PSYC 201 Chapters 9-11

Asch's Conformity Experiment (1956)

•Participants did the line task •Participants called out the answers •BUT 7 out of 8 participants were confederates •From the third task on, confederates called out wrong answers over 2/3 of the time (11 out of 16 remaining trials) •Participants conformed to majority 1/3 of the time •¾ of participants called out the wrong answer at least once

Autokinetic illusion experiment (Sherif 1936)

•Participants saw a stationary light in the dark in multiple trials •Participants asked to estimate how much the light moved between trials •Multiple participants then put in a room together and called out estimates •Participants' estimates converged into a group norm •Estimates remained at group norm a year later

Reasons for Obedience (Milgram)

•Participants tried but failed to quit •Participants were released from responsibility •An authority figure (experimenter) assured them they were not responsible for the results •We trust authority figures •Participants experienced a step-by-step process of severity

Lab rat shock study (Regan 1971)

•Participants watch lab rat getting "accidentally" shocked •Participants who'd seen the poor lab rat donated more money to charity than those who hadn't

Internalization and Conformity

•Private acceptance of majority position •Informational social influence leads to internalization, Normative social influence does not

Compliance Approaches

•Reason/Cognitive: Appeal to the head, change the way we think •Emotion/Affective: Appeal to the heart, change the way we feel •Norms: Appeal to both

Petrified Forest National Park Theft Rate Study (Cialdini et al. 2006)

•Signs placed saying "Many past visitors have removed petrified wood from park, changing the state of Petrified Forest" •Sign replaced with one saying "The vast majority of past visitors have left the petrified wood in the park, preserving the natural state of the Petrified Forest" •Theft was four times lower with second sign than first

Reasons for Conformity

•Social repercussions - what if everyone laughs? What if they shun me? •Uncertainty - what if I'm wrong? •Dispersal of risk - I won't be the only one who's wrong

Negative Mood and Compliance

•Some types of bad moods can also increase compliance •If people feel guilty, they're more likely to comply

Binge-drinking study (Neighbors et al. 2004)

•Students answered anonymously how much they drank and how much they thought other drank •Answers were aggregated and shown on screen •Students' belief of how much the average student drank was much less than how much they actually drank •Follow-up surveys showed students drank less than control group

Forces Compelling Termination

•Suffering •Culpability •Retaliation

Milgram Variations

•Tuning in the learner -Made the learner more salient •Proximity variation: Learner was in the same room -Touch-proximity variation: Participant forced learner's hand on the shock plate -40% continued until the end in proximity -30% continued until the end in touch-proximity •Removing culpability -Made participants feel less responsible for the suffering •Teacher variation -Instead of pressing the shock button, participants read out the questions and a confederate pressed the button instead -92.5% of participants continued until the end

Prescriptive Norms

•Way a person is supposed to behave in a given context •What ought to be •People should recycle

Anonymity and Conformity

•When no one else knows that you're the one standing out, it's easier •Conformity dropped in Asch's experiment when participants wrote out their answer on paper •Part of why internet has so many crazy opinions

Gender and Conformity

•Women tend to conform slightly more than men •Women conform more in stereotypically male domains •Men conform more in stereotypically female domains

"Benevolent" Prejudice

"Positive" stereotypes about members of outgroups -Asians are smart -Women are kind -Blacks are athletic Problems: -Often paired with negative stereotypes -Negative backlash if members violate the stereotypes -Forced into status quo

Norm-based Compliance

Using conformity to get people to comply •Telling people about social norms is most effective when people are surprised by the norm •Pluralistic ignorance

Types of Love

-Companionate love -Compassionate love -Romantic love

Mere Exposure Exceptions

-Does not work with stimuli you initially dislike -Does not work with brief auditory stimuli

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Study (Gottman & Levenson 1999)

-Followed 79 married couples in longitudinal study -Identified four behaviors that predicted divorce: The Four Behaviors: -Criticism: Continuously finding fault with the other -Defensiveness: Refusing to consider they're at fault -Contempt: Putting the other down -Stonewalling: Disengaging from the interaction

Attributions

-Happy couples attribute positives to stable global causes and negatives to unstable local causes -Unhappy couples attribute positives to unstable local causes and negatives to stable global causes

Telephone Study

-Independent raters rated participants on attractiveness -Participants had 5 minute telephone conversations with other participants of opposite sex -More attractive participants rated as more likable

Phone Study with Photo

-Male participants had phone conversation with woman who they believed was attractive or unattractive -Independent raters who only heard the woman's portion of the conversation rated attractive women as warmer and more sociable

Gender Differences on Attractiveness

-Men and women care about similar facets but what they care most about differs -Evolutionary Perspective: Biological differences create different needs in mates -Social Perspective: Different roles create different preferences in mates -Both can explain differences in priorities

Predictors of Relationship Dissatisfaction

-Neurotic people less likely to have happy romances -Low-self esteem and sensitivity to rejection predicts difficulties -Lower SES corelates with higher divorce rates -People who marry younger more likely to divorce

Turkish Word Experiment (Zajonc 1968)

-Participants shown Turkish words kadirga, afworbu, and lokanta 0,1,2,5,10, or 25 times -Participants then indicated whether they thought the word meant something good or bad -Words they saw more often were rated as more positive

Physical Attractiveness

-People like those who are physically attractive - but also find people they like more physically attractive -Friendly outgoing behaviors increase perceived attractiveness -More likely to be asked on dates -Rated as more popular, likeable, and successful by peers. Also assumed to be more skilled, smart, and wealthy -On a 1-5pt scale, a 1pt increase results in about $3,500 more per year on average for the same job (Frieze, et al., 1991) -Attractive women are more likely to receive help from a man if injured (West & Brown, 1995) -Less likely to be convicted of crimes & given lighter sentences if convicted - up to 87% longer sentences for "unattractive" people (Sigall & Ostrove, 1957)

Reproductive Fitness

-Physical characteristics indicate strong or weak reproductive fitness -Average and symmetrical = better

Like Attracts Like

-Political beliefs -Social class -Education level -Religion -Some hobbies Burgess and Wallin studied this with actual and randomly generated couples -Actual couples were more similar on 66/88 characteristics and roughly equal on the other 22.

Albino Rat Study

-Rats exposed to either Mozart or Schoenberg -Rats placed in cage in which standing on one side turn on new Mozart music, standing on other side would turn on new Schoenberg -Rats who'd been raised with Mozart turned on Mozart, and the same was true for Schoenberg-raised rats

Universals

-Symmetry -Within-culture similarities -Innate preference

Gender Similarities on Attractiveness

-Value kindness and intelligence more than money or looks -The more egalitarian the society, the less difference in priorities

Bystander and Modern Racism Study

-White participants see either a white or black person who needs medical assistance -Participants are either alone or with other people -If participants are alone, they aid black person (94%) slightly more than white person (81%) -If participants are with others, they aid white person (75%) much more than black person (38%)

Biological Factors of Attractiveness

-Women close to ovulation could smell facial symmetry of men based on their T-shirts -Men who smell T-shirts of women close to ovulation had higher testosterone levels -Women tend to prefer slightly feminine male faces, except during ovulation

Obedience

In an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the person in authority

Communal Relationship

Individuals feel a special responsibility for one another and give and receive according to need -Small towns -Friends and family -East Asian and Latin America

Avoidance dimension of attachment

Amount of discomfort regarding intimacy and dependence

Anxiety Dimension of Attachment

Amount of fear a person feels about rejection and abandonment

Prejudice

Attitudinal and affective response towards a group and its members

Physical Proximity

Being closer (literally) to people leads to becoming closer (figurately) with people

Stereotype

Belief that certain attributes are characteristic of members of a particular group

Exchange Relationship

Individuals feel little responsibility toward one another; giving and receiving are governed by concerns about equity and reciprocity. Typically short-term -Workers -Service -Europe and North America

Strengthening Romance

Capitalize on the Good -Share positives with your partner -Engage with your partner's discussion Be Playful -Have fun! -Don't be afraid to be silly Look on the Bright Side -See your partner as better than they do -Some level of idealization -Virtues > Flaws

Conformity

Changing behavior or beliefs in response to explicit or implicit, real or imagined pressure from others

Social Influence

Collection of ways that people affect one another through changing attitudes, beliefs, feelings, or behaviors resulting from the real or imagined presence of others

Culture and Conformity

Collectivist/Eastern cultures more likely to be susceptible to social influence

Secure Attachment

Comfortable with relationships

The Strange Situation Study (Ainsworth 1978)

Infants left in room with toys with their caregiver Stranger enters room and caregiver leaves Caregiver return after three minutes -Secure infants - comfortable with caregiver -Anxious infants - uncomfortable with both -Caregivers of anxious infants - rejected infant, randomly interrupted them, did not comfort infant

Avoidant Attachment

Difficulty trusting people in relationships

How do you know you like someone?

Dilating eyes Heart pounding Arms weak, Knees heavy You just do

Importance of Relationships

Effects on humans -Higher mortality rates for divorced/unmarried/widowed -Higher suicide rates for single/divorced Higher crime rates for single/divorced -Higher well being in general for married Support from others helps physical and psychological health

Culture and Equity

Equity is less important in collectivist cultures

Discrimination

Favorable or unfavorable behavior directed toward a group and its members

Longitudinal Attachment Study (Klohnen and Bera 1998)

Forty-year long study on attachment styles and home-caregiver attitudes and behavior Attachment styles stayed relatively similar decades later

Functional Distance

How the layout encourages or inhibits contact between people

Mood Maintenance

It feels good to feel good and we want to keep feeling good. Helping others feels good

Attachment Theory

Our early attachments with parents and caregivers shape relationships for a person's whole life

Attachment Styles and Outcomes Study

Over a four-year period, secure participants were less likely to experience breakup (25.6%) than avoidant (52.2%) or anxious (43.6%) participants

Normative Social Influence

Using others' behavior as guides for how to fit in and avoid disapproval or social ridicule •Conformity based on the desire to be liked or socially accepted when the situation is clear/unambiguous but one's own beliefs conflict with group beliefs

Equity Theory

People are motivated to pursue fairness/equity in their relationships -You don't want too many rewards compared to costs -You also don't want too many more rewards than the other person gets

Reciprocal concessions/Door-in-the-face technique

People feel compelled to respond to a concession by making a concession themselves

Negative State Relief Hypothesis

People jump at the chance to relieve negative emotions and feel better about themselves

Social Exchange Theory

People seek out relationships that have more rewards than costs

Positive Mood and Compliance

People who are feeling positive are more likely to comply to request

Comparison Level for Alternatives

People's expectations about what they can get out of available other relationships

Comparison Level

People's expectations about what they deserve/expect from a relationship

Do you know why you like someone?

Proximity Similarity Physical attractiveness Etc.

Obvious Indicators of Prejudice

Racial segregation in the US back in 1950s

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking of a stimulus -People -Animals -Entertainment -Concepts -Words

Westgate West Study (Festinger et al., 1950)

Researchers asked students who lived in student housing to list their closest friends Only 5% of students lived in the same building. However, 2/3 of those listed as friends lived in the same building as the participants

Compliance

Responding favorably to an explicit request by another person

Status Exchange Hypothesis

Romantic attraction increases when two individuals complement each other by offering both increased status in different domains

Types of Attachment Styles

Secure Avoidant Anxious-ambivalent

Subtle Indicators of Prejudice

Sitting further away from members of a racial group, despite opposing segregation

Implicit Association Test

Technique for revealing nonconscious attitudes toward different stimuli -Based on response latency -Correlates with other indirect measures of prejudice

Halo Effect

The belief that attractive people have other positive qualities

Informational Social Influence

Using others' comments or actions as information about what is correct, proper or effective

Ideomotor Action

Thinking about a behavior makes performing it more likely •You see someone acting, you think about it, you're more likely to do it •Facilitate smooth interactions •People tend to like those similar to them, this includes mimicry •People are more prosocial towards those who mimic them •Helps to form bonds

Automatic Mimicry

Unconsciously imitating the behavior of others E.g., yawning when others yawn, laughing when others laugh People high in empathy or need to affiliate with others are more likely to automatically mimic others.

Anxious-ambivalent Attachment

Worries about scaring people away

Burger (2009) Replicated Milgram at 165 volts

•A critical threshold in previous Milgram experiments •4/5 participants continued to the end past threshold •Asked a battery of mental health questions •70% complied today - vs. 82% in 1960

Descriptive Norms

•Behavior exhibited by most people in a given context •What is •Most people believe in global warming

Catholic Confession Study

•Catholics asked to donate to charity either right before going to confessional or directly after •Catholics right before confessional donated more

Juvenile Zoo study

•Condition 1: Chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a zoo day trip? •Condition 2: Counsel juvenile delinquents 2 hours/week for 2 years? followed by Chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a zoo day trip? •Condition 1 compliance = 17%, Condition 2 compliance = 50%

Group Size and Conformity

•Conformity increases as group size increases but with a ceiling effect at a group size of three or four others •At three or four we figure there's a consensus - we aren't affected much if it goes from four to four hundred •Embarrassment of being wrong increases much more from two to four people than twelve to fourteen

Forces Compelling Obedience

•Fair play •Avoiding conflict •Advance science •Normative social influence

Conformity Examples

•Fashion •Manners •Lines •Taxes •Behavior

Drive Carefully Study

•Homeowners asked to put up large "Drive Carefully" billboard (17% agree) •Other homeowners asked to put up small sign "Be a safe Driver" in window •Two weeks later, homeowners who put up small sign asked to put up the billboard (76% agree)

Homeowner energy study (Schultz et al. 2007)

•Homeowners told (through a hang-tag on their doors) how much energy they used and how much energy their neighbors used on average •Homeowners who used more than average decreased energy use •Homeowners who used less than average increased energy use •BUT not when a signal of approval/dispproval was added (smiley face vs. frowney face)

Group Unanimity and Conformity

•If at least ONE other person agrees with you, conformity drops drastically (from 33% to 5% in Asch's experiment variation) •Makes you think, "Maybe I'm not wrong" or "At least one other person is on my side" •Does not need to be the right answer - just not the same answer as everyone else

Israel Lunch Parole Study (Danzinger et al 2011)

•If judges have just finished a meal, prisoners have 2/3 chance of parole •If judges are hungry and waiting for lunch, prisoners have 0 chance of parole

Expertise and Status and Conformity

•If you think others are more knowledgeable than you in the subject you'll be more likely to conform. •If you think others are less knowledgeable than you in the subject you'll be less likely to conform. •High-status people are more likely to be trusted, regardless of subject expertise

Tuning Out the Experimenter (Milgram)

•Made experimenter, the authority figure, less salient •Variations •Experimenter-absent: Experimenter gave instructions over telephone •Reduced authority: Instead of experimenter, another participant gave orders •Conflict: Two experimenters gave orders; one told the other to stop midway through •All three variations lowered obedience

Foot-in-the-door Technique

•Making an initial small request to which people comply and following up with a larger request •The initial compliance changes the person's self-image into someone who helps

Milgram Variation Takeaways

•Making suffering more salient or authority less salient both decrease obedience •Making it easier to disobey is more effective than increasing desire to disobey •The facets of the situation create the obedience to authority -In experimenter-conflict variation, 0% obeyed to the end -In question variation, 92.5% obeyed to the end

Reason-based Compliance

•Norm of reciprocity: You help others who help you •Exists across cultures and species

Phone Call Study

•One group of participants given a free sample of stationary, the other (control) is not •Participants receive a call saying they dialed the wrong number and please dial a specific number and relay the message •Participants who did not receive a gift complied much less (10%) than participants who did (80+%)

Mimicry Experiment (Chartrand & Bargh 1999)

•Participant asked to describe photographs alongside another participant •The second participant was actually a confederate •Confederate made motions like rubbing their face or shaking their foot •Participant mimicked confederate's movements

Painting/Coke study

•Participant rates paintings alongside confederate •Confederate brings participant coke or does not (control) •Confederate asks participant to buy raffle tickets •Example of Reason-based Compliance

Cookie Study

•Participants asked to serve as confederate •Participants receive a cookie •Participants asked to either help the "true" participant or hinder them •Compliance increased for the helping condition but not the hindering