Psyc 110 Final
A prescribed problem-solving strategy that always leads to the correct solution in problems with a single correct solution is a(n) _____, while a problem-solving strategy that does not always lead to the correct solution is a(n) _____.
Algorithm; heuristic
Gestalt psychologists proposed that problem solving Often involved unconscious processing of a problem Sometimes involved insight Involves thinking aloud Is impacted by past experience All of the above
All of the above
A hill-climbing strategy for problem solving is
An approach in which operators are selected if they result in changing the current state to something that is closer to the goal state
Drawing conclusions by using the structure of one conceptual domain to interpret another domain is an example of
Analogical reasoning
Experts are often much better (faster and more accurate) problem solvers within their domain of expertise because they Have more experience with the typical problems in the domain Are usually more intelligent than novices Are able to focus on the underlying structure of the problem better than novices Both A and C Answers A, B, and C are all correct
Both A and C
How we mentally represent a problem can _____ finding the solution. (hinder or help?)
Both help and hinder
Roberts (2005) defined three general approaches of deductive reasoning, all of which are included EXCEPT: Heuristic approaches Representation-explanation approaches Conclusion-heuristic approaches Conclusion interpretation approaches
Conclusion-heuristic approaches
Given the premises "If the weather is nice, then I will run the race" and "The weather is nice," if you conclude "I will run the race" then you are using:
Conditional reasoning
Elizabeth Loftus showed that subjects who are asked to "remember" things from their childhood, even though they did not really experience these events, _____.
Created stories to go along with the event.
Using logical rules about the validity of an argument that draws a conclusion based on general information is an example of
Deductive reasoning
_____ is about absolute truth, while _____ examines the likelihood of a conclusion being true.
Deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning
_____ reasoning concerns making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information as _____ reasoning concerns making and evaluating arguments from specific information to general information.
Deductive; inductive
Pylyshyn argued that imagery is a(n) _____, and that imagery is _____.
Epiphenomenon; propositional
One of the most persistent findings in the research on expertise is that:
Experts' advantages are limited to problems within their area of expertise
Inductive reasoning involves making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information.
False
Kosslyn believed that visual imagery is an epiphenomenon of perception, or not directly related to the process of perception.
False
T/F A person is told to imagine an image of a plane and asked to begin each trial by focusing on the cockpit. In the first trial, they are asked a question about the engine. In the second trial, they are questioned about the tail. According to Kosslyn's theory, it should take the person longer to answer the question about the engine of the plane as compared to the question about the tail.
False
T/F All of the processes involved in problem-solving are unconscious.
False
T/F Gestalt psychologists were in favor of purely associationist theories of problem-solving.
False
T/F Inductive reasoning involves making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information.
False
T/F Researchers agree that all imagery is represented spatially in the brain.
False
T/F Solving a crossword puzzle is an example of an ill-defined problem.
False
T/F Words tend to be remember more easily than pictures of objects.
False
T/F all images are visual in nature
False
The checkerboard and dominos problem illustrates that...
How we represent a problem can have an impact on our ability to find a solution
Bransford and Stein proposed the IDEAL framework of problem solving. IDEAL stands for:
Identify problems, Define goals, Explore strategies, Anticipate outcomes and act, and Look back and learn
The idea that imagery serves a primary role in prospective cognition means that _____.
Imagery allows us to make predictions about how things will go
Everyday reasoning tasks are often more difficult than formal laboratory reasoning tasks. Reasons for this include:
In everyday reasoning there are rarely established procedures for solving the problem
Deductive reasoning
Is about absolute truth
What is the accepted view of imagery?
It is spatially represented
Researchers have found that, in regard to imagery and problem-solving, people take longer to imagine something changing if the movements required are _____.
Longer
Which of the following is NOT an example of imagery? Imagining the smell of freshly baked bread Imagining how soft your baby sister's skin is Imagining the sound of your mother's voice Losing the ability to see
Losing the ability to see
All of the following are heuristic search processes EXCEPT: Means-backward strategy Means-ends strategy Hill-climbing strategy working-backward strategy
Means-backward strategy
Solving a problem by using the same solution that you have recently used, even if there is a simpler solution available is an example of...
Mental set
The _____ is a memory aid where images of to-be-remembered information are created with locations along a familiar route or place.
Method of Loci
Imagery is an example of a(n) _____.
Mnemonic
To support the notion that mental imagery is spatial, Kosslyn asked participants to move about an island. He believed that participants would take _____ to travel for _____ distances.
More time; longer
In Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory, they hypothesized that people tend to _____ low-probability outcomes and _____ high-probability outcomes.
Overweight; Underweight
Studies examining the eye movements of participants trying to solve math problems found...
People fixate on things that they are thinking about
The _____ suggests that _____ are better remembered than _____.
Picture superiority effect; pictures; words
A verbal description provides a ________________ representation of a place.
Propositional
"If it snows today, I am not going to go to work. It is snowing outside. I am not going to work." This is an example of a(n) _____.
Propositional statement
_____ imagery is to what one would see walking through the environment as _____ imagery is to a maplike image overview of the environment.
Scenographic; abstract
What is the "working-backward strategy" in the context of Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver?
Searching the problem state from the goal state towards the initial state
What is the "hill-climbing strategy" in the context of Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver?
Selecting operations that move you closer to your goal
All of the following are processes proposed to underlie problem-solving EXCEPT: Selective encoding Selective introspection Selective combination Selective comparison
Selective introspection
Dual-process theories of decision making propose that:
System 1 thinking is automatic and unconscious, system 2 thinking is controlled and conscious
Researchers typically describe a problem as...
The difference between a current state and a desired state
Which of the following sentences does not support the propositional representation of imagery? The boy walked his dog The girl had a tea party The bird fed its babies The man's car drove him
The man's car drove him
T/F Scientific experiments rely on causal reasoning.
True
T/F The general model of decision making suggests that we spend time structuring our decision before making a final decision.
True
T/F There are neuropsychological differences between well- and ill-defined problems.
True
T/F imagery plays a large role in episodic memory
True
All of the following are examples of ill-defined problems EXCEPT: Driving to the store Buying soda Getting dressed Turning your car on
Turning on your car
It is thought that pictures produce automatic encoding in ____, whereas words produce automatic encoding in _____.
Two modalities; one modality
Which of the following has NOT been found to inhibit the solution to the 9-dot problem?
Use of hill-climbing strategy
Which word is least likely to be remembered? Kitten Box Truck Void
Void
A Sudoku puzzle is an example of a(n) _____.
Well-defined problem
When asked which is more likely "an English word that starts with K, or that has K as the third letter" most people respond "starts with K." There are actually more words that have K as the third letter. This error results from
availability bias
Imagine that you attend a party with a group of friends, where you all eat a delicious 4-course meal. However, that night, you all end up sick, and you conclude that you must have all gotten sick from the food you ate. This is an example of _____.
causal reasoning
_____ propose that errors arise from general biases against making particular conclusions
conclusion interpretation approaches
_____ is a process by which a conclusion follows from conditional statements.
conditional reasoning
Wason (1960, 1972) identified three general strategies that his participants used for hypothesis testing. All of the following are included EXCEPT: Verification Correlation Thinking about alternatives Falsification
correlation
Imagine that you are driving, and the car a few feet ahead of you gets into an accident. You think, "What if I had left a few seconds earlier; that could've been me!" This is an example of _____.
counterfactual thinking
Use of motor imagery to aid sports performance is consistent with the __________ perspective of cognition.
embodied
The description of images as important in simulations that help aid the fulfillment of perceptual goals illustrates the ___________ perspective of cognition.
embodied cognition
You decide that you are going to apply to graduate school for a Master's degree in psychology, and that you want to graduate within 3 years of starting the program. First, you look up all of the schools that have the program you are interested in, and you apply. You receive word that you have been accepted to 3 schools! In order to aid in your decision of which school you should attend, you list all of the pros and cons for each. Then, you sleep on it and make a decision the next morning on which offer to accept. A year into the program, you think to yourself that this was the best decision you could have made, and that you cannot wait to see how this education affects your life. This last portion reflects what stage of decision making?
evaluation
Deductive reasoning does NOT include...
examining the likelihood of a conclusion being true
Participants were asked to choose between two different treatments for a disease that affected 600 people. Participants responded differently if told that Treatment A will result in 200 deaths compared to situations in which they were told that Treatment A would result in 400 lives saved. This result is referred to as:
framing bias
The two string problem is difficult because of
functional fixedness
_____ is a common barrier to our ability to solve problems.
functional fixedness
_____ is focusing on how things are usually used, while ignoring other potential uses.
functional fixedness
Inductive reasoning is an application of a(n) _____.
heuristic
_____ are mental shortcuts that we use to reduce the processing burden on our cognitive.
heuristics
Drawing a conclusion about general properties based on specific data information is and example of
inductive reasoning
While baking a cake, you say the steps out loud as you are carrying them out. This is an example of _____.
introspection
When Kosslyn had participants access different locations of an object or scene, he called this a _____ task
mental travel
According to Johnson-Laird et al. (2010), reasoning proceeds through three stages, which are
model construction, conclusion-formation, and conclusion-validation
Imagining yourself jumping over a small fence is an example of what?
motor imagery
Stacy thinks if athletes mentally imagine themselves practicing their basketball free throws, they will get better at it in real life. This supports the _____
motor imagery theory
Which of the following is NOT an example of a visual image? Imagining your drive to work Thinking about what outfit you would like to wear to a party this weekend Humming a song Picturing a red rose
picturing a red rose
_____ is the process of developing a solution designed to change the state of affairs from the current state to the goal state:
problem solving
A verbal description provides an. ________________ representation of a place.
propositional
The ideal model of decision making involves:
ranking criteria in terms of their importance
All of the following are types of inductive reasoning EXCEPT: analogical reasoning category induction representation-explanation approaches causal reasoning
representation-explanation approaches
A map provides an. ________________ representation of a place.
spatial
Stephen Kosslyn believes that mental images are represented _____.
spatially
Wilson and Schooler's jam experiment demonstrated that
students and expert tasters sometimes show the same pattern of preferences
Given the premises "all pennies are coins" and "all coins are money," if you conclude "all pennies are money" you are using:
syllogistic reasoning
Amanda is asked to study a list of words and recall them afterwards. She ends up having an easier time remembering the word set "cat; notebook desk;" than the word set "void; inherent; hypothetical." This illustrates _____.
the concreteness effect
Diana is trying to bake chocolate chip cookies from scratch. She has made several batches so far, but cannot figure out what ingredient she is missing. Finally, on her 5th batch, her cookies have come out perfectly. This process illustrates _____.
trial-and-error
Early theories of problem-solving focused primarily on _____.
trial-and-error
Syllogistic reasoning involves a conclusion that follows necessarily from a series of premises.
true
T/F Imagery precedes social interaction.
true
T/F Images can be not only visual, but also auditory, olfactory, or tactile.
true
T/F Studies have shown that mentally rehearsing actions such as volleyball serves helps improve the actual action.
true
The dual-process framework details the idea that cognitive tasks can be performed using two separate and distinct processes.
true
Paivio's dual-coding theory suggests that imagery has both a _____ code and a _____ code.
verbal; nonverbal
According the IDEAL framework, better problem solving may be achieved by
viewing problems as opportunities
Research suggests that several factors impact how likely we are to correctly follow the rules of logic. All of the following are factors EXCEPT: Phrasing of the premises The content of the arguments How the content falls in line with our initial assumptions Who told us the content
who told us the content