PSYC 104: General Psychology - Unit One Exam Study Set (University of Kansas) [Genna Losinski]

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the physical features of the environment

Memory misattribution

Assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

The tendency to reconstruct one's memory of the past to fit the present reflects a memory problem known as:

Bias

Operant conditioning shows both ______________ and _____________ effects similar to those we saw with classical conditioning

Discrimination, generalization

Perhaps even more striking, recent evidence indicates that at least one form of implicit learning is __________ in autistic adults

Enhanced

Most people are able to remember how many items?

Five to seven

What did Pavlov call the dog's salivation within his experiment

He called it an unconditioned response (UR)

Collaborative memory

How people remember in groups

Who developed the stage model of memory?

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

What did Pavlov call the response given by the dogs after the parings of CS and US

Pavlov called these responses conditioned responses (CR)

Food, comfort, shelter, and warmth are examples of ___________ ___________ because they help satisfy biological needs

Primary reinforcers

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Persistence

The intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget

Suggestibility

The tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

What findings were made by Tomasello et al

They suggested that being raised in a human culture has profound effects on the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees

Sensory to long-term memory diagram

This diagram depicts how sensory information can move to the long-term memory

Oliver returns home after a round of golf and he sees his trash cans blowing down the street due to the wind. He runs to catch his trash cans. Now he cannot remember what he did with his sunglasses. His forgetfulness is MOST likely caused by: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

Absentmindedness

How is access to information stored in the long-term memory obtained?

Access to information in the long-term memory occurs through conscious and unconscious processes known as implicit and explicit memory

Where does memory come in to play in Darwin's principle of natural selection in terms of passed down traits?

According to Darwin's principle features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are far more likely to be passed down to subsequent generations. Memory is one of the traits in this category. It is suggested that memory works especially well when it pertains to something essential for survival

Skinner (1948) designed an experiment that illustrates this distinction. He put several pigeons in Skinner boxes, set the food dispenser to deliver food every 15 seconds, and left the birds to their own devices. Later, he returned and found the birds engaging in odd, idiosyncratic behaviors, such as pecking aimlessly in a corner or turning in circles. He referred to these behaviors as ______________ and offered a behaviorist analysis of their occurrence

"Superstitious"

What is the period of association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) called

Acquisition

Evolution and natural selection go hand in hand with _____________

Adaptiveness

What happened after multiple pairings of CS and US within the experiments

After multiple pairings of CS and US, the animal learned to associate food with the sound, and eventually the bell itself was sufficient to produce a response, or salivation

A key determinant of the effectiveness of a reinforcer is the ________ ___ ______ between the occurrence of a behavior and the reinforcer: The ______ _______ elapses, the less effective the reinforcer

Amount of time, more time

The _____ is the primary brain structure responsible for conditioning based on fearful or anxiety-inducing stimuli hippocampus amygdala sensory cortex frontal lobe

Amygdala

Priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past

Observational learning

An organism learns by watching the actions of others

Rhonda can't remember anything about the first several minutes immediately following a car crash in which she was injured. Rhonda is experiencing _____ amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia

What happens when the hippocampal region of the brain suffers damage?

Anterograde amnesia is commonly the consequence to damage to this region of the brain

Punisher

Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

Reinforcer

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

What terms did John B. Watson argue psychologists should never use

"consciousness", "mental states", "mind", "content", "introspectively verifiable", "imagery", and "the like"

The words positive and negative mean, respectively, something that is ______1_______ or something that is ____2______, but do not mean ____3_____ or ______4______ as they do in everyday speech

1. Added 2. Taken away 3. "good" 4. "bad"

Consider this example: A psychology professor visited Southern California, and his hosts took him to lunch at a Middle Eastern restaurant. Suffering from a case of bad hummus, he was up all night long, and developed a lifelong aversion to hummus. The hummus was the ____1_____ _____1_____, a bacterium or some other source of toxicity was the ______2_____ ______2_______, and the resulting nausea was the ______3_____ ______3_______. The _______4______ _____4______ (the nausea) became linked to the once-neutral ________5________ _______5______ (the hummus) and became a ________6______ _____6_______ (an aversion to hummus). This aversion was cemented with a single acquisition trial.

1. Conditioned stimulus (CS) 2. Unconditioned stimulus (US) 3. Unconditioned response (UR) 4. Unconditioned response (UR) 5. Conditioned stimulus (CS) 6. Conditioned response (CR)

Memories are ____1____, not ______2____, and ____3_____ is the process by which we transform what we _____4_____, _____5_____, or _______6______ into an ____7_____ memory.

1. Constructed 2. Recorded 3. Encoding 4. Perceive 5. Think 6. Feel 7. Enduring

The three key functions of memory

1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval

Short-term memory is limited by _____1______ it can hold information and is also limited in ________2_______ information it can hold

1. How long 2. How much

If connections linking the amygdala to the ______1_____ are disrupted, the rat does __2__ _____2______ the behavioral _______3______ response

1. Midbrain 2. Does not 3. Freezing

There are three major kinds of memory storage: _____1______, _____2_____, and _____3______. As these names suggest, the three kinds of storage are distinguished primarily by the ______ __4__ _______ over which a memory is _____5______.

1. Sensory 2. Short-Term 3. Long-Term 4. Amount of time 5. Retained

The more new _____1_____ ______2______, the _____3_____ conditioned responding is ______4_____

1. Stimulus 2. Changes 3. Less 4. Observed

The two subsystems included within the working memory that store and manipulate information and the working components of the two subsystems

1. The visuo-spatial sketchpad for visual images 2. The phonological loop for verbal information The episodic buffer integrates visual and verbal information from these two subsystems The central executive coordinates the subsystems along with the episodic buffer

What are the seven sins of memory?

1. Transience 2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Memory Misattribution 5. Suggestibility 6. Bias 7. Persistence

How much information can we hold in short-term memory? 7 +/- 2 3 +/- 2 10 +/- 2 8 +/- 2

7 +/- 2

Which statement is NOT an example of learning A baby reflexively pulls back her hand when it is exposed to a hot burner A fish comes to the top of its tank when its owner approaches A dog sits down every time its owner says, "Sit!" A college student studies for a second exam after failing the first exam in a class

A baby reflexively pulls back her hand when it is exposed to a hot burner

Variable-interval schedule (VI)

A behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement. For example, on a 2-minute variable-interval schedule, responses will be reinforced every 2 minutes on average

Learning as described in the chapter seven intro

A collection of different techniques, procedures, and outcomes that produce changes in an organism's behavior

Unlike déjà vu experiences, déjà vecu experiences involve a feeling that one has experienced something before and have:

A detailed memory for this experience that actually did not occur.

Blocking

A failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

Echoic memory

A fast-decaying store of auditory information

Iconic memory

A fast-decaying store of visual information

Habituation

A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

Absentmindedness

A lapse in attention that results in memory failure

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills, the cerebellum is part of the hindbrain and plays an important role in motor skills and learning

Semantic memory

A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Medial forebrain bundle

A pathway that meanders its way from the midbrain through the hypothalamus into the nucleus accumbens, are the most susceptible to stimulation that produces pleasure

What is required of learning through classical conditioning

A period of association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US)

Interleaved practice

A practice schedule that mixes different kinds of problems or materials within a single study session. Interleaved practice may be particularly effective for learning mathematics

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

Retrieval-induced forgetting

A process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

Biological preparedness

A propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others, so that some behaviors are relatively easy to condition in some species but not others

Conditioned response (CR)

A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

Habituation leads to _____, while sensitization leads to _____. a reduction in responding; an increase in responding an increase in responding; a reduction in responding ignoring a stimulus; avoiding a stimulus attending to a stimulus; ignoring a stimulus

A reduction in responding; an increase in responding

Learning typically involves: a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner no change in the state of the learner a punishment for undesirable behavior a temporary and short change in behavior

A relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

Who is Edward L. Thorndike?

A researcher who examined instrumental behaviors, that is, behavior that required an organism to do something, solve a problem, or otherwise manipulate elements of its environment

Encoding specificity Principle

A retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

Sensitization

A simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

Positive reinforcement

A stimulus is presented that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Negative punishment

A stimulus is removed that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Negative reinforcement

A stimulus is removed that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive punishment

A stimulus is removed that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Mirror neurons

A type of cell found in the frontal and parietal lobes of primates (including humans). Mirror neurons fire when an animal performs an action, as when a monkey reaches for a food item

Second-order conditioning

A type of learning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

Sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

Operant behavior

Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

In 2010, Jane told her friend Alicia that she thought that tattoos were ridiculous and that no one should ever get one under any circumstance. In 2013, Jane tells Alicia that she just got a tattoo. Alicia is quite surprised because she remembers that, just 3 years ago, Jane was absolutely opposed to tattoos. Jane insists that she was only opposed to tattoos on particular areas of the body. Jane's inaccurate memory of the past BEST reflects a memory "sin" known as:

Bias

Many people believe that their love relationships have grown stronger over the years. However, actual data collected over the years indicates that their feelings have remained relatively stable. This inaccuracy is an example of the memory "sin" of:

Bias

According to the simulation, the 'unconditioned link' is: the tone blinking to the tone blinking to the air puff the air puff

Blinking to the air puff

According to the simulation, the 'conditioned link' is: the air puff the tone blinking to the air puff blinking to the tone

Blinking to the tone

Thompson and his colleagues showed that what part of the brain is critical for the occurrence of eyeblink conditioning

Cerebellum

What new form of learning did Ivan Pavlov's studies of spit and drool lead him to discover

Classical conditioning

_____ has many practical applications, including the relief of food aversions in cancer patients Latent learning Operant conditioning Classical conditioning Observational learning

Classical conditioning

Tolman suggested that rats in a maze don't simply produce behaviors without using any previous spatial information. Instead, they develop a _____ of the maze, which argues for a cognitive component to operant learning latent response cognitive map latent cognition generalization

Cognitive map

The law of effect

Coined by Edward L. Thorndike - the principle that behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated, and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are far less likely to be repeated

B. F. Skinner

Coined the term "operant behavior"

Chunking

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

In the simulation for this lab, when the participants responded to the tone by blinking, that was the: unconditioned response unconditioned stimulus conditioned response conditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

Usually it takes several pairings of _________ __________ and _________ ____________ to establish learning

Conditioned response, unconditioned response

In the simulation for this lab, the tone that caused the eye blink was called the: unconditioned stimulus conditioned response conditioned stimulus unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus

One schedule might present reinforcement after every fourth response, and a different schedule might present reinforcement after every 20 responses; the special case of presenting reinforcement after each response is called ______________ _______________

Continuous reinforcement

Flashbulb memories

Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

See the diagram to better understand the meanings

Diagram

The following diagram highlights the effectiveness of individual study techniques

Diagram

Diminished response to a new stimulus indicates...

Discrimination

Pavlov was inspired to look into associations when he noticed that: dogs only salivated after the meat powder was presented dogs would salivate long after the meat powder was removed dogs would salivate before the meat powder was presented some dogs did not salivate when the meat powder was presented

Dogs would salivate before the meat powder was presented

What part of the brain is organizational encoding associated with?

During organizational encoding, the upper left frontal lobe is active

Lin tells her roommate about her break-up with her boyfriend, but she does not seem to be listening. Lin accuses her of not paying attention, so her roommate repeats back the last three words of her story. This does not excuse her because Lin knows that she may be relying on her _____ memory.

Echoic

Juanita is preparing to go grocery shopping and is making a list. however, when she gets to the store she realizes that she has forgotten the list. which of the following best describes the list of items Juanita is likely to remember?

Eggs, milk, cheese

The amaygdala is critical for what

Emotional conditioning

Zandra's teacher tells her that she cannot forget something if she never "got it" in the first place. MOST likely, Zandra's teacher is referring to a failure in:

Encoding

Morris thinks about what he ate for breakfast this morning. In order, which key steps must his brain perform to remember this event?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Because she drank too much alcohol, Deanna barely remembers her 21st birthday. That is, her _____ memory of that evening is sketchy.

Episodic

Karalina can remember that the capital of Finland is Helsinki, but she cannot remember when she learned this information. This means that Karalina has semantic memory for this information but does not have _____ memory for when she learned it.

Episodic

Which type of memory does the text compare with "mental time travel"?

Episodic memory

However, there is an important difference. In classical conditioning, the US occurs on _______ _______, no matter what the organism does. In operant conditioning, the reinforcements occur _______ _______ the proper response has been made, and they ___ ______ _________ occur even then

Every trial, only when, do not always

_______________ ________________ also play an important role in classical conditioning (CC)

Evolutionary mechanisms

Essential to the process of learning is that it is based on: emotion consciousness memory experience

Experience

Retrieval cue

External information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

Ali was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. What is Ali displaying extinction relearning counterconditioning spontaneous recovery

Extinction

When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus: counterconditioning will occur spontaneous recovery will occur extinction will occur adaptation will occur

Extinction will occur

Extinction completely erases learning (true/false)

False

Repeated suggestibility may actually produce _____ in some people

False memories

Max was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. When Max returns to the lab and the experimenter pairs the air puff with the tone again she will likely observe: counterconditioning slower relearning extinction faster relearning

Faster relearning

What is the action of the amygdala essential for

Fear conditioning

Echoic memory usually decays in ....

Five seconds or less

Behavior rarely occurs in _________ __________ where a stimulus is presented and then an organism has to engage in some activity or another. Most of our behaviors are the result of __________

Fixed frameworks, shaping

Jonah works in a packaging plant. For every 100 packages he completes, he is given an additional 10% increase in his hourly pay. This is a _____ reinforcement schedule variable-interval fixed-interval variable-ratio fixed-ratio

Fixed-ratio

The persistence of intrusive memories, such as _____ memories, is often a result of highly emotional experiences. This leads to vivid and long-lasting memories

Flashbulb

Transience

Forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

Normal rats, trained that a tone (conditioned stimulus) (CS) predicts a mild electric shock (unconditioned stimulus) (US), show a defensive reaction (conditioned response) (CR) known as ____________ , in which they crouch down and sit motionless

Freezing

During a PET scan, Sarah is learning a list of insects using organizational encoding. One would expect that the upper part of her left _____ lobe is the most active.

Frontal

Patients with damage to the _____ are especially susceptible to memory misattribution

Frontal Lobe

Marlee was attacked at gunpoint in a parking garage. Her attacker was wearing strong cologne, and she now refuses to go through the male fragrance department at the department store, will not be alone by herself with any man, and will not park in any garages. This reaction BEST illustrates: generalization discrimination operant conditioning an unconditioned response (UR)

Generalization

What is the term/phenomenon that tends to take place when a newly introduced element such as a new can opener when feeding the dogs in the process of learning

Generalization

Which of the following researchers determined the capacity of short-term memory? Richard Shiffrin Erik Erikson George Miller Richard Atkinson

George Miller

What did Pavlov call the stimulus used when he paired the presentation of food with a stimulus such as the ringing of a bell or a flashlight

He called this a conditioned stimulus (CS)

It should come as no surprise that variable-ratio schedules produce slightly _________ __________ of responding than fixed-ratio schedules, primarily because the organism never knows when the next reinforcement is going to appear

Higher rates

short-term memory

Holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

Which example BEST illustrates habituation answering a game show question correctly ignoring the sound of one's air conditioner pulling one's hand away from a hot stove studying more to increase one's exam grade

Ignoring the sound of one's air conditioner

Because of _____ learning, a person is able to correctly follow rules of grammar or identify culturally important people, even though that person is NOT explicitly aware of how he or she learned these things

Implicit

Children with dyslexia show deficits in _____ learning of artificial grammar latent observational explicit implicit

Implicit

Memories that cannot be consciously recalled yet affect a person's behavior are referred to as _____ memories.

Implicit

Remembering how to ride a bicycle, even though it has been years since the person last rode one, is a subtype of _____ memory called procedural memory.

Implicit

Joni's best friend frequently speaks Spanish around her. Joni barely knew Spanish before she met her best friend and one day realizes that she has just followed a short and simple exchange between her best friend and their waiter. Joni's ability to pick up some rudimentary Spanish without trying to do so is a good example of: spontaneous recovery shadowing modeling implicit learning

Implicit learning

What type of memory is not consciously accessible to us?

Implicit memory

Anterograde amnesia refers to the:

Inability to transfer new information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

The first few years of life that are inaccessible to memory are referred to as:

Infantile amnesia

The effectiveness of retrieval cues supports the idea that:

Information in memory may be available but not easily accessible.

One of the best ways to retrieve information from _______ your head is to encounter information _________ your head that is somehow connected to it

Inside, outside

Which schedule of reinforcement produces the slowest, most methodical response ratio continuous interval fixed-ratio

Interval

Operant conditioning (OC)

Is a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will repeat that behavior in the future

The first person to do careful scientific studies of learning was: Ivan Pavlov John Watson William James William Wundt

Ivan Pavlov

The night before her chemistry final, Shalonda spends her time rereading her notes. Joanna, her roommate, studies for the same final, using practice tests. All other conditions being equal, whom should the professor expect to do better on the exam Shalonda, because her notes remind her of the professor's lectures Shalonda, because she is memorizing the periodic table Joanna, because practice testing has a high utility value as a study technique Joanna, because she will know everything about the elements on the periodic table

Joanna, because practice testing has a high utility value as a study technique

Which American psychologist kick-started the behaviorist movement

John B. Watson

Xanti is training her dog, King, to bark when there is a knock on the door. She already knows that squeaking a toy will make King bark. So, she decides to squeak the toy and knock on the door at the same time to condition King to bark. The conditioned response stimulus in this case is: the squeaking mouse Xanti King's barking at the knock on the door the knock on the door

King's barking at the knock on the door

Shaping

Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

Implicit learning

Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition

Samantha is taking a psychology course and wants to do well. Every day she reviews her notes from class and reads the textbook. When it is time to take the first exam Samantha has no problem retrieving the information and earns an A on the exam. Samantha has stored the information in:

Long-term memory

What is the third stage of the Stage Model of Memory?

Long-term memory

Dunlosky and colleagues (2013) evaluated the overall usefulness of popular study techniques: highlighting, rereading, summarizing, and visual imagery mnemonics. Which utility assessment rating did these techniques receive low to medium low medium to high medium

Low

What must be used to maintain information in the short-term memory?

Maintenance rehearsal

When students cram for an exam, they repeatedly study the information to be learned with little or no time between repetitions, a procedure known as _________ _________

Massed Practice

Elsa was involved in a bicycle accident 3 years ago. She recently saw a man that she remembered being in the accident, but when she approached him, the man had no idea what Elsa was talking about. It turned out that the man was working at a drug store Elsa had visited right before the bicycle crash and was in no way involved in the accident. Elsa's confusion was the result of:

Memory misattribution

James was involved in a car accident 3 years ago. He recently saw a man he remembered being in the accident, but when he approached him, the man had no idea what James was talking about. It turned out that the man was working at a coffee shop which James had visited that day and was in no way involved in the car accident. James's confusion was the result of:

Memory misattribution

Johnny is "hammering" the nail in with his toy hammer as his father is hammering the deck boards. His behavior is a clear example of: classical learning observational conditioning reinforced learning modeling

Modeling

Mariah is given practice tests with short-answer questions, which she finds not only improves her later performance on short-answer questions but also improves her performance on _____ questions multiple-choice fill-in-the-blank matching matching, multiple-choice, and fill-in-the-blank

Multiple choice

Amadika's mother told Amadika that she cannot leave her room until she cleans it. Amadika cleans her room because she hates being grounded to her room. Being grounded to her room until she cleans it is an example of: positive punishment negative punishment positive reinforcement negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Dwayne hears that there is a threat of rain and brings an umbrella to work. It does rain, and Dwayne is able to avoid getting wet, unlike several of his coworkers who had ignored the weather forecast. The next time Dwayne hears that there is a threat of rain, he is likely to bring an umbrella to work because his behavior has been influenced by: positive punishment negative punishment positive reinforcement negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Dopaminergic

Neurons are dopaminergic when they secrete the neurotransmitter dopamine

The spaces between neurons are important to long-term memory because they allow:

Neurons to communicate; each instance of communication strengthens the connections between the neurons, which strengthens memories.

Amnesic individuals are characterized by lesions to the hippocampus and nearby structures in the medial temporal lobe; thus, researchers have concluded that these regions are _____ ___________ for __________ __________

Not necessary, implicit learning

Unlike in classical conditioning, where the sheer ___________ of learning trials was important, in operant conditioning the ___________ with which reinforcements appeared was crucial

Number, pattern

Classical conditioning (CC)

Occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

Latent learning

Occurs when something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

Iconic memories usually decays in ....

One second or less

Information in sensory memory lasts for _____ seconds.

One to Five Seconds

In order to study operant behavior scientifically, Skinner developed the _____________ ____________ _____________, or ______________ ____, as it is commonly called, which allows a researcher to study the behavior of small organisms in a controlled environment.

Operant conditioning chamber, or skinner box

Visual imagery encoding could relate to _____ encoding if a person also categorized the information according to how the items related to one another.

Organizational

Serial reaction time

Partipants supposed to press button as fast as possible when box lights up. There was pattern to boxes and partipants implicitly learned this pattern and got faster but they didnt realise there was a pattern

Implicit memory

Past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

What did Pavlov notice about dogs that had previously participated in his experiments when he used the same dogs in his experiment again

Pavlov noticed that dogs who has participated in the experiments previously began to produce an anticipatory salivary response as soon as they were put into the harness, before any food was ever presented

What did Ivan Pavlov study

Pavlov studied the digestive process of laboratory animals by surgically implanting test tubes into the cheeks of dogs to measure their salivary responses to different kinds of foods

Example of classical conditioning with dogs and their saliva

Pavlov was able to show that the dogs that served as his test subjects learned to salivate to a neutral stimulus such as a bell or tone, after the dogs had associated that stimulus with another stimulus that naturally provokes salivation, such as food

What was Pavlov's basic experiment setup

Pavlov's setup involved cradling dogs in a harness to administer the foods and to measure the salivary response

Judgements of learning (JOLs)

People judgements about the content they have learned, these are critical in the role of guiding further study and learning

Example of sensitization in humans

People whose houses have been broken into by an intruder, may later become hypersensitive to late night sounds that would not have bothered them previously

Ivan Pavlov was a(n): biochemist physiologist psychologist physicist

Physiologist

The first hint of how specific brain structures might contribute to the process of reinforcement came from James Olds and his associates, who inserted tiny electrodes into different parts of a rat's brain and allowed the animal to control electric stimulation of its own brain by pressing a bar. They discovered that some brain areas produced what appeared to be intensely positive experiences: The rats would press the bar repeatedly to stimulate these structures, sometimes ignoring food, water, and other life-sustaining necessities for hours on end simply to receive stimulation directly in the brain. Olds and colleagues called these parts of the brain __________ ___________

Pleasure centers

_____ reinforcement increase(s) the likelihood of a behavior happening; _____ punishment decrease(s) the likelihood of the behavior Positive and negative; only negative Only positive; only negative Only negative; only positive Positive and negative; positive and negative

Positive and negative; positive and negative

To keep these possibilities distinct, Skinner used the term ___________ for situations in which a stimulus was presented and ____________ for situations in which it was removed

Positive, negative

Because of _____, Giovanni will be faster to respond to the word bat than to the word guitar if he just saw a picture of a bat.

Priming

Do you think your dog will be stumped, unable to anticipate the presentation of her food, if you get a new can opener? Will you need to establish a whole new round of conditioning with this modified conditioned stimulus (CS)

Probably not as it would not be very adaptive for an organism if each little thing in the CS-US paring required an extensive regimen of new learning

Storage

Process of maintaining info. in memory over time

Some of Thorndike's experiments used a __________ _____

Puzzle box

The study of classical conditioning is the study of behaviors that are __________

Reactive

Source memory

Recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

Researchers have found that short-term memory lasts about 20 seconds, unless the information is _____ in some way. forgotten recalled rehearsed attended to

Rehearsed

Skinner's approach to the study of learning focused on what two principles

Reinforcement and punishment

Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

________________ is generally more effective than in promoting learning

Reinforcement, punishment

Fixed-interval schedule (FI)

Reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made

After learning has been established, the conditioned stimulus (CS) by itself will ________ ________ the conditioned response (CR)

Reliably elicit

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Suan just asked Monica for her phone number but did not write it down. what can he do to remember the information long enough to grab a pen and paper?

Repeat the number over and over again

Although 5-year-old Casey had never been to North Dakota, he was easily able to remember this state name because he used which of the following techniques:

Repeated the name while visualizing its location on the map displayed in his room.

_____ proposed that the cognitive process of expectation occurred between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response. Watson and Raynor Pavlov Garcia Rescorla and Wagner

Rescorla and Wagner

How does response act in the initial phase of the acquisition period of classical conditioning

Responding typically starts low, rises rapidly, and then slowly tapers off (this reaction is shown on the left side of the first panel in the given diagram)

An "oldie" playing on the radio reminds Donald of events that occurred when the song was current. For Donald, the song is acting as a(n):

Retrieval cue

As Cora watches television, she sees a commercial for a local used car dealer and then remembers that she needs to get gas for her car. Seeing the car commercial has served as a _____ for Cora.

Retrieval cue

The information outside your head is called a ______ ________

Retrieval cue

Edgar is able to remember what he did yesterday after dinner. Edgar engaged in encoding, storing, and _____ the information.

Retrieving

Omar experienced a dissociative fugue state. He suddenly snapped out of it in front of a pet supplies display in a Boise, Idaho discount store; he had no memory whatsoever of his previous life in Greensboro, North Carolina. Omar's amnesia is best described as:

Retrograde amnesia

Who was psychologist John B. Watson influenced by

Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov was conducting research on _____ before he started researching associations. memory reproduction perception salivation

Salivation

Priming makes memory more efficient by:

Saving processing time

Skinner explored dozens of what came to be known as ______________ ___ ___________________

Schedules of reinforcement

What phenomenon is often demonstrated following establishment of conditioning (CC)

Second-order conditioning

What does second-order conditioning explain about some individuals and their relationship with money

Second-order conditioning can be used to explain why some people desire money to the point that they hoard it and value you it even more than the objects it purchases because of it association with satisfying feelings obtained from purchases

Money is an example of a: A. positive punishment B. negative punishment C. secondary reinforcer D. primary reinforcer

Secondary reinforcer

These __________ ____________ derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning

Secondary reinforcers

Rosemary learns a new fact about Wilhelm Wundt, her favorite psychologist. To remember it, she relates the new fact to information she already knows. Rosemary is using _____ encoding.

Semantic

Survival encoding draws on elements of what?

Semantic, visual imagery, and organizational encoding

Before information can be transferred to long-term memory, it must first be a part of:

Sensory and short-term memory

Because we have more than one sense, we have more than one kind of __________ ___________

Sensory memory

In the Stage Model of Memory, how does information first enter the memory system? sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory working memory

Sensory memory

What are the three different stages of the memory process?

Sensory memory, short-term memory, and working memory

Which of the following best describes the Stage Model of Memory?

Sensory memory; short-term memory; long-term memory

Considering what is known about memory, most telephone numbers are seven digits long because: seven digits is the capacity of long-term memory. seven digits is the capacity of short-term memory. seven digits is the capacity of sensory storage. seven digits is the capacity of telephone companies.

Seven digits is the capacity of short-term memory

Latrenda is trying to teach her 5-year-old son how ride a bicycle. First she has him stand up the bicycle by himself, and she gives him some candy. The next day she has him sit on the bike, and she gives him some candy. By the end of the week, her son is peddling the bike. Latrenda used the principle of: shaping habituation latent learning implicit learning

Shaping

Samantha is taking a psychology course and wants to do well. every day she reviews her notes from class and reads the textbook. when it is time to take the first exam Samantha has no problem retrieving the information and earns an A on the exam. how did Samantha answer the questions on the test correctly?

She transferred information from her long-term memory to her short-term memory

Maintenance rehearsal can be used to keep information in the ....

Short-term memory

Where does memory go in the second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory?

Short-term memory

Proactive interference

Situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

Retroactive interference

Situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

Brianna knows that Michael was the first person to tell her about Larry's accident but she cannot remember if she told both Cyndi and Ty about Larry. Brianna is showing good:

Source memory

Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Jessie was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. When Jessie returns to the lab the next day she blinks when she hears the tone. This is referred to as: extinction spontaneous recovery relearning counterconditioning

Spontaneous recovery

One of the most popular models of how memory works is the ...

Stage model of memory

Which behavior is LEAST likely to be studied by researchers using operant techniques writing walking startle response speaking

Startle response

If Zyanya drinks a lot of coffee while studying for an exam, the concept of _____ learning indicates that she would do best on the exam if she drinks a lot of coffee right before it.

State-dependent retrieval

Variable-interval schedules typically produce ________ , _____________ responding because the time until the next reinforcement is less predictable

Steady, consistent

Tim has been conditioned to blink using air puffs and a 700 MHz tone. The experimenter finds that the conditioned response also occurs for 750 MHz tones and 650 MHz tones but not for 1250 MHz tones or 500 MHz tones. Tim is displaying: stimulus generalization stimulus discrimination extinction spontaneous recovery

Stimulus discrimination

Amy has been conditioned to blink using air puffs and a 1000 MHz tone. The experimenter finds that the conditioned response also occurs for 750 MHz tones, 850 MHz tones, 1250 MHz tones and 1500 MHz tones. This is an example of: extinction stimulus discrimination stimulus generalization spontaneous recovery

Stimulus generalization

Now wait for the rat to take a step toward the bar before delivering food; this will reinforce moving toward the bar. After the rat walks closer to the bar, wait until it touches the bar before presenting the food. Notice that none of these behaviors is the final desired behavior (reliably pressing the bar). Rather, each behavior is a ___________ ______________ to the final product, or a behavior that gets incrementally closer to the overall desired behavior

Successive approximation

Just before an episode of a popular television show, a fake crime was committed in which a man with brown hair, dressed in blue jeans and a green long-sleeved shirt, stole a woman's handbag. The "crime" was staged right next to the talkative line of bystanders, including a few people planted by the producers. When questioned by "police" almost immediately after the event, witnesses were asked if he was wearing a hat. After talking about the "robbery" among themselves, many "witnesses" said that the man was wearing a hat and gave differing descriptions of the culprit. Which memory flaw BEST explains this fault?

Suggestibility

Repeated _____ may actually produce false memories in some people

Suggestibility

_____ refers to the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

Suggestibility

_____ is/are explained by operant conditioning as mistakenly inferring a causal relationship between a specific behavior and a reinforcer Shaping Reinforcers Successive approximations Superstitions

Superstitions

Much of what we know about the neurological basis of long-term memory comes from studies of

The Aplysia sea slug

Dante always hated having his diaper changed but he loved cookies. Dante's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Dante's diaper, he would play the same song and give Dante a small cookie. Now, as soon as Dante hears the song, he is happy to have his diaper changed. What is the conditioned response in this example the happiness the song the diaper the cookie

The Happiness

What variable did the Rescorla-Wagner model introduce that made it significant

The Rescorla-Wagner model introduced a cognitive component that accounted for a variety of classical conditioning phenomena that were difficult to understand from a simple behaviorist view

Learning (actual definition)

The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

Explicit memory

The act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

What important role does the amygdala play

The amaygdala plays an important role in the experience of emotion, including fear and anxiety

What part of the human brain causes us to succumb to persistence

The amygdala

What happens if the connections between the amygdala and hypothalamus are severed

The autonomic responses associated with fear cease

What happened when Pavlov and his colleagues continued to present the conditioned stimulus (CS) (tone) but stopped presenting the unconditioned stimulus (US) (food)

The behavior declined abruptly and continued to drop until eventually the dog ceases to salivate to the sound of the tone

Discrimination

The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

What is another common name for the amaygdala

The central nucleus

Generalization

The conditioned response (CR) is observed, even though the conditioned stimulus (CS) is slightly different from the conditioned stimulus (CS) used during acquisition - this means that the conditioning generalizes to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) used during the original training

Bella developed a phobia of clowns after she experienced a scary thunderstorm in a room with clown wallpaper as a child. In Bella's case the clown wallpaper served as: the conditioned response the unconditioned stimulus the unconditioned response the conditioned stimulus

The conditioned stimulus

Extinction occurs when: the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented with the unconditioned stimulus the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented after the conditioned stimulus the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the conditioned stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Now that Liz and her husband are getting a divorce, she remembers their marriage as tumultuous and unhappy. A year ago, however, she told her friends that she was extremely happy. Liz's current memory of her marriage BEST reflects:

The constructive nature of memory

Variable-ratio schedule (VR)

The delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

Bias

The distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

Intermittent reinforcement effect

The fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than do those maintained under continuous reinforcement

Extinction

The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US)

Procedural memory and priming do not rely on what?

The hippocampus

Where is long-term memory stored?

The hippocampus/hippocampal region

What distinguishes the memory system of the brain to the memory system of a computer?

The human capacity for emotion - this suggests that memories linked to emotions are far more likely to be recalled than memories that are not linked to emotions

Transfer-appropriate processing

The idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

Declan does things that make him feel good and avoids things that make him feel bad. His behaviors are consistent with: conditioned taste aversion the law of effect B. F. Skinner's definition of punishment the Little Albert study

The law of effect

What part of the brain is semantic encoding associated with?

The lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe. Generally the more activity in these areas of the brain, the more likely an individual is to recall the information

What is one of the most important predictions the Rescorla-Wagner model presented

The model predicted that it would be easier when the conditioned stimulus (CS) was an unfamiliar event than when it was familiar as unfamiliar events have no previous expectations associated with them

What part of the brain is visual imagery encoding associated with?

The occipital lobe

Acquisition

The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and US are presented together

What are the three different components of the working memory?

The phonological loop, the visual-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive

What did Pavlov call the presentation of food to the dogs within his experiment

The presentation of food was called an unconditioned stimulus (US)

Consolidation

The process by which memories become stable in the brain

Encoding

The process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

State-dependent retrieval

The process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

Classical conditioning of food aversions has been studied in rats, using unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as injection or radiation) that cause nausea and vomiting (Garcia & Koelling, 1966); what did researchers find as a result of this

The researchers found weak or no conditioning when the CS was a visual, auditory, or tactile stimulus, but a strong food aversion developed with stimuli that had a distinct taste and smell. On the other hand, the taste and smell stimuli that produce food aversions in rats do not work with most species of birds, which depend primarily on visual cues for finding food and are relatively insensitive to taste and smell

Maintenance rehearsal can be used to keep information in

The short-term memory

What is the study of operant conditioning

The study of operant conditioning is the exploration of behaviors that are active

Spontaneous recovery

The tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

John is taking a bus to school. He sits in the third row behind the driver and places his book bag under his feet. He then looks out the window as the bus travels its route. The bus stops and picks up additional passengers. A woman in a blue shirt with a baby sits in the seat next to John. When the bus arrives at school John takes his bag and exits the bus. Later that day he sees a woman in a blue shirt and thinks that she resembles the woman on the bus. Why did John remember the color of the woman's shirt?

The woman sat next to John

Research using simple organisms, such as the sea slug Aplysia, demonstrates that: learning only occurs in higher-level organisms these animals learn via habituation, while humans learn via sensitization these animals can only learn via habituation, not sensitization these animals primarily learn without mental activity or thought

These animals primarily learn without mental activity or thought

What controversial study did John B. Watson embark on with his research assistant Rosalie Rayner

They embarked on a research journey to see if a healthy, well-developed child could be classically conditioned (CC) to experience a strong emotional reaction - namely, fear (the test subject is called Little Albert)

What did Richard Thompson and his colleagues focus on in their classical conditioning (CC) experiment

They focused on the classical conditioning of eyeblink responses in rabbits, where the conditioned stimulus (CS) (a tone) is immediately followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US) (a puff of air), which elicited a reflexive eye-blink response from the rabbits

What did Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner first theorize about the relationship between classical conditioning (CC) and animals

They theorized that conditioning occurs when an animal has learned to set up an "expectation"

What is the process where the dogs started ceasing to respond to the conditioned stimulus (CS) (tone) after the unconditioned stimulus (US) was removed

This process is called extinction

Diane was having lunch with her mother, and they were talking about a popular movie. They could not remember the name of the actor who starred in the movie, but Diane's mother said she thought it started with "'T," and she felt like she almost "had it." Diane's mother was experiencing the _____ phenomenon. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button

Tip-of-the-toungue

What was the purpose of the operant conditioning chamber or skinner box

To allow researchers to study the behavior of small organism in a controlled environment

What studies did Tolman and his students conduct in the 1930s and 1940s, what did these studies focus on, and what do these elements suggest

Tolman and his students focused on studies that examined latent learning and cognitive maps, two phenomenon that strongly suggest that simple S-R interpretations of operant learning behavior are inadequate

_____ describes how human memories lose detail over time, and people reconstruct memories based on general experience

Transcience

What are the seven sins of memory?

Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, memory misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence

How long is information in the short-term memory likely to last?

Twenty seconds

In the simulation for this lab, when the participants responded to the air puff by blinking, that was the: conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned response

Unconditioned response

In the simulation for this lab, the air puff that caused the eye blink was called the: unconditioned response conditioned response conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus

Carlos has read and reread a chapter in preparation for a test, and the material feels quite familiar, which convinces Carlos that he's learned the material well enough that he does not need to study it further. He later finds that he did not do well on the test. Carlos realizes that his JOLs may have been: understudied forgotten underprepared inaccurate

Underprepared

A variable-ratio schedule reinforces behavior after a: A. varying number of responses B. varying amount of time C. certain amount of time D. set number of responses

Varying number of responses

Why is visual imagery encoding effective?

Visual imagery encoding does some of the same things that semantic encoding does, because when you create a mental picture you are essentially relating the incoming information to information already stored in your memory

How do we make memories?

We make memories by combining information we already have in our brains with new information that comes through our senses

Habituation and the Aplysia sea slug

When lightly touched, the sea slug initially withdraws its gill, but the response gradually weakens after repeated light touches

Example of habituation

When you first move into a big city, you immediately notice the loud sounds of traffic and busy roads; however after living there for a few weeks you start to stop noticing these sounds or paying any attention to them at all

Intermittent reinforcement

Whereby only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement, they produce behavior that is much more resistant to extinction than does a continuous reinforcement schedule

The working memory is required for recognition of?

Words, sounds, and symbols

Short-term memory is also called

Working memory

Long-term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

Working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

Psychologists have used artificial grammars to shed light on _____ learning operant observational nonassociative implicit

implicit

In the text, the story of Franco Magnini and his paintings of his village was used to illustrate how long memories can last in _____ memory.

long-term memory

Reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again

The three types of encoding processes

semantic encoding, visual imagery encoding, and organizational encoding

Consolidation is the process by which .....

short-term memory can be encoded to form long-term memories

Serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

Recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

Procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

Retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Organizational encoding

the process of categorizing info according to the relationships among a series of items

Rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

Semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in our memory

Visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

Collaborative inhibition

the same number of individuals working together recall fewer items than they would on their own