psyc 302 quiz 2

DST from TB

- there is no period in which substantial change is not occuring ○ indicates that detailed analyses of development of infants basic actions, such as crawling walking reaching yield info ■ Ie. improved reaching allows infants to play w/ objects in more advance ways ■ ie.crawling changes infants relationships (because excited to see walk, but scared of them getting to danger) ● demonstrate development of simple actions is more complex ○ Overtuned that physical maturation > infants to attain motor milestones at similar age, in same way, in steady progression, HOWEVER shown individual children acquire skills at diff ages in diff ways + development entails regression as well as progress ■ Bc of Individ difference such as infant's physiology, activity level, arousal, motivation, experience; each child faces diff challenges in attempts to master reaching ● development as process in which change is the only constant; all points in development, thought, action change from moment to moment in response to current situation and child's immediate past history + lt history of actions ● depict each child as well integrated system in which many subsystems (perception, action ,attention) work togethers to determine behaviour ○ Development = dynamic + it functions as organized sys

sensorimotor stage

-Birth -> onset of speaking -Young infants learn abt the world around them using their sensory and motor abilities -Even rudimentary reflexes (ie sucking) develop rapidly in first months of life -Ie when they first born, they suck indiscriminately, but later on it changes -Infants increase motor movements that produce pleasant sensations -Infants assimilate new knowledge into their existing schemata and accomodate their scehmata w/ new knowledge

cognition

-how you process info -mental action/process of acquiring knowledge + understanding through thoughts, experience, senses -knowledge, problem solving, attention, reasoning memory

ST: intersubjectivity

-mutual understanding that people share during communication ○ effective communication requires participants to focus on same topic + also on one another's reaction to whatever is being communication ● One of most important mechanisms of change in vygotsky's theory is intersubjectivity ○ Simply attending to same person/event/stimulus as a social partner ● Begins early in infancy w/ joint attention ○ Dyadic joint attention (two partners focusing on each other); caregiver-child dyads ■ Cross species; child attending to mothers face and stuff ○ Triadic joint attention (two partners focusing on a stimulus/event, emerges later on in infancy)

piagetian shortcomings

1. Problem: Piaget described many of children's behaviours, but did not explain how cognitive systems work Answer: Information-processing theories 2. Problem: Piaget understated the role of socialization on children's development. Answer: Sociocultural theories 3.Problem: Piaget underestimated the complex relationship between thought and action in young children. Answer: Dynamic-systems theories **TB** ○ 1. stage model depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it is ■ children's thinking far more variable, some can achieve tasks at young age, while others achieve on later age ○ 2. infant + young children are more cognitively competent than piaget recognized ■ alternative tests of object permanence, which analyze where infants look immediately after object has disappeared, indicate by 3 months of age, young infants at least suspect that objects continue to exist ○ 3.piaget's theory understates the contribution of social world to cognitive development ■ focus on how children come to understand world through own efforts however, cognitive development reflects contributions of other people to a greater degree ○ 4. Piaget's theory is vague abt cognitive processes that give rise to children's thinking and abt mechanisms that produce cognitive growth ■ how do accommodation, assimilation + equilibration operate?

challenges in infancy research

1. Recruitment (+ sample size) 2. Assent and compensation (how we reward them for participation) 3. Communication 4. Attrition (loss of participants )

sensory substages

1. Reflexive schemes - birth - 1 mo: newborn reflexes -Babies already have this and learning in subtle ways to change reflexes based on type of stimulus that is presented 2.Primary circular reactions - 1-4 mos: simple motor habits centered around own body 3.Secondary circular reactions - 4-8 mos: repeat interesting effects in surroundings 4.Coordination of secondary circular reaction - 8--12 months : intentional, goal directed behaviour; object permanence 5. Tertiary circular reactions - 12-18 mos : explore properties of objects through novel actions 6.Mental representations - 12 mos - 2 years: deferred imitation; internal depictions of objects/events

DST: how change occurs

A) variation: use of diff behaviours to pursue same goal (descending a ramp toddler will sometimes walk, crawl, slide, etc) B) Selection: increasingly frequent choice of behaviours that are effective in meeting goals decreasing reliance on less effective behaviours (ie when kids first learn to walk, they're too optimistic abt being able to walk down ramps so they fall, but after few more months of walking, they more accurately judge steepness of ramps + whether they can descend them while remaining upright) ● Selecting among alternative approaches ○ 1)relative success of each approach in meeting particular goal; as children gain experience, they rely on approaches producing desired outcomes ○ 2)efficiency: chose approaches that meet goals more quickly + w/ less effort ○ 3)novelty: lure and challenge of trying something new ■ Children sometimes choose new approaches that are no more efficient or even less than established alternative BUT that they have potential to become for efficient ■ Ie using rehearsal even tho it doesn't improve memory, they use it anyway and it does improve recall of rehearsed info later on ■ Novelty preference tends to be adaptive bc with practice, a strategy that is initially less efficient than existing approaches often becomes more efficient

voluntary consent & participation

Children under the age of 18 (in British Columbia) cannot provide consent • Their parents consent for them • The children provide assent • How do we determine assent in verbal children? • How do we determine assent in non- verbal children?

ST: language development

One of crucial aspects of sociocultural theory is movement from parent directed to child-directed speech ○ Young infants rely on parents instructions ○ As they begin developing language, older infants begin linguistically directing their own activities ■ Private speech ■ Though they're alone this is form of sociocultural training ○ Eventually after infancy, children internalize this language (thought) ● 3 roles in development of children's ability to regulate their own behaviour + problem solving ○ 1. children's behaviour is controlled by other ppl's statements ○ 2. children's behaviour controlled by own private speech (second phase of internalization of thought process, in which children develop their selfregulation _ problem solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in first stage) ■ transitory period = whispers + silent lip movements "goes underground" ■ Private speech prevalent 46, but older kids do it when challenged ○ 3. internalized private speech/thought in which they silently tell themselves what to do

Piaget: sources of continuity

a. Assimilation: process by which people translate incoming info into form that fits concepts they already understand (bald man = clown) b. accommodation: process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences i. Clowns usually make jokes + wear funny costumes so boy changed his concept of clown c. equilibration: process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding i. three phases: (1) children are satisfied w/ understanding particular phenomenon state of equilibrium (2) new info > understanding = wrong, disequilibrium (3) develop more sophisticated understanding that eliminates shortcomings of old one > stable equilibrium w/ broader range of observations ii. IE: animal are only ones alive bc move in ways to help them survive (equilibrium) but kid learns that plants also move in ways to promote survival (disequilibrium) > what does it mean to be alive? After a while, thinking accommodates to new info about plants; so that both animals + plants move in adaptive ways and adaptive movement = key characteristic of living things; so plants and animals must be alive

piaget nature + nurture

a. nature + nurture interact to produce cognitive development b. Nurture = every experience children encounter c. Nature = clidren's maturing brain + body, ability to perceive, act, learn from experience + tendency to integrate particular observations > coherent knowledge

sources of discontinuity

a. quality change: children of diff ages think in qualitatively diff ways (ie. child of 5 think of morality in terms of consequences, while age 7 think in terms of intent) b. broad applicability: type of thinking characteristic of each stage influences children's thinking across diverse topics = contexts c. brief transitions: b4 entering new stage, children pass through brief transitional period in which they fluctuate between type of thinking characteristic of new, more advanced stage + type of thinking characteristic of old, less advanced one d. invariant sequence: everyone progresses through stages in same order w/o skipping any of them

IPT working memory

memory system that involves actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, storing and processing information ● ie. asking child a question after reading a story, and child brings in previous relevant info ● limited in capacity + length of time it can retain info w/o updating activities ○ ie . child can remember 5 # not six; and might be able to remember 510 secs without repeating ○ capacity + speed increases w/ age + relevant experience +maturation of brain ○ child 510 secs, 5 digits ○ Changes occur bc increasing knowledge of content on which working memory operates + maturational changes in brain

IPT: overlapping-waves theories

proposes that at any one age, children use multiple strategies; that w/ age and experience, they rely increasingly on more advanced strategies (the ones w/ higher numbers) and the development involves changes in use of existing strategies as well as discovery of new strategies SPECIFIES WHICH PROBLEM SOLVING IMPROVES OVER COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT ○ strategy 1 = simplest, 5 = most advanced ○ with age + experience strategies that produce more successful performances become more prevalent, new strategies generated, + more effective than previous ○ specifies several ways in which problem solving improves over course of development ○ Characterizes children's problem solving in wide range of contexts (arithematic, spelling, etc) ○ children discover new strategies effective than previous, learn to execute both new + old more efficiently, and choose which ones are most appropriate for particular situation ● All sources of cognitive growth are evident in learning adition(single digit addition improves greatly bc) ○ 1) discover new strategies (counting on) ○ 2)faster and more accurate execution (retrieval of answers from memory) ○ 3) children choose among strategies increasingly adaptively

why are theories useful

theories provide grounding for us to be successful in scientific inquiry 1. Provide a framework for understanding important phenomena/events - more like a puzzle piece 2. Raise Qs about human nature 3. Lead to better understanding of infants 4. Help us to identify what we do or don't know

ethical considerations in infancy

there are a number of ethical considerations to take into account when conducting human research: 1.Voluntary participation 2. Informed consent 3.Risk of harm 4.Confidentiality (sometimes anonymity) 5.Right to service • Which of these is particularly challenging in infant research?

risk of harm

• In all studies, we must adhere strictly to the principle of "do no harm" • This is particularly true for infants, for two main reasons: • We have less understanding of how particular interventions could be harmful to a developing infant than we do with a verbal child/adult • We have not obtained the child's assent • As a result, ethics boards are particularly (and rightly!) scrutinous of infancy research

piaget & children's nature

● 1)assume children = mentally and physically active since birth ● constructivist: depicts children as constructing knowledge for themselves in response to their experiences ○ most constructive important processes: 1) generating hypothesis, 2)performing experiment + 3)drawing conclusions from observations ○ Child as scientist! ● 2) children learn many important lessons on their own rather than depending on instruction from adult or older adults ● 3) children intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from other ppl to do so & reflect on experience to understand world/themselves

task analysis

● 1. Identify current state (ie. you want a cookie as a 3 yr old) ● 2. Identify goal state (ie. your goal is to eat cookie ● 3. Identify obstacles between current and goal states (ie. mom/height) ● 4. Overcome obstacles ● 5. Achieve goal state

ST: social scaffolding and ZPD

● Activities that organism can succeed at, but ONLY if they have help from another conspecific ● Ie. child trying to put on puzzle; w/ help he can do the puzzle until he can do it by themselves ● What i can do with help - this zone is where the most learning take place (zone of proximal development) ● Green zone - challenging for you and possibly do; mastery zone; stop learning -process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at higher level than children can manage on their own ● explaining goals of task, demonstrating how task can be done, + helping on most difficult parts ● Same goal as guided participation (allow children to learn by doing) but scaffolding tends to have more explicit instruction +explanation while guided participation tends to involve adults' organizing tasks so that children can increasingly active and responsible roles in them ● One way parents use scaffolding is in helping children form autobiographical memories: memories of one's own experiences including one's thought and emotions ○ Include info abt one's goals, intentions, emotions + reactions relative to events ○ elaborating on what children say + discussing past experiences, help encode key info + appreciation of causal relations among events , those who had mothers who elaborated more remembered more past events

assent and compensation

● Another major challenge of infancy research is obtaining consent ● Infants cannot consent so parents provide consent for them (infants' assent is then assumed) ● Assent is always ethically tricky but even more so w/ nonverbal subject ● How do we compensate participant? Only compensating the parents adds to our ethical dilemma ○ Toys ○ Degree certificate ● Usually we get parents who have higher SES bc they have money to spend + time to spend ○ Geographic range restriction

Information processing theories

● Attempt to explain how cognitive systems work rather than focusing on interaction b/t cognition and action ● Humans process info; they do not just respond automatically to stimuli ● Child as problem solver ● problem solving: process of attaining a goal by using strategy to overcome an obstacle ○ Goals, perceived obstacles, strategies or rules overcoming obstacles + attaining goals ● children's cognitive flexibility helps them pursue goals ● 2nd feature: emphasis on thinking as an activity that occurs over time ● class of theories that focus on structure of cognitive system _ mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems ● 2nd feature: emphasis on thinking as an activity that occurs over time ● identify what those mental operations are, order in which they are executed + how increasing speed + accuracy of mental operations lead to cognitive growth

In class video on DST

● Babies are well aware of their limit of the degree of the slope they're going down; they know 10 degree slope is safe vs 30-40 degree slope is not safe so they use another strategy like sliding down (relatively easy decisions) ○ 20 degrees - not sure what to do (mixture of reactions) ● How long babies took to go down 20 degree slope - before baby goes down the slope ○ More hesitant at 20 degree slopes which reflects this precision of which they understand their own limitations of motor movements ○ Babies cognitively understand their motor movements

sample size

● Because of difficulty and cost of recruiting of infants, infant studies typically suffer from w/ sample sizes + reduced statistical power (ability to detect phenomena when the phenomenon is truly present) ○ Ie. 24 participants maybe; only allowed w/ developmental research since usually research that's published has more participants ○ Higher sample size, higher power of your study ○ Infants studies are often underpowered, resulting in marginally significant effect sizes even if an effect is actually present

piaget mental representation

● By the end of sensorimotor period, infants have begun to show signs of m​ ental representation ○ Object permanence: e​ven tho the objects aren't reinforced by our senses, they are still there, but they don't have it (8-9mos) ○ More complex d​eferred imitation ■ Imitating is one thing, but doing so months later requires mental representations ■ Imitation = primitive animal behaviours ■ Ie. caregiver claps, and then when they stop, infants will still clap (can recall and reproduce behaviour)

ST: joint attention

● Develpment of join attention ○ For 1st six months of life infants predominantly engage in dyadic joint attention ○ After six months, they begin to better engage in directed triadic joint attention ■ Pointing (less complex) ■ Gaze following (more complex - looking at wall when someone looks at wall) ■ Not good at this before 6 mo ■ Baby girl achieve this better than baby boys

symbolic function (2-4 yrs)

● Egocentrism - ​theory of mind: ability to take other people's perspective ● Centration: ​focuses on one aspect of the situation ● Animism: ​giving animate roles to inanimate objects ● Role playing ● Imaginary friends

longitudinal designs

● Examines same individ at multiple ages ○ Studying development of language among 20 infants when they are 6 mos 10 mo 14 mo and 80 mos (20 infants total) ● Advantages - eliminate individual differences ● Disadvantages - attrition (loss of participants since some goes for years) ● useful: indicates degree of stability of individual differences over long periods, reveals children's patterns of change over long periods ● disadv: locating children for reexamination, mortality rate, possible effects of repeated testing which harm external validity

nonverbal behavioural responses

● Eyetracking ○ Gaze following ○ Pupil dilation (physiological response recorded by eye tracker) ■ Measures Arousal bc pupil dilates when they are aroused ○ Reaching (after 6 mos) ■ Don't see them reaching INTENTIONALLY until after 6 mos ○ Looking time (soon after birth)

attrition

● Final challenge in infancy research is attrition - lss of subjects due to failure to complete study ○ Problematic for longitudinal designs ● But also problematic even in one time designs: ○ Crying ○ Sleeping ○ Failure to attend ○ Other physiological confounds (when making a bowel movement, infants look straight, but they're actually just pooping LMAO)

Piaget TB preoperational stage

● Forming personal signals common among 35 yrs old ● symbolic representation: use of one object to stand for another (popsicle stick = hammer) ● physically resemble objects they represent, but as child develops, rely less on selfgenerated symbols and more on conventional ones (pirate eye patch, drawing v as flower leaves) ● egocentrism: tendency to perceive world solely from one's own point of view ○ difficulty in taking in others spatial perspectives ○ mountains problem most 4 yr olds failed to recognize view from another location ○ communication make statements that require knowledge that they themselves possess but listener couldn't be expected to have ■ progress: verbal quarrels indicates that they are paying attention to diff perspective ○ Preschool keep talking and not litening to partner (egocentric speech) ● centration: tendency to focus on single, perceptually striking feature of object or event to the exclusion of other relevant but less striking feature ○ balance scale: when asked to predict which side of a balance scale would go down, 56 yr olds say the one with more weights does, not accounting for the distance the one on the edge would go down ● conservation concept: idea that merely changing appearance of objects doesn't necessarily change other key properties ○ conservation of liquid quantity (taller + narrow glass has more), solid quantity (longer and thinner clay has more), and numbers ● preoperational thinkers centre their attention on single, perceptually salient dimension of height of length, ignoring other relevant dimensions (focus on state of objects + ignore transformation) + egocentrism > failing to understand that their own perspective can be misleading ○ Tendency to focus on static states of objects (after appearance_ + to ignore transformation that was performed

recruitment

● How do we typically recruit participants for psychology studies ○ Undergrad research credit ○ Paid participant ● Neither works for infants ○ Paying parents is sometimes not considered ethical (not compensating the actual subject and there is fear that parents are trying to make extra money -> abuse/manipulation?) ● Infant recruitment can be made mrore or less difficult depending on ○ Social policies such as parental leave (if u have parental leave policies you'll have more participants bc parents have time to particpate) ○ Legal policies regarding publication of birth data ○ Relationships within community ○ Financial resources

neural change

● Improvement in memory and processing speed is largely due to increased ○ Myelination ○ Synaptogenesis ● But wait isn't there synaptic pruning during infancy and childhood ○ Yes synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning can take place simultaneously in diff areas of the brain

development within sensorimotor

● Infants eventually gain object permanence ○ But it is fragile ● They then begin exhibiting A not B error ○ If an object is hidden under blanket repeatedly infants will learn to look there ○ When they watch object move to be under a diff blanket they fail to look in new location ○ 8-12 months

Microgenetic designs

● Miniature intense longitudinal study ● One group of children is tested repeatedly within a short time frame, normally at a time of significant change ○ Arbitrary distinction b/t longitudinal/microgenetic ● Ie - studying development of object permanence every week in sample of 20 seven - 10 mo old ● How often - the interval is the difference ● Advantages - can control for individual differences ● Disadvantages - attrition, intensity of training, ● adv: intensive observation of changes while they are occurring can clarify process of change, reveals individual change patterns over short periods in considerable detail ● disadv: does not provide info abt typical patterns of change over long period. does not yield data regarding change patterns over long periods

circular reactions

● Motions that initially ocurred by chance, but which are repeated bc of their pleasurable outcomes ○ Primary: ​repetitive actions centred on infant's own body (ie pressing hand in front of their face) ■ Lifelong but only types rn ○ Secondary: ​repetitive actions centred on something in enviro (ie light switch) ■ rattle , bb wants to use it ■ Learn to rehone secondary reactions by directing their movement to these objects ○ Tertiary - ​repetitive actions that vary in some way (experimentation) ■ Dropping spoon from highchair or from bed

neuroimaging

● One of most useful new tools in infant research is n​ ear infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) ● NIRS use low lvls of near infrared (visible) light projected onto infant's skull by N​ IRS emitters ● Depending on blood chemistry in particular brain region, more or less of this light is reflected back to ​NIRS detectors NIRS ○ Oxygenated hemoglobin reflects a diff spectrum of light than does deoxygenated hemoglobin (more red; while deoxy = more blue) ○ Mathematical formulae can derive relative oxygenation lvls of hemoglobin in particular brain regions ○ More oxygenated hemoglobin = greater neural activity

IPT: Development of memory

● One way that infants become more adept problem solvers is that their memories get better ● Sensory memory - never really attend to it so it doesn't go to working ● Working memory - ● Long term memory - ● Incoming info -> sensory memory (loss if not attended to) - *attention* -> short term memory (lost if not encoded or rehearsed - *elaborative rehearsal unless encoding failure* -> long term memory (forgotten if retrieval failure theory, interference theory, decay theory) ● Potential for reinforcement or loss

preoperational stage

● Onset of speaking ~ 7 years ● After they acquire language, infants move to preoperational stage of cognitive development ○ Two substages ■ 1. Symbolic function ■ 2. Intuitive thought ● Preoperational stage consists broadly of ○ A) pretend play ○ B) symbolism ○ C) egocentrism ○ D) centration ○ E) transductive reasoning - not good at generalizing things

NIRS

● Particularly useful for infants bc ○ Completely safe, quiet, and non invasive ○ Infants skulls are thinner than adults ○ Layer b/t skull and brain is predominantly comprised of water in infants (more lipids in adults) ■ The fats refract in ways that are much less predictable so it's difficult for us to get info from adults vs baby ○ Infants typically less less hair than hair (diff to get cap on adults bc too much hair and unsure if we can measure properly)

Communication

● Perhabs greatest challenge in infancy research + one that defines our methods - lack of communication b/t subject and experimenter ● One similar to animal research than much human research ● Can't rely on interviews, surveys or any design w/ linguistic means ● Infancy research therefore relies heavily on 1. Neuroimaging ■ fMRI, NIRS 2. Fmri not good bc babies move a lot and you should be still 3. Physiological responses ■ Heart rate, respiratory rate, suck rate, pupil dilation ■ EEG 4. Non-verbal behavioural responses ■ Bread and butter bc cheapest ways ■ Eyetracking ■ Reaching (until 6mo's of age) ■ Looking time

Piaget v VYGOTSKY

● Piaget - child as scientist, children focus on solving phsical and logical problems ● Vygotsky - child as teacher/learner' children focus on socially relevant events -tomasello two unique characteristics to create complex cultures ○ 1. inclination to teach other species ○ 2. inclination to attend to and learn from such teaching ● inclination to teach and to learn from teaching is what enables children to be socialized into their culture + to pass that culture onto others ● children = social learners intertwined w/ other ppl who are eager to help them gain skills and understanding ● whereas piaget view children as intent on mastering physical, mathematical, logical concepts, that are same in all times and places; vygotsky =intent on participating in activities that happen to be prevalent in local setting ● piaget emphasize qualitative changes in thinking; vygotsky = continuous quantitative changes ● language and thought (piaget thought unrelated)

information processing theories: mechanisms of change

● Piaget correctly identified some limitations of young children ● Info processing theories explain these limitations from a cognitive perspective ● The developing brain 1. Can only hold a certain amount of information (babies don't have enough space to store information about the object) 2.Can only process information at a certain speed 3. Has limited strategies for problem solving ● Cognitive development consistss of overcoming these limitations

IPT: planning

● Problem solving more successful if ppl plan before acting ● why planning is difficult ○ 1) requires inhibition of desire to solve problem immediately in favour of trying to construct best strategy ○ 2) overly optimistic abt abilities and think they can solve problems more effectively than their capabilities actually allow > not plan b/c they think they'll succeed (ie. have more accidents) ■ Maturation of prefrontal cortex + experiences reduce overoptimism + demonstrate value of planning > increases in frequency + quality of planning > increase problem solving!

reliability & validity

● Reliability: degree to which independent measurements of given behaviour are consistent ● Interrater reliability: amt of agreement in observations of diff raters who witness same behaviour ● Testretest reliability: degree of similarity of child's performance on two or more occasions ● Validity: degree to which test measures what it is intended to measure ● Internal validity: degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to factor that researcher is testing ● External validity: degree to which results can be generalized beyond research

piaget TB sensorimotor stage

● Roots of adult intelligence are present in infant's earliest behaviours ● early intelligence involving sensory + motor activity sensorimotor intelligence ● child's thinking grows rapidly ● born w/ many reflexes (sucking, tracking) later on become building blocks for more complex behaviours like (object touches palm, they grab it, bring to mouth, and suck) ○ accommodate actions throughout (sucking is diff with nips/bottle) ● Middle of first year: infants become increasingly interested in world around them shown through repetition of actions > pleasure ● lack of object permanence: knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are not out of view ○ End of first year, infants search for hidden objects (so they can mentally represent it even if it's not in view) ● AnotB error: tendency to reach for hidden object where it was last found rather than in new location where it was last hidden (812 mos old) ● age 1 search for other ways in which objects can be used ("active scientist") ○ Dropping objects from various heights, etc ● 1824 months deferred imitation: repetition of other ppl's behaviour a substantial time after it originally occurred ● at first, infants activities centre on own bodies, later, activities include world around them ● early goals are concrete (shaking + listening to rattle), later goals more abstract (varying the heights from which objects dropped + how effects vary) ● infants begin to form mental representations near end

Cross sectional designs

● Simplest + cheapest; examines diff individuals of diff ages at one time ● Ie. studying of development of walking among 20 infants from 10,12,14,16 mo old (80 infants in total) ● Advantages - quick, less expensive, less time consuming (you don't need to train researchers) ● Disadvantages - individual differences (don't know if at baseline they are the same); ○ adv: revealing similarities + differences b/t older and younger children, quick and easy to administer ○ crit: uninformative abt stability of individ differences over time; uninformative abt similarities and differences in individual children's pattern of change

some recruitment strategies

● Some strategies for recruitment in descending order of effectiveness: ○ Visits to maternity hospitals (if allowed by hospital) ○ Cold calling or cold mailing parents from birth registration lists (w/ baby names + addresses + 'cold' means requires no permission; but usually cold mailing is most commonly allowed in jurisdictions but not as effective bc viewed as junk mail) ○ Advertisements at community centres/daycares/ in media

dynamic system theories

● There is circular relationship b/t young children's thoughts and their actions ● New actions produce more complex thoughts ● More complex thoughts produce new actions ● Development is a complex network of thought and action; not a linear trajectory ● An example of transactional model of actions and thoughts ● Striking evidence of dynamic systems theory comes from intersection between cognition and motor behaviour ○ Crawling ● Infants are precise in their knowledge of their own capabilities ○ Infants are knowledgeable abt their limitations of their behaviour

IPT: behavioural change

● Three processes work together to improve memory and increase cognitive skill ○ 1. Basic processes ■ Association - bark w/ dog; simple classical conditioning ● We get faster and better at it; the increase in association is one of the big steps in cognitive development ■ Recognition - advances and allows for cognitive change ■ Recollection - hard to test in NB ■ Generalization - our ability to generalize if stimulus has certian property, then all other similar stimuli should have this property ■ Encoding - some details are remembered and others are not 2.○ Strategies ■ Rehearsal: process of repeating information multiple times to aid memory of it ● Language use is rehearsal ○ Child will learn a new word and say it over and over again ■ Selective attention:process of intentionally focusing on info that is most relevant to current goal; develops w/ age ● Difficult for young kids to relevant stimulus while ignoring everything else 3. ○ Content knowledge ■ Accumulation of knowledge is important ● children's knowledge increases > improving recall of new material by ease of integration to existing understanding ● children know more abt topic than adults do if it's new info ● prior content knowledge improves memory for info 1.improving encoding 2. improve memory by providing useful associations 3. indicates what is/isn't possible therefore guiding memory in useful directions

sociocultural theory mechanisms of change

● Unlike info processing theories, sociocultural theories focus on how children use ppl around them to develop cognitively ○ Intersubjectivity -acknowledgement that diff people have diff perspectives; notion of those viewpoints coming together ■ Joint attention - ability to pay attention to your partner is paying attention to ○ Social scaffolding ■ Building context necessary for child to learn cognitive strategies ■ Zone of proximal development

infant methodology

● We can also measure physiological responses in infants that do not require verbal communication ○ Review: HR, suckrate ○ Electroencephalography (EEG) ■ Electrodes detecting electrical activity in child's brain ■ Non-invasive ■ Need electroactive gel/liquid to allow electrodes can detect electrical activity; and this may be discomforting for infants ■ Highly temporally sensitive ■ Spatially underspecified (only gross estimation of where electrical changes happen)

IPT cognitive development

● cognitive development arises from children's gradually surmounting their processing limitations through (1) expansion of amt of info they can process at one time (2) increases in speed with which they execute thought processes (3) acquisition of new strategies + knowledge

IPT: executive functioning

● control of cognition ● prefrontal cortex ○ 1. inhibiting tempting actions that would be counterproductive ○ 2. enhancing working memory through use of strategies (repeating #s) ○ 3. being cognitively flexible (taking diff perspectives) ○ Executive functioning integrates info from working memory and long term memory to accomplish goals ● control thinking and action, enabling individual to respond appropriately increases greatly in early elementary (5>3 simon says + color matching toys vs sorting by shape) ● quality of executive functioning during early childhood is highly predictive of life outcomes (academics, enrolment, income, occupation status) ○ so u should implement clear rules, reward positive behaviours, redirect negative ones to positive directions

advs & disadvs correlation + experimental designs

● correlational adv: only way to compare many groups of interest, to establish relations among many variables of interest ○ disadv: thirdvariable problem, direction of causation problem ● Experimental control: ability of researcher to determine specific experiences that children in each group encounter during study ● experimental adv: allows causal inferences, experimental control over exact experiences that children encounter ○ disadv: need for experimental control > artificial experimental situations, cannot be used to study many differences and variables of interest

naturalistic observation

● describe how children behave in natural enviro ● remain spectator, which allows them to see relevant behaviours while minimizing chances that their presence will influence behaviours ● strengths: illuminating everyday social interactions; useful for describing behaviour in everyday settings ● weakness: hard to establish causality/what factors influenced behaviour , many behaviours of interest occur only occasionally in everyday enviro which reduces researchers opportunities to learn about them ○ Limited value for studying infrequent behaviours

structured observation

● design situation that will elicit behaviour relevant to hypothesis + observe how diff children react ● advantages: ensures all children's behaviours are observed in same context, allows controlled comparison of children's behaviour in diff situations, establishing generality of behaviour across different tasks ● disadvantages: context is less natural than in naturalistic observation, reveals less abt subjective experience than do interviews

DST: motivators of development

● emphasize from infancy onward, children strongly motivated to learn about world around them + expand/explore own capabilities (persist in practising new skills even when they posses wellpracticed skills that are more efficient ie walking even tho they can just simply crawl) ● emphasize interest in social world as a crucial motivator of development (intersubjectivity; look to where ppl interacting w/ them are looking etc) ● emphasized that observing other ppl, imitating their actions + attracting attention are all potent motivators of development

ST: guided participation & cultural tools

● guided participation (social scaffolding): a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn ○ occurs in situations in which explicit purpose = achieve practical goal ; learning is byproduct of this ● cultural tools: innumerable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking ○ symbol systems, artifacts, skills, values ○ Sociocultural theories help us appreiciate many aspects of culture embodied in even smallest everyday interactions (ie. relevant symbol sys include language they use to convey thoughts + diagram they use to guide their assembly efforts; economy allows parents leisure time for this etc)

IPT LTM

● long term memory: info retained on an enduring basis ; knowledge ppl accumulate over time ● knowledge ppl accumulate over time ● Factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge (concepts of justice), procedural knowledge, attitudes, reasoning strategies ● totality of one's knowledge; working memory = subset of knowledge that is processed at given time ● Retain unlimited info for unlimited periods

DST centrality of action

● role of actions during infancy (piaget) but dynamic emphasize that actions contribute to development throughout life ○ ie infants who reach helps them infer the goals of other people's reaches ● actions influence categorization ○ encouraging children to move an object up and down led them to categorize it as one of group of objects that were easiest to move that way whereas children taught to move side to side thought it was the easiest ● actions influence vocab acquisition + generalization ○ Experimental manipulations that lead kids to state an incorrect name for an object impair child's future attempts to learn abt obj correct name ● actions shape memory ○ new searches involved compromise of past and present locations as if new searches involved a compromise b/t memories of new hiding place + location where they originally looked

structured interviews & clinical interviews

● structured interview: all participants are asked to answer same Qs ○ goal: to collect selfreports on same topics from everyone being studied ● clinical interview: questions are adjusted in accord w/ answer the interviewee provides ○ useful for obtaining indepth info abt individual children ○ set of prepared Qs, but can depart and follow child's lead ● Strengths: yield great deal of data quickly + can provide in depth info abt individual children ○ Inexpensive means for collecting indepth data abt individuals ● negative: interview Qs biased, children avoid disclosing facts that show em in bad light, fail to understand their own motivations ○ Memories of interviewees are often inaccurate + incomplete ○ Prediction of future behaviours often inaccurate