

Set of tests used to determine children's Theory of Mind and false-belief understanding. i.e, CONTAINER TEST w smarties and pencils -trick to have pencils in the smartie container - child asked to guess, then asked what another person would guess

When is a group most effective in terms of experience working together?

Some but not all of the team had worked together a few times. The mixed group had the most success. They knew each other well enough to cooperate but were not locked into a given style.

What mental disorder is attributed with too little dopamine?

Some forms of depression and Parkinson's disease

algorithm

Step-by-step procedures. -can be compared to cognitive heuristics

rouge test

Test used to determine development of a SENSE OF SELF by using a dot of red colour (rouge) on the nose of the child or animal. The test subject is placed in front of a mirror and observed to see if recognition occurs.

Substance intoxication

Substance intoxication occurs when a person suffers *clinically significant* NEGATIVE or HARMFUL BEHAVIOURAL changes or PSYCHOLOGICAL effects because of the INFLUENCE of a psychoactive substance.

Clinically Significant

Symptoms judged *by a clinician* to be: - sufficiently significant - marked - substantial in intensity or duration SUCH THAT the patient would benefit from *professional treatment*

T or F The amount of a teratogen and the length of exposure influence its effect on the foetus.

T

T or F The susceptibility of a developing organism to a teratogen depends when the organism is exposed to it

T

What part of the brain plays an important role in emotion?

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM - important role in the regulation of emotion and motivation.

What is the traditional, classic approach to study of personality?

THE TRAIT APPROACH - Classifies and describes psychological CHARACTERISTIC by which people differ consistently between situations and over time. - The goal for trait theorists is to find a small set of meaningful traits that can effectively describe the personality of any individual.

True or False Using psychotherapy along with medication has been shown to greatly improve compliance.

TRUE

True or False: In experiments, the closer the authoritative figure giving the demands is to the subject, the more likely the subject will obey the demands of this authoritative figure

TRUE

True or False: According to the social brain hypothesis: The reason that species like humans, chimps and dolphins developed brains so large and metabolically demanding is to meet the cognitive demands of social living

TRUE

True or False: Homework is an essential component of CBT.

TRUE This usually includes recording one's thoughts and feelings and practicing new ways of thinking and behaving.

True or False: The associations between neurotransmitters and psychological conditions are correlations, they do not necessarily demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.

TRUE We don't know what other variables may be affecting both the neurotransmitter and the mental illness, and we don't know if the change in the neurotransmitter causes the illness, or the illness causes the change in the neurotransmitter

Which of the following is an example of a student who is very anxious about an upcoming exam using stress inoculation training to deal with test anxiety? - Going to Health Counselling and Disability Services to get a note to defer the exam until the student is less anxious. - Keeping up with the readings and reviewing the material repeatedly so as to be well prepared for the exam. - Taking mock (pretend) exams—at first without any time limit and with easy questions; later with a time limit and harder questions. - Telling him- or herself that the exam isn't worth all that much, or that this course isn't very important in the degree program.

Taking mock exams is an example of using stress inoculation training. Stress inoculation training prepares an individual for the effects of negative stressful events with gradual exposure.

When considering the best form of psychological therapy, there are three approaches, these are:

Taylorite, the Dodo Bird, and the HVAC

Wechsler's tests

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Generativity

The ability to combine words or symbols of a language using rules of composition and syntax to communicate an almost INFINITE VARIETY OF IDEAS using a relatively SMALL VOCABULARY. -a requirement of language

semanticity

The extent to which a language can use symbols to transmit MEANINGFUL messages.

Menarche

The first menstrual cycle. -Occurs after a female undergoes a growth spurt. 12-18 months later, ovulation begins

sunk-cost fallacy

The framing effect that occurs when individuals' decisions and/or judgments are based on PAST INVESTMENTS they have made.

psychodynamic

The general term for psychological theories that emphasize the relationship between the conscious and unconscious and the interaction among the various drives and forces within a person.

Tardive Dyskinesia

The involuntary and random movement of the facial, arm, or leg muscles seen in clients who have taken first-generation antipsychotics for a long time.

social psychology

The scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the social context.

Depersonalization Disorder

The sensation that one is detached or outside of one's body.

how do you think brain activation in adolescents would compare to adults in areas associated with inhibition of impulses?

The study also found greater activation of brain areas associated with the inhibition of impulses in the adults than in the adolescents who took part in the experiment.

Epigenetic influence

The study of heritable changes that occur without a change in the DNA sequence

availability heuristic

The tendency to estimate how frequently something occurs based on the ease with which examples come to mind.

person positivity bias

The tendency to evaluate individuals more favourably than groups.

Base- Rate Fallacy

The tendency to ignore general information about the frequency of events in favour of specific conspicuous information such that rare events are overestimated. -underestimate day to day event and overestimate rare events

Out group homogeneity effect

The tendency to perceive out-group members as all alike, while perceiving in-group members as distinct and diverse.

Central State Theory

The theory that states that various drives correspond with different neural activity in different parts of the brain.

Persuasion

The use of active techniques to change or influence a person's attitudes.

Counsellors/Psychotherapists

The use of these terms is *unregulated*: individuals with any educational background (or no educational background at all) technically can call themselves a "counsellors" or a "therapist".

empathy

The vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes.

What is it called when you look for the three main ideas to diagnose a patient?

Three prong test - clinically significant life impairment - NOT predictable to external event - NOT voluntry

Conscientiousness

This factor describes how ORGANIZED, methodical, disciplined, and motivated (to achieve goals) one is. - People with high scores on conscientiousness tend to be more sexually faithful than people with low scores on conscientiousness.

High attachment avoidance and low attachment anxiety

This individual covets his/her independence, strives to maintain distance from others and exercises self-reliance. He or she avoids negative emotional states and retreats when a situation calls for intimacy

Low attachment anxiety and low attachment avoidance

This individual has a secure attachment style characterized by trusting others, being sociable and comfortable with intimacy, having optimistic beliefs about relationships, and being able to cope with threats of rejection.

High attachment anxiety and low attachment avoidance

This individual is overly dependent on his/her partner for love and support, is highly sensitive to the slightest hint of rejection, and constantly seeks reassurance about his or her partner's feelings. The fear of rejection may lead to actual rejection by the partner. (Remember the self-fulfilling prophecy?)

High attachment anxiety and high attachment avoidance

This individual may have dealt with loss or sexual abuse in childhood. He or she wants emotionally close relationships with others but feels uncomfortable getting close to them. He or she feels unworthy of closeness and does not trust a partner's intentions.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

This observation suggests but does not prove that a richer social environment is important for the development of Theory of Mind. All of the other statements are contradicted by this observation or by what you read earlier in the online lesson.

Openness To Experience

This personality factor describes an individual's willingness to participate in new experiences, having a wide set of interests, and being creative/imaginative.

Agreeableness

This personality factor describes how KIND, sympathetic, and affectionate one is.

Extraversion

This personality factor describes how TALKATIVE, outgoing, and assertive one is.

gene environment covariation

When exposure to environmental conditions is correlated with a person's genes - for example, a person who inherited extroverted characteristics might seek out a job that requires a lot of interaction with other people.

Stepping Reflex

When held upright over a flat surface, infants move their feet in a walk-like fashion, demonstrating a stepping reflex.

Placebo effect

When people who falsely believe they are receiving a treatment respond as if they had actually been treated. - related closely with optimism

In one study, adolescents, young adults, and adults all took part in a driving simulation while their brain activation was measured inside an MRI. One part of the driving simulation was performed alone, and another was performed in the presence of a peer of the participant, that is, the adolescent was alone and then with another adolescent; the young adult was alone and then with another young adult, etc. How would you predict the results of each combination of driver and peer passengers? With a peer present, how would brain activation in adolescents compare to adults in areas associated with feelings of reward?

When the peer was present, adolescents, but not adults, showed much greater brain activation in the areas associated with feelings of reward than when they were alone, and this increased activity was predictive of risk-taking behaviour in the simulation.

Diagnosing substance use disorders

When use results in: - impaired control - social impairment - risky use - meets pharmacological criteria

Psychoeducational interventions

Where family members of people with a disorder meet in a group to learn more about the disorder and how they can live with a family member who has it

Is there a genetic component triggered by the environment for ToM?

Your knowledge of epigenetics suggests that there MAY be a genetic component being triggered by the social environment (or, in the case of ASD, fail to trigger)

Scientific method

a way of gaining knowledge that is verifiable and objective - create hypotheses or testable statements

mondegreen

a word or phrase that results from mishearing something said or sung

Too little GABA is associated with:

anxiety and mood disorders.

Depression assessment

assessed with depression tests/questionnaires and by asking about the patient's thoughts, especially suicide and self-harm.

Tricyclics

block the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin

Personal attribution

can often lead to an intolerant reaction

perspective taking

children will experience growth in their ability to understand feelings and thoughts of others (concrete operational stage)

If the DNA is the same in each cell, why are there differences among the different cells in our bodies?

epigenetic modification (some genes are turned on, others are turned off)

Monamine Oxidase Inhibitors

inhibit the enzyme oxidase that breaks down dopamine and norepinephrine in cells

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)

inhibits excitation and anxiety, and induces relaxation.

Endoderm

innermost layer of tissue, eventually develops into the digestive system, urinary tract, and lungs.

Symptoms of major depression

loss of appetite, significant change in sleep patterns, lack of energy, weight gain - other behaviours markedly different from normal behaviours for that person. - symptoms must last at least two weeks to be major depression but on average they last two weeks

When is behavioural therapy usually used?

most commonly is used to treat phobias, addictions, and specific problematic behaviours in individuals

What is important to note about psychology?

most of the research you will learn about in your psychology classes has been conducted on people from Western, individualistic societies, so you should be cautious in over-generalizing the findings.

Labeling vs discrimination

our ability to discriminate far exceeds our ability to label -labeling : orange colours -discrimination: different shades of orange

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason abstractly

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated information and verbal skills.

Theory of Planned Behaviour: : Subjective norms

our beliefs about what other people think we should do

Theory of Planned Behaviour: Attitudes

our evaluation of the behaviour in question

How do we make decisions in positive moods? Why?

positive mood - less thought, quick decisions WHY? 1) positive moods are cognitively distracting, which limits available resources for processing information in a more thorough way. 2) people are not weary or cautious when in a positive mood, and as a result do not feel compelled to process information thoroughly 3) people in a positive mood are highly motivated to stay in a positive state, and thoroughly processing information has the possibility of disrupting that positive mood.

Using the equation Rewards — Costs = Outcome, what is a likely outcome for a person with a high comparison level and a relationship in which the rewards significantly outweigh the costs?

positive outcome

Over justification effect

predicts that if a person shifts from intrinsic to extrinsic rewards, he or she will continue the activity only for as long as there is an extrinsic reward—even if the person had previously engaged in the activity for fun.

Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for executive function?

prefrontal cortex

Eye Blink Reflex

present from birth until death, protecting our eyes from foreign objects and bright lights.

SSRIs

prevent the reuptake of serotonin in the brain

Schizophrenia assessment

probe the content of the patient's thoughts, do cognitive testing to test disorganization of thinking and memory.

Substance induced psychotic disorder

psychotic symptoms are judged to be a DIRECT physiological consequence of taking a psychoactive drug or a medication, or exposure to a toxin.

Attachment avoidance

reflects the degree to which an individual avoids or feels uncomfortable with closeness and emotional intimacy in relationships.

Attachment anxiety

reflects the extent to which an individual feels unworthy of love and fearful of rejection.

What mental disorder is attributed to excess dopamine?

schizophrenia

Typical pattern of motor development in infants: (motor milestones) Age at which they can: sit up unsupported pull themselves up/stand walk walk stairs/ walk with toys run/kick/utensils

sit up unsupported: 5-7.5 pull themselves up/stand: 9 months walk: 10-13 month walk stairs/ walk with toys: 16 months run/kick/utensils: 2 years

Easy to discriminate vs hard

t's harder to perceive differences between stimuli that you classify as the same thing (e.g., male face 1 vs. male face 2) than it is to perceive differences between stimuli that you classify as different (e.g., male face 1 vs. female face 3)

Homophily

tendency to choose to associate with those who are familiar to us in some way

What is the Big 5 also called

the NEO Personality Inventory -the N, E, and O stand for the original three traits that modern trait theorists validated.

Theory of mind

the ability to reason about what other people might know or believe and how those beliefs and knowledge will relate to their actions.

Intelligence changes in ages

the ability to use fluid intelligence decreases, while crystallized intelligence stays the same or even increases

Intrinsic motivator

the act is satisfying in and of itself

Mesoderm

the middle layer, transforms into muscle, bone, and the circulatory system.

anchoring

the observation that different starting points will produce different estimates. -often produces BIAS towards the original starting point

Ectoderm

the outer layer, develops into skin, hair, teeth, and the central nervous system.

Self- fulfilling prophecy (aka the Pygmalion effect)

the process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations. - Rosenthal and Jacobson pygmalion in the classroom experiment

Cognitive appraisal

the process of adjusting perceptions of existing stressors as being less threatening.

decision making

the process of selecting one option among many based on an evaluation of the various available outcomes -involves judgement

Symptoms of persistent depressive disorder

the same or less severe than those of major depression, but are much more chronic, lasting at least two years

Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky

well known for their work on judgment and heuristics. -Much of their research on judgment was first published in the 1970s and has influenced psychology research ever since. They identified various cognitive heuristics

Assessing for substance use

when a patient presents with symptoms of mania, amnesia, depression, or psychosis at an uncharacteristic age for that disorder to appear

internal attributions

when consistency is high but consensus and distinctiveness are low, people make personal, or internal, attributions.

External attributions

when consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness are all high, people make situational or external attributions.

Behavioural differences in males and females

− Androgens increases aggression, sexual arousal and spatial ability, lower verbal ability − Relative amounts of androgen, estrogen and progesterone present in uterus during pregnancy have been associated with gender-specific play behaviour following birth

Social Brain Hypothesis:

− Explaining evolution of intelligence − Social animals struggle with environment to survive, but ALSO interpersonal attention and resources − Individual with greatest ability to outsmart competitors will survive; greater cognitive ability will be selected so BRAIN GETS LARGER (even though metabolically demanding) − Evolutionary growth of brain is to provide an advantage to social creatures

Cognitive differences in males and females

− Females verbal ability is greater than males − Male performance on visuospatial tasks is greater than women's − Male performance on rotating 3D objects is greater than women's

How do friendships develop with age?

− Friendships become more defined with age. 6-8 year olds define friends on who they do activities with. By 10, children enter true peer groups − Adolescent relationships are less focused on shared activity, usually based on mutual acceptance, trust, deeper levels of intimacy

Harlow's Experiment #1: Cloth comfort vs nutrition (be familiar don't memorize)

− Harlow raised infant monkeys in a cage away from mothers and 2 inanimate cylinders were there as substitutes − Both cylinders had faces but one was made of wire and a bottle so the monkey could drink, and the other provided no nourishment but was covered in soft cloth − Infants spend almost all time on cloth mother, only moving to wire for food, then moved back − Therefore, the need for comfort is so strong it overpowered need for food − CONTACT COMFORT is most important variable in development of infants affection for mother

Attachment

− Infants view caregiver as secure base from which they can safely venture out and explore their environment - infant bond w caregiver

EMOTIONAL DIMORPHISM

− Males and females relate to each other in different ways − Friendships with females are more intimate than ones between males, and girls prefer paired interaction, boys prefer groups − As children get older, they may chose to play in same sex groups more frequently due to these differences in play behaviour − By having more exposure to same-sex peers, these styles of play become engraved over time

What are some issues with the 3 types of temperament?

− Not all babies fit neatly into these categories − Insecurely attached babies more likely to score high on activity and react strongly to stimuli − Insecure-avoidant infants score low on quality of mood and high on fearfulness − Parents dealing with these infants may become frustrated and stop trying to comfort infant, or question their parenting skills; it is hard to maintain warm, responsive parenting approach to a difficult baby − But parents who learn how to deal with baby responsively will develop a secure attachment with them

Harlow's Experiment #2: Exploration (be familiar don't memorize)

− Opened infant monkey's cages and placed loud mechanized creature in opening − Terrified infants immediately ran to the cloth mother, but would soon after step off and start examining the machine − Cloth mother was NOT RESPONSIVE to infant - no secure attachment made − As these monkeys without response matured, they were very aggressive or indifferent, and exhibited atypical sexual behaviour

What are some factors of homophily?

− PHYSICAL factors (this decreases with age) - STYLE of play - levels of AGGRESSION GENDER - prefer to socialize with others of same sex, trend becomes more significant until age of 15 − Self-imposed gender segregation is almost total by 3rd grade POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CIRCLES − In adulthood extends here - extreme cases: completely closed circles, people only talk with others like them and take in information they already believe, not giving them a chance to grow and develop

Observational Learning

− Social environment plays role in how we develop, mainly observation and imitation of other people (role models i.e, parents) − Anyone in environment can be a role model but their amount of influence varies - Bandura's social learning theory

What is the importance of play?

− When children can guide their own play with others, helps them learn to work effectively in groups, share. − Children often pretend to fill adult roles, allowing them to practice adult behaviors, behave flexibly in response to others, and refine their own behavioral strategies − Because play is seen during immature phase, it is believed to be EVOLUTIONARILY IMPORTANT −important factor in learning −used to master skills that promote survival and reproductive success thanks to others safety resources

According to Judith Harris peer relationships are the MOST important socializing factor in our development. Explain this.

− she says the primary contribution parents make to child development is genetics − Children from different families are often alike in many ways; socialize and adapt to others style of speech, dress, behaviour − Immigrants children adapt quickly to new culture, parents don't CONTROVERSY: - evidence that parents are important - caregivers have influence over children's friend choice

Criteria for Basic Emotion

− universal within our species − Must facilitate a functional response to a specific life event − evident early in life − innate way of expressing the basic emotion (face, voice, observed across cultures) − has its own physiological basis

Phoneme recognition in infants

-infants in different cultures have shown that when infants are very young, they can tell the difference among ALL of the phonemes used in the world's languages. -However, by about one year of age, they have lost the ability to tell the difference between sounds that aren't phonemic in the language they are being raised in. -brain learns to discard unneeded information

What does communication stipulate

-information can only be communicated if both the sender and the receiver understand whats going on

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

-made by Lewis Terman -revised Binet-Simon test -A number used to express the intelligence of a person that is calculated using the ratio of the mental age as reported on a standardized test to the chronological age, then multiplied by 100.

Polygenic

-most traits are polygenic -A trait that is influenced by more than one pair of genes.

Sir Francis GALTON

-noticed that intelligence was hereditary - trying to correlate more general descriptions of intelligence with physical factors

the attack on the idea of g

-people resist the idea of differences in innate mental ability (undemocratic) -intelligence tests have been used to support racist policies in the past

FOXP2 gene

-possibly accounts for the difference in linguistic ability in humans -FOXP2 is a gene on chromosome 7 that appears to be related to a severe language disorder that was discovered in three generations of the "KE" family living in London, England. -The root of the disorder appears to be a difficulty with speech articulation.

Problems w early IQ tests

-ratio issues -class and language bias

Standardization

-using the exact same test items, instructions, and scoring procedures for all test takers -requires special training for tests with different types of tasks - Determining typical performance on a test.

Types of talking in babies

1) CRYING - main form of communication when born 2) COOING - first speech-like sounds. -seemingly for babys own amusement 3) INTERACTION AND INCREASED SOUND PRODUCTION -as people respond to cooing babies start to produce more and more sounds 4) BABBLING -infants begin to mix consonant and vowel sounds -mama, dada 5) BETTER BABBLING -start to produce sounds from native language

What are the two types of morphemes

1) FREE morphemes are meaningful on their own and can stand alone as words. 2) BOUND morphemes are meaningful only when combined with other morphemes to form words. For instance, the word "engagement" contains the free morpheme "engage" as well as the bound morpheme "-ment".

Theories of language development

1) Nativist 2) Interactionist

Steps to ensure a test measures properly

1) Norming 2) Standardization 3) Reliability 4) Validity

How do you understand what someone says?

1) RECOGNIZE sounds 2) IDENTIFY words - use semantical knowledge. Involves semantics, prosody 3) ANALYSE syntax 4) INTERPRET utterance in context each level of processing requires the listener to use multiple cues or rule systems

How to people learn to map the visual symbol system on the auditory symbol system

1) learn the letters of the alphabet and the sounds that they can make. 2) Analyse phonemes in ways that are not required for language comprehension (sometimes referred to as phonemic awareness).

G = ?

=general intelligence

psycholinguistics

A branch of cognitive psychology devoted to the study of the acquisition, comprehension, and production of language.

reliability

A characteristic of a measure that provides CONSISTENT and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time.

Interactionist theorists

A person who believes that language development results from interaction among multiple biological and social influences. -more emphasis placed on environment and learning than nativists -the growth of vocabulary and the increased complexity of children's language use are the direct result of the increasing complexity of their ability to think about the world and understand relationships, context, and concepts.

Ra and La sounds, Japanese and American listeners

American English talkers perceive "ra" and "la" as separate groups, whereas Japanese talkers do not. This is a clear example of how perception is warped, or if you prefer, sculpted, by experience.

differential approach

An approach in psychology devoted to tests and measures of individual differences in various psychological properties, -including people's abilities to solve problems.

Reminiscing about last year's vacation

Displacement

American sign language

Displacement ??? WHY

T or F Categorical perception is tied to our ability to label; we can discriminate between objects that have different labels (i.e., saffron, tangerine, etc.) but not among those objects within the same label category because our ability to discriminate far exceeds our ability to label.

F

Sarah wants to congratulate her sister for graduating with honours. Knowing that her sister also understands the symbolism of flower arrangements, Sarah builds an arrangement of yellow roses, calla lilies, oak leaves, and ivy. What level of semanticity does the flower arrangement show?

HIGH LEVEL of semanticity Because Sarah's sister comprehends the specific language of flower arrangement, she will understand that she is being praised with roses for achievement, lilies for elegance, oak for strength, and ivy for ambition. These are multiple complex symbols and evidence of a high level of semanticity.

Bird exposure to songs

However, unlike humans, some birds can master song entirely without exposure during development. The need for exposure also leads to the formation of dialects in birds.

Several examples of atypical language learning situations turn out not to be detrimental to the infants and children seeking to master the languages used in their households. These include babies raised in households where the parents speak ASL and those raised in multilingual households. How many of the stages of early language development (i.e., IDT, cooing, babbling) do you think ASL children will go through?

Interestingly, infants in the homes of ASL speakers will go through many of the same stages as hearing infants, including cooing, infant-directed talk, and babbling. Cooing is verbal, but the other interactions use sign language.

A bee returning to the hive might dance a "round dance", in which it travels in circles. This indicates to the other bees that it found a source of nectar within 40 metres of the hive. The "waggle dance", in which the bee waggles its behind, indicates that the flowers are further away. What level of semanticity does the round dance have?

LOW LEVEL of semanticity The honeybee dance has a low level of semanticity. It uses symbols to transmit meaningful messages, but it has a limited selection of symbols and only conveys distance and direction information. The bee can't indicate more varied or complex messages. For example, it can't indicate which flowers it thinks are prettier, nor can it send information about anything other than flowers.

Vervet monkeys give calls to warn of specific dangers, such as snakes, leopards, or other predators. Young monkeys sometimes mistake a stick for a snake or a leaf for an eagle, and the whole tribe responds to their specific warning. What level of semanticity are the monkeys showing?

MODERATE level of semanticity Vervet monkeys' alarm calls are actually basic semantic signals or symbolic signals because each alarm call seems to mean something to them. Semanticity is best understood as a gradient or scale, and the monkeys' ability to warn of different dangers indicates low to moderate semanticity.

articulators

Mouth structures that make speech sounds (jaw, tongue, lips, and soft palate). -speech required very rapid movements of articulators

Do only humans use language?

No Some animals do too

Nativism theory of language development

Noam Chomsky -Chomsky argues that children are born with an innate knowledge of universal grammar, the basic features that are part of every world language. -no learning is involved in langugage acquisition.

Prosody

Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.

Vervet monkeys calling because of perceived danger

Semanticity

"The indifference of the indicator"

Spearmen uses this phrase to refer to the finding that the CONTENT of the test items and the NATURE of the task used to test general intelligence didn't seem to affect test scores much. -math and vocab related -For example, people who did well on hard tests of vocabulary also did well on easy mathematics tests, regardless of the test format.

telegraphic speech

Speech that sounds very much like a telegram, with ONLY ESSENTIAL WORDS words, has words arranged in an order that makes sense, and contains almost all nouns and verbs strung together in pairs. -children tend to build these two-word sentences in an order that makes sense in the language they're learning

T or F Categorical perception applies to both language (sounds) and vision (objects).

T

T or F Categorical perception depends on our knowledge and experience.

T

Improving language

children in the right environment actually will improve on the structure of a language without intervention

Mental age

concept created by Alfred Benet -a description of the child's score in terms of how it compared to the score of an average child of a particular age.

Critical periods for language

first few years of life -children who are not exposed to language at this time are never able to make up for it

Problem of reference

how do they begin to make sense of words when a) they're surrounded by dozens of objects that the words could refer to and b) they have no point of reference and can't ask for clarification? -this q still isn't solved by psychologists but all babies will start to assimilate new words at 7-8 months and remember them for weeks

Overlapping phonemes

i.e, "b" sound only involves the lips but because of the vowels that may follow such as oo or aa the placement of your tongue changes

linguists

people who study the rules of language

Do infants respond preferentially to IDT?

preference iis context dependent it is equal for IDT and adult directed speech for parents -for strangers there is a preference for IDT